Creatine - Knowledge (XXG)

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place in the kidneys themselves. Patients with kidney disease and those undergoing dialysis treatment generally show significantly lower levels of creatine in their organs, since the pathological kidneys are both hampered in creatine synthesis capability and are in back-resorption of creatine from the urine in the distal tubules. In addition, dialysis patients lose creatine due to wash out by the dialysis treatment itself and thus become chronically creatine depleted. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that dialysis patients generally consume less meat and fish, the alimentary sources of creatine. Therefore, to alleviate chronic creatine depletion in these patients and allow organs to replenish their stores of creatine, it was proposed in a 2017 article in

1455:(CK). The phosphate group is attached to an NH center of the creatine. In skeletal muscle, PCr concentrations may reach 20–35 mM or more. Additionally, in most muscles, the ATP regeneration capacity of CK is very high and is therefore not a limiting factor. Although the cellular concentrations of ATP are small, changes are difficult to detect because ATP is continuously and efficiently replenished from the large pools of PCr and CK. A proposed representation has been illustrated by Krieder et al. Creatine has the ability to increase muscle stores of PCr, potentially increasing the muscle's ability to resynthesize ATP from ADP to meet increased energy demands. 1427: 1585: 1319:, brain, testes, and other tissues. The typical creatine content of skeletal muscle (as both creatine and phosphocreatine) is 120 mmol per kilogram of dry muscle mass, but can reach up to 160 mmol/kg through supplementation. Approximately 1–2% of intramuscular creatine is degraded per day and an individual would need about 1–3 grams of creatine per day to maintain average (unsupplemented) creatine storage. An omnivorous diet provides roughly half of this value, with the remainder synthesized in the liver and kidneys. 1845:

serum urea levels as a measure of renal damage. While in general creatine supplementation resulted in slightly elevated creatinine levels that remained within normal limits, supplementation did not induce renal damage (P value< 0.001). Special populations included in the 2019 Systematic review included type 2 diabetic patients and post-menopausal women, bodybuilders, athletes, and resistance trained populations. The study also discussed 3 case studies where there were reports that creatine affected renal function.

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The daily requirement of a 70-kg male for creatine is about 2 g; up to half of this may be obtained from a typical omnivorous diet, with the remainder being synthesized in the body ... More than 90% of the body's creatine and phosphocreatine is present in muscle (Brosnan and Brosnan 2007),

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Despite weight gain due to water retention and potential cramps being two seemingly "common" side effects, new research indicates that these side effects are likely not the result of creatine usage. In addition, the initial water retention is attributed to more short-term creatine use (the "loading"

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found that "generally, there was evidence that short term memory and intelligence/reasoning may be improved by creatine administration", whereas for other cognitive domains "the results were conflicting". Another 2023 review initially found evidence of improved memory function. However, it was later

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It is important to mention that kidneys themselves, for normal physiological function, need phosphocreatine and creatine and indeed kidneys express significant amounts of creatine kinases (BB-CK and u-mtCK isoenzymes). At the same time, the first of two steps for endogenous creatine synthesis takes

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Some studies suggest that total muscle creatine is significantly lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians. This finding is due probably to an omnivorous diet being the primary source of creatine. Research shows that supplementation is needed to raise the concentration of creatine in the muscles of

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The process of creatine synthesis occurs in two steps, catalyzed by L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT) and guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase (GAMT), which take place mainly in kidney and liver, respectively. This molecule plays an important energy/pH buffer function in tissues, and to

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Endogenous serum or plasma creatine concentrations in healthy adults are normally in a range of 2–12 mg/L. A single 5 gram (5000 mg) oral dose in healthy adults results in a peak plasma creatine level of approximately 120 mg/L at 1–2 hours post-ingestion. Creatine has a fairly short

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An approximation of 0.3 g/kg/day divided into 4 equal spaced intervals has been suggested since creatine needs may vary based on body weight. It has also been shown that taking a lower dose of 3 grams a day for 28 days can also increase total muscle creatine storage to the same amount as the rapid

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Creatine is proven to boost the recovery and work capacity of an athlete, and multi-applicable capabilities upon athletes have given it a lot of interest over the course of the past decade. A survey of 21,000 college athletes showed that 14% of athletes take creatine supplements to try to improve

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investigated whether creatine supplementation had adverse effects on renal function. They identified 15 studies from 1997 to 2013 that looked at standard creatine loading and maintenance protocols of 4–20 g/day of creatine versus placebo. They utilized serum creatinine, creatinine clearance, and

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Proposed creatine kinase/phosphocreatine (CK/PCr) energy shuttle. CRT = creatine transporter; ANT = adenine nucleotide translocator; ATP = adenine triphosphate; ADP = adenine diphosphate; OP = oxidative phosphorylation; mtCK = mitochondrial creatine kinase; G = glycolysis; CK-g = creatine kinase

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After the 5–7 day loading phase, muscle creatine stores are fully saturated and supplementation only needs to cover the amount of creatine broken down per day. This maintenance dose was originally reported to be around 2–3 g/day (or 0.03 g/kg/day), however, some studies have suggested 3–5 g/day

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Creatine is produced endogenously at an amount of about 1 g/d. Synthesis predominately occurs in the liver, kidneys, and to a lesser extent in the pancreas. The remainder of the creatine available to the body is obtained through the diet at about 1 g/d for an omnivorous diet. 95% of the bodies

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to supplement dialysis patients with extra creatine, preferably by intra-dialytic administration. Such a supplementation with creatine in dialysis patients is expected to significantly improve the health and quality of the patients by improving muscle strength, coordination of movement, brain

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Creatinine loss averages approximately 2 g (14.6 mmol) for 70 kg males in the 20- to 39-year age group. ... Table 1 Comparison of rates of creatine synthesis in young adults with dietary intakes of the three precursor amino acids and with the whole body transmethylation

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A 2023 review study "...supported claims that creatine supplementation can increases brain creatine content but also demonstrated somewhat equivocal results for effects on cognition. It does, however, provide evidence to suggest that more research is required with stressed populations, as

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Most of the research to-date on creatine has predominantly focused on the pharmacological properties of creatine, yet there is a lack of research into the pharmacokinetics of creatine. Studies have not established pharmacokinetic parameters for clinical usage of creatine such as volume of

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The discovery of phosphocreatine was reported in 1927. In the 1960s, creatine kinase (CK) was shown to phosphorylate ADP using phosphocreatine (PCr) to generate ATP. It follows that ATP - not PCr - is directly consumed in muscle contraction. CK uses creatine to "buffer" the ATP/ADP ratio.

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found evidence that ingesting creatine can dramatically boost the creatine content of the muscle. In the late 1920s, after finding that the intramuscular stores of creatine can be increased by ingesting creatine in larger than normal amounts, scientists discovered

4418:"Author's reply: Letter to the Editor: Double counting due to inadequate statistics leads to false-positive findings in "Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials"" 1667:

Creatine is sometimes reported to have a beneficial effect on brain function and cognitive processing, although the evidence is difficult to interpret systematically and the appropriate dosing is unknown. The greatest effect appears to be in individuals who are

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This elevation in muscle creatine storage has been correlated with ergogenic benefits discussed in the research section. However, higher doses for longer periods of time are being studied to offset creatine synthesis deficiencies and mitigating diseases.

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Gualano B, de Salles Painelli V, Roschel H, Lugaresi R, Dorea E, Artioli GG, et al. (May 2011). "Creatine supplementation does not impair kidney function in type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trial".

5109: 1204:. Studies in the 1920s showed that consumption of large amounts of creatine did not result in its excretion. This result pointed to the ability of the body to store creatine, which in turn suggested its use as a dietary supplement. 1817:

One well-documented effect of creatine supplementation is weight gain within the first week of the supplement schedule, likely attributable to greater water retention due to the increased muscle creatine concentrations by means of

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de Souza E, Silva A, Pertille A, Reis Barbosa CG, Aparecida de Oliveira Silva J, de Jesus DV, et al. (November 2019). "Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Renal Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis".

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Kreider RB, Melton C, Rasmussen CJ, Greenwood M, Lancaster S, Cantler EC, et al. (February 2003). "Long-term creatine supplementation does not significantly affect clinical markers of health in athletes".

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performance. Compared to normal athletes, those with creatine supplementation have been shown to produce better athletic performance. Non-athletes report taking creatine supplements to improve appearance.

2913:"Intracellular compartmentation, structure and function of creatine kinase isoenzymes in tissues with high and fluctuating energy demands: the 'phosphocreatine circuit' for cellular energy homeostasis" 2690:

with some of the remainder being found in the brain (Braissant et al. 2011). ... Creatine synthesized in liver must be secreted into the bloodstream by an unknown mechanism (Da Silva et al. 2014a)

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Barisic N, Bernert G, Ipsiroglu O, Stromberger C, Müller T, Gruber S, et al. (June 2002). "Effects of oral creatine supplementation in a patient with MELAS phenotype and associated nephropathy".

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Greenhaff PL, Casey A, Short AH, Harris R, Soderlund K, Hultman E (May 1993). "Influence of oral creatine supplementation of muscle torque during repeated bouts of maximal voluntary exercise in man".

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Neves M, Gualano B, Roschel H, Lima FR, Lúcia de Sá-Pinto A, Seguro AC, et al. (June 2011). "Effect of creatine supplementation on measured glomerular filtration rate in postmenopausal women".

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According to a clinical study focusing on people with various muscular dystrophies, using a pure form of creatine monohydrate can be beneficial in rehabilitation after injuries and immobilization.

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At the time, low-potency creatine supplements were available in Britain, but creatine supplements designed for strength enhancement were not commercially available until 1993 when a company called

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states that creatine is safe to take in healthy populations from infants to the elderly to performance athletes. They also state that long term (5 years) use of creatine has been considered safe.

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Creatine supplementation for sporting performance enhancement is considered safe for short-term use but there is a lack of safety data for long term use, or for use in children and adolescents.

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Walter MC, Lochmüller H, Reilich P, Klopstock T, Huber R, Hartard M, et al. (May 2000). "Creatine monohydrate in muscular dystrophies: A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study".

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Lanhers C, Pereira B, Naughton G, Trousselard M, Lesage FX, Dutheil F (September 2015). "Creatine Supplementation and Lower Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses".

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Green AL, Hultman E, Macdonald IA, Sewell DA, Greenhaff PL (November 1996). "Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans".

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distribution, clearance, bioavailability, mean residence time, absorption rate, and half life. A clear pharmacokinetic profile would need to be established prior to optimal clinical dosing.

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Verbessem P, Lemiere J, Eijnde BO, Swinnen S, Vanhees L, Van Leemputte M, et al. (October 2003). "Creatine supplementation in Huntington's disease: a placebo-controlled pilot trial".

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Hanna-El-Daher L, Braissant O (August 2016). "Creatine synthesis and exchanges between brain cells: What can be learned from human creatine deficiencies and various experimental models?".

1466:, which increases the potential for growth of those fibers. This increase in myonuclei probably stems from creatine's ability to increase levels of the myogenic transcription factor MRF4. 1435:

Creatine is transported through the blood and taken up by tissues with high energy demands, such as the brain and skeletal muscle, through an active transport system. The concentration of

1253:, the gold medal winner at 100 meters, had used creatine before the Olympics (however, it should also be noted that Christie was found guilty of doping later in his career). An article in 4827:

Antonio, J.; Candow, D. G.; Forbes, S. C.; Gualano, B.; Jagim, A. R.; Kreider, R. B.; Rawson, E. S.; Smith-Ryan, A. E.; Vandusseldorp, T. A.; Willoughby, D. S.; Ziegenfuss, T. N. (2021).

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Creatine use can increase maximum power and performance in high-intensity anaerobic repetitive work (periods of work and rest) by 5% to 15%. Creatine has no significant effect on aerobic

923: 1856:, and Dietitians in Canada on performance enhancing nutrition strategies, creatine was included in their list of ergogenic aids and they do not list renal function as a concern for use. 1431:

associated with glycolytic enzymes; CK-c = cytosolic creatine kinase; CK-a = creatine kinase associated with subcellular sites of ATP utilization; 1 – 4 sites of CK/ATP interaction.

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elimination half life, averaging just less than 3 hours, so to maintain an elevated plasma level it would be necessary to take small oral doses every 3–6 hours throughout the day.

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Bender A, Auer DP, Merl T, Reilmann R, Saemann P, Yassouridis A, et al. (January 2005). "Creatine supplementation lowers brain glutamate levels in Huntington's disease".

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concentration. Heavy metals contamination was not found to be a concern, with only minor levels of mercury being detectable. Two studies reviewed in 2007 found no impurities.

1592:) over an 8-hour period following ingestion of 4.4 grams of creatine in the form of creatine monohydrate (CrM), tri-creatine citrate (CrC), or creatine pyruvate (CrPyr). 5552:

Thorsteinsdottir B, Grande JP, Garovic VD (October 2006). "Acute renal failure in a young weight lifter taking multiple food supplements, including creatine monohydrate".

4044: 3014:"The effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levels" 1825:

A 2009 systematic review discredited concerns that creatine supplementation could affect hydration status and heat tolerance and lead to muscle cramping and diarrhea.

1736:. As of 2014, the evidence did not provide a reliable foundation for treatment decisions, due to risk of bias, small sample sizes, and the short duration of trials. 5517:

Mayhew DL, Mayhew JL, Ware JS (December 2002). "Effects of long-term creatine supplementation on liver and kidney functions in American college football players".

1937:(HCAs). Such a reaction happens when grilling or pan-frying meat. Creatine content (as a percentage of crude protein) can be used as an indicator of meat quality. 4416:

Prokopidis, Konstantinos; Giannos, Panagiotis; Triantafyllidis, Konstantinos K; Kechagias, Konstantinos S; Forbes, Scott C; Candow, Darren G (16 January 2023).

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Hespel P, Eijnde BO, Derave W, Richter EA (2001). "Creatine supplementation: exploring the role of the creatine kinase/phosphocreatine system in human muscle".

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determined that faulty statistics lead to the statistical significance and after fixing the "double counting", the effect was only significant in older adults.

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The Phosphocreatine Circuit: Molecular and Cellular Physiology of Creatine Kinases, Sensitivity to Free Radicals, and Enhancement by Creatine Supplementation.

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Harris RC, Söderlund K, Hultman E (September 1992). "Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation".

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Creatine new and improved: recent high-tech advances have made creatine even more powerful. Here's how you can take full advantage of this super supplement

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in skeletal muscle is usually 2–5 mM, which would result in a muscle contraction of only a few seconds. During times of increased energy demands, the

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within the cell. 95% of the human body's total creatine and phosphocreatine stores are found in skeletal muscle, while the remainder is distributed in the

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Prokopidis, Konstantinos; Giannos, Panagiotis; Triantafyllidis, Konstantinos K.; Kechagias, Konstantinos S.; Forbes, Scott C.; Candow, Darren G. (2023).

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Cancela P, Ohanian C, Cuitiño E, Hackney AC (September 2008). "Creatine supplementation does not affect clinical health markers in football players".

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Wallimann T (2007). "Introduction – Creatine: Cheap Ergogenic Supplement with Great Potential for Health and Disease". In Salomons GS, Wyss M (eds.).

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While creatine's influence on physical performance has been well documented since the early twentieth century, it came into public view following the

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Creatine-monohydrate is suitable for vegetarians and vegans, as the raw materials used for the production of the supplement have no animal origin.

3240: 4165: 772: 6034: 5821: 4367:"Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials" 2886: 2493: 2426: 2301: 2273: 2101: 2004:

Barcelos RP, Stefanello ST, Mauriz JL, Gonzalez-Gallego J, Soares FA (2016). "Creatine and the Liver: Metabolism and Possible Interactions".

1988: 745: 5928: 4974:"International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine" 2963:"International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine" 6412: 2882: 1373: 5777:

Moreta S, Prevarin A, Tubaro F (June 2011). "Levels of creatine, organic contaminants and heavy metals in creatine dietary supplements".

4235: 4464:"Creatine supplementation research fails to support the theoretical basis for an effect on cognition: Evidence from a systematic review" 2532: 2442: 1849: 1483: 1357: 5994: 4316:"Effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function of healthy individuals: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials" 3173: 1853: 1829:

phase). Studies have shown that creatine usage does not necessarily affect total body water relative to muscle mass in the long-term.

4259:"Single dose creatine improves cognitive performance and induces changes in cerebral high energy phosphates during sleep deprivation" 1933:

When creatine is mixed with protein and sugar at high temperatures (above 148 °C), the resulting reaction produces carcinogenic

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A 2021 systemic review of studies found that "the current body of evidence does not indicate that creatine supplementation increases

6649: 5988: 1700:, and potentially improved functional performance. Creatine treatment does not appear to improve muscle strength in people who have 1284: 502: 1311:

Creatine is a naturally occurring non-protein compound and the primary constituent of phosphocreatine, which is used to regenerate

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Intradialytic creatine supplementation: A scientific rationale for improving the health and quality of life of dialysis patients.

5340:"Does long-term creatine supplementation impair kidney function in resistance-trained individuals consuming a high-protein diet?" 4040: 2140: 1709: 1560: 2638:

creatine stores are found in the skeletal muscle and the remaining 5% is distributed in the brain, liver, kidney, and testes .

6547: 1894: 1886: 4122:"Beyond muscle: the effects of creatine supplementation on brain creatine, cognitive processing, and traumatic brain injury" 3350:

Solis MY, Artioli GG, Gualano B (2017). "Effect of age, diet, and tissue type on PCr response to creatine supplementation".

2499: 1426: 6669: 5025:"Does creatine supplementation hinder exercise heat tolerance or hydration status? A systematic review with meta-analyses" 3352: 2748:

Balsom PD, Söderlund K, Ekblom B (October 1994). "Creatine in humans with special reference to creatine supplementation".

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It has been shown that once supplementation of creatine stops, muscle creatine stores return to baseline in 4–6 weeks.

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Volek JS, Ballard KD, Forsythe CE (2008). "Overview of Creatine Metabolism". In Stout JR, Antonio J, Kalman E (eds.).

1893:, a breakdown product of creatine also produced by the body. Creatinine was present in higher concentrations than the 1503: 466: 4792:

Pastula DM, Moore DH, Bedlack RS (December 2012). "Creatine for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron disease".

5133:"Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?" 4829:"Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?" 2164:"Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?" 2031:

guarantee the maintenance of its total body pool, the lost creatine must be replaced from diet or de novo synthesis.

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Bender A, Klopstock T (August 2016). "Creatine for neuroprotection in neurodegenerative disease: end of story?".

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and is inherited in a X-linked manner. This condition is related to the transport of creatine into the brain.

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Hultman E, Söderlund K, Timmons JA, Cederblad G, Greenhaff PL (July 1996). "Muscle creatine loading in men".

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Dahl O (1 July 1963). "Meat Quality Measurement, Creatine Content as an Index of Quality of Meat Products".

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Kreider RB (February 2003). "Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations".

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Persky AM, Brazeau GA (June 2001). "Clinical pharmacology of the dietary supplement creatine monohydrate".

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Metabolic support of Na+ pump in apically permeabilized A6 kidney cell epithelia: role of creatine kinase.

1922: 1733: 1436: 1327: 1312: 1149: 721: 5894: 5728: 5478:"Creatine supplementation associated with resistance training does not alter renal and hepatic functions" 1885:

A 2011 survey of 33 supplements commercially available in Italy found that over 50% of them exceeded the

1403:, which is used as an energy buffer in skeletal muscles and the brain. A cyclic form of creatine, called 270: 6153: 1959: 1444: 1385: 1342: 1161: 891: 861: 637: 129: 3201: 1298: 396: 3633: 6552: 6542: 6138: 4270: 4121: 3311:"The influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivores" 2375: 2045:"The creatine-creatinine equilibrium. The apparent dissociation constants of creatine and creatinine" 1697: 1522: 1236: 833: 5338:

Lugaresi R, Leme M, de Salles Painelli V, Murai IH, Roschel H, Sapienza MT, et al. (May 2013).

4068:"Creatine for Exercise and Sports Performance, with Recovery Considerations for Healthy Populations" 6664: 6422: 4972:

Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, Ziegenfuss TN, Wildman R, Collins R, et al. (13 June 2017).

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Bemben MG, Lamont HS (2005). "Creatine supplementation and exercise performance: recent findings".

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Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Roberts MD, Smith-Ryan A, Kleiner SM, Jäger R, et al. (August 2018).

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Francaux M, Poortmans JR (December 2006). "Side effects of creatine supplementation in athletes".

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Fiske CH, Subbarow Y (April 1927). "The nature of the 'inorganic phosphate' in voluntary muscle".

17: 6593: 6507: 6482: 6452: 6309: 6193: 6173: 6148: 6109: 5661: 5458: 5415: 5285: 5241: 5101: 4923:"International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: creatine supplementation and exercise" 4903: 4725: 4682: 4590: 4227: 4157: 3943: 3859: 3525: 3482: 3439: 3232: 2854: 2773: 2680: 2319:"The Inorganic Phosphate and a Labile Form of Organic Phosphate in the Gastrocnemius of the Frog" 2238: 1934: 1868: 1769: 1701: 1323: 1208: 919: 230: 4192:"Use of creatine in the elderly and evidence for effects on cognitive function in young and old" 3012:

Spillane M, Schoch R, Cooke M, Harvey T, Greenwood M, Kreider R, Willoughby DS (February 2009).

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said that creatine monohydrate might help with energy availability for high-intensity exercise.

218: 6052: 5756: 5074:"Putting to rest the myth of creatine supplementation leading to muscle cramps and dehydration" 1551: 6497: 6231: 6023: 6019: 5984: 5876: 5827: 5817: 5760: 5732: 5702: 5653: 5618: 5569: 5534: 5499: 5450: 5407: 5371: 5320: 5277: 5233: 5197: 5093: 5054: 5005: 4954: 4921:

Buford TW, Kreider RB, Stout JR, Greenwood M, Campbell B, Spano M, et al. (August 2007).

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Vandenberghe K, Goris M, Van Hecke P, Van Leemputte M, Vangerven L, Hespel P (December 1997).

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Brosnan JT, da Silva RP, Brosnan ME (May 2011). "The metabolic burden of creatine synthesis".

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Brosnan JT, da Silva RP, Brosnan ME (May 2011). "The metabolic burden of creatine synthesis".

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Kreatin: Eine natürliche Substanz und ihre Bedeutung für Muskelaufbau, Fitness und Anti-Aging

3169: 1261:, who was the gold medalist in the 400-meter hurdles, as another creatine user. In addition, 6522: 6432: 6240: 5978: 5959: 5866: 5858: 5809: 5786: 5692: 5645: 5608: 5600: 5561: 5526: 5489: 5442: 5399: 5361: 5351: 5312: 5269: 5225: 5187: 5154: 5144: 5085: 5044: 5036: 4995: 4985: 4944: 4934: 4887: 4850: 4840: 4801: 4764: 4756: 4709: 4666: 4629: 4621: 4574: 4537: 4529: 4475: 4429: 4388: 4380: 4337: 4329: 4286: 4278: 4203: 4133: 4089: 4079: 4011: 3974: 3927: 3890: 3843: 3806: 3796: 3755: 3747: 3706: 3696: 3645: 3604: 3594: 3555: 3509: 3466: 3423: 3361: 3322: 3281: 3216: 3143: 3121: 3084: 3076: 3035: 3025: 2984: 2974: 2928: 2920: 2838: 2803: 2757: 2722: 2664: 2618: 2608: 2566: 2410: 2383: 2338: 2330: 2257: 2222: 2185: 2175: 2130: 2064: 2056: 2013: 1872:

function and to alleviate depression and chronic fatigue that are common in these patients.

1669: 1502:. Both biosynthetic defects are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. A third defect, 1365: 1250: 1113: 1080: 1045: 824: 626: 550: 4462:

McMorris, Terry; Hale, Beverley J.; Pine, Beatrice S.; Williams, Thomas B. (4 April 2024).

4041:"Office of Dietary Supplements - Dietary Supplements for Exercise and Athletic Performance" 2961:

Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, Ziegenfuss TN, Wildman R, Collins R, et al. (2017).

1349:) to catalyze the transformation of guanidinoacetate to creatine. In the first step of the 1302:

The cyclic derivative creatinine exists in equilibrium with its tautomer and with creatine.

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Wax, B.; Kerksick, C. M.; Jagim, A. R.; Mayo, J. J.; Lyons, B. C.; Kreider, R. B. (2021).

3634:"Long-term creatine intake is beneficial to muscle performance during resistance training" 3270:"Effect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetarians" 1889:

recommendations in at least one contaminant. The most prevalent of these contaminants was

1650:, though it will increase power during short sessions of high-intensity aerobic exercise. 1563:

benefits of creatine supplementation to be realized until fully saturated muscle storage.

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Hersch SM, Schifitto G, Oakes D, Bredlau AL, Meyers CM, Nahin R, Rosas HD (August 2017).

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recommendations in 44% of the samples. About 15% of the samples had detectable levels of

290: 5847:"Caffeine and Progression of Parkinson Disease: A Deleterious Interaction With Creatine" 5681:"American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic performance" 4634: 4609: 4291: 4274: 4258: 2379: 1559:

loading dose of 20 g/day for 6 days. However, a 28-day loading phase does not allow for

1224:(creatine phosphate), and determined that creatine is a key player in the metabolism of 487: 332: 250: 176: 6577: 6532: 6276: 5871: 5846: 5613: 5588: 5366: 5339: 5159: 5132: 5049: 5024: 5000: 4973: 4949: 4922: 4855: 4828: 4769: 4744: 4670: 4542: 4517: 4393: 4366: 4342: 4315: 4094: 4067: 3895: 3878: 3811: 3784: 3760: 3735: 3711: 3685:"Creatine supplementation with specific view to exercise/sports performance: an update" 3684: 3609: 3582: 3286: 3269: 3268:

Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, Candow DG, Mahoney D, Tarnopolsky M (November 2003).

3089: 3064: 3040: 3013: 2989: 2962: 2933: 2912: 2623: 2597:"Creatine supplementation with specific view to exercise/sports performance: an update" 2596: 2343: 2318: 2190: 2163: 2069: 2044: 1898: 1636: 1392: 1292: 1189: 998: 4015: 2135: 2017: 1414: 6638: 6613: 6442: 6427: 6162: 5245: 5192: 5175: 4745:"The CREST-E study of creatine for Huntington disease: A randomized controlled trial" 4191: 3979: 3962: 3847: 3202:"Creatine deficiency syndromes and the importance of creatine synthesis in the brain" 2761: 2411: 2258: 1902: 1266: 1258: 702: 615: 321: 5494: 5477: 5462: 5419: 5289: 5105: 4907: 4729: 4686: 4594: 4231: 4161: 3863: 3785:"ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations" 3529: 3365: 3236: 2777: 2570: 2118: 6618: 6128: 5845:

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Long-term creatine supplementation has not been proven safe for kidney patients.

6537: 6517: 6512: 6472: 5697: 5680: 5589:"The effects of the recommended dose of creatine monohydrate on kidney function" 4333: 2726: 2387: 1622: 1614: 1488: 1478:. Clinically, there are three distinct disorders of creatine metabolism, termed 1369: 905: 418: 5149: 5040: 4845: 4282: 2180: 6608: 6562: 6364: 6359: 6249: 6222: 6208: 6133: 5565: 5403: 5273: 5229: 4990: 4713: 4480: 4463: 4207: 3931: 3801: 3513: 3470: 3427: 3327: 3310: 3220: 3125: 3080: 2979: 2842: 2668: 2226: 1890: 1440: 1404: 1346: 1331: 1272: 1212: 1201: 1145: 584: 281: 63: 5604: 5503: 5446: 5089: 4489: 4433: 4384: 4215: 4145: 3751: 1295:

carbohydrates in conjunction with creatine increases creatine muscle stores.

901: 6623: 6572: 6502: 6477: 6447: 6417: 6369: 6354: 6349: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6203: 6158: 5530: 5356: 1704:. High doses of creatine lead to increased muscle pain and an impairment in 1647: 1618: 1459: 1287:(EAS) introduced the compound to the sports nutrition market under the name 1245: 1240: 943: 5880: 5831: 5764: 5706: 5657: 5622: 5573: 5538: 5454: 5411: 5375: 5324: 5281: 5237: 5201: 5097: 5058: 5023:

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A meta-analysis found that creatine treatment increased muscle strength in

5736: 4939: 4891: 4578: 4002:

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Genetic deficiencies in the creatine biosynthetic pathway lead to various

1291:. Research performed thereafter demonstrated that the consumption of high 6457: 6374: 6334: 6319: 6213: 5719:

ML.Guerrero, J.Beron, B.Spindler, P.Grosscurth, T.Wallimann and F.Verrey.

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1918: 1808: 1408: 1338: 1197: 1137: 301: 5963: 1744:

Several primary studies have been completed but no systematic review on

310: 6603: 6557: 6487: 6467: 6314: 6188: 6178: 4084: 3583:"Comparison of new forms of creatine in raising plasma creatine levels" 1819: 1626: 1334: 405: 341: 67: 6078: 6069: 3559: 3147: 2924: 2807: 2655:

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This graph shows the mean plasma creatine concentration (measured in

1508: 1354: 1153: 261: 5316: 5073: 1732:

function has led to research on its efficacy and safety for slowing

997:

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their

5804:

Persky AM, Rawson ES (2007). "Safety of Creatine Supplementation".

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supplementation does appear to significantly affect brain content.

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International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

3065:"The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine" 1498: 605: 370: 6082: 5921:"Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk" 1921:

interacts with creatine to increase the rate of progression of

1092: 1066: 1057: 6028: 3112:

T. Wallimann, M. Tokarska-Schlattner, D. Neumann u. a.:

3063:

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511:

InChI=1S/C4H9N3O2/c1-7(4(5)6)2-3(8)9/h2H2,1H3,(H3,5,6)(H,8,9)

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2459:. National Review of Medicine. 30 July 2004. Archived from 1458:

Creatine supplementation appears to increase the number of

1095: 1060: 4880:

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

3961:

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5072:

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3683:

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2595:

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1101: 118:

Ball and stick model of one zwitterionic form of creatine

5344: