244:
629:
992:, the crime of aggression "means the planning, preparation, initiation or execution, by a person in a position effectively to exercise control over or to direct the political or military action of a State, of an act of aggression which, by its character, gravity and scale, constitutes a manifest violation of the Charter of the United Nations". The criminal prosecution of aggression is limited to the most serious acts of state aggression; non-state aggression, an even more disputed concept, is excluded. The Rome Statute also restricts the crime of aggression to leaders of a state who have the power to determine a state's policy, excluding even high-ranking officials or generals who carry out a war of aggression.
907:, the customary criminalization of aggression covers "planning, or organizing, or preparing, or participating in the first use of armed force by a State against the territorial integrity and political independence of another State in contravention of the UN Charter, provided the acts of aggression concerned have large-scale and serious consequences". Gerhard Werle and Florian Jessberger argue that wars of aggression are criminalized under customary law, but not acts of aggression falling short of war. Others argue for a broader conception, including other acts of aggression that have broad-ranging and severe consequences.
33:
443:
960:("the Statute"), the crime was included as one of the crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court (Article 5.1) and over which any State that becomes party to the Statute accepts the Court's jurisdiction (Article 12.1). However, participants to the Rome Conference could not agree on the definition of the crime nor on further conditions for the Court's exercise of jurisdiction; the Statute did not allow the Court to exercise such jurisdiction until these outstanding issues were solved (Article 5.2). At the 2010
2076:
879:
independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the
Purposes of the United Nations." "Force" refers to armed or military force, defined broadly: it can refer to conventional armies or irregular forces. Although not explicitly stated in the UN Charter, the conventional view is that only state actors can commit aggression. Although self-defense is an exception to the prohibition of force, claims of preventative and pre-emptive self-defense is largely rejected.
751:
Pacific and Indian Oceans, and of all countries and islands therein and bordering thereon" by "wag declared or undeclared war or wars of aggression, and war or wars in violation of international law, treaties, agreements and assurances, against any country or countries which might oppose that purpose." The conspiracy charges were partly successful as the judges accepted that there was a joint conspiracy to wage aggressive war from 1928 to 1945.
430:, six members of the cabinet, and the Finnish ambassador to Germany, but not any generals. Unlike other specifications of the crimes against peace, the Finnish trials charged those who joined the government after 1941 and rejected peace offers from the Soviet Union. Initially seven were convicted and the ambassador was acquitted; the judgement was revised to convict all the defendants with harsher penalties, up to ten years imprisonment with
887:
independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the
Charter of the United Nations, as set out in this Definition." It includes an incomplete list of acts of aggression and confirms that aggression are committed by one state against another, excluding non-state actors. The resolution also refers to "crime of aggression" and makes it clear that there is individual criminal liability for aggression.
704:), all of them during the Ministries trial. Nevertheless, the trials helped clarify the scope of aggression as a criminal offense, defining its four necessary elements as "a state act of aggression; sufficient authority to satisfy the leadership requirement; participation in the planning, preparing, initiating or waging of the aggressive act; and
1119:. Critics argue that the ICC should not prosecute aggression; a prominent criticism is that justified war is a political determination, and the involvement of a court in such a matter could compromise its legitimacy. A prosecution by the ICC is unlikely because of the narrow scope of the crime and limited jurisdiction.
1144:) are not criminalized as aggression, while lesser infringements involving military force can be criminalized. It is debatable whether prohibiting aggression protects state sovereignty or circumscribes it. Others see aggression as a crime primarily against individuals who are killed or harmed as a result of war.
943:
criminalizing aggression, with different variations in prohibited conduct. Dinstein has argued that national prosecutions for aggression are undesirable as "the nature of crimes against peace is such that no domestic proceedings can conceivably dispel doubts regarding the impartiality of the judges."
930:
argues that aggression can only be committed by a few high state officials who decide to wage aggressive war, and any subordinates who know in advance that their plans will be used to wage an aggressive war. Other jurists require a special intent, in the form of seeking to "achieve territorial gains,
750:
to file more charges as each member of a conspiracy was held responsible for all others acting in the same conspiracy. All of the conspiracy charges related to crimes against peace alleged that the conspiracy sought to "secure military, naval, political and economic domination of East Asia and of the
667:
The main
Nuremberg trial only considered the conspiracy to commit crimes against peace against Austria and Czechoslovakia, ruling that these relatively bloodless invasions were not wars of aggression. The slightly different wording of the offense in Law No. 10 allowed the invasions of these countries
886:
elaborated on the prohibition of the use of force in the UN Charter. Although not legally binding, it influenced the Rome
Statute's definition of aggression. Resolution 3314 generally defines aggression as "the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political
662:
Initiation of invasions of other countries and wars of aggression in violation of international laws and treaties, including but not limited to planning, preparation, initiation or waging a war of aggression, or a war of violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation
344:
lobbied for a formal international tribunal with jurisdiction over acts of aggression. In 1944, Trainin proposed that the Nazi leaders could be dealt with either with a tribunal or by "the political verdict of the victorious democratic States". At the time, the Soviet Union still perceived itself as
186:
ruled that aggression was "the supreme international crime" because "it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole". The standard view is that aggression is a crime against the state that is attacked, but it can also be considered a crime against individuals who are killed or harmed as
1159:
The traditional view is that only decision-makers can be held criminally responsible for aggression, rather than lower-level military personnel and ordinary soldiers. In recent times, however, there has been consideration as to whether soldiers who knowingly participate in a war of aggression incur
878:
in customary law, such that it is binding on states that are not members of the United
Nations. The most important provision in the UN Charter is Article 2(4): "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political
472:
The
International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgement that because war in general is evil, "To initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international
425:
in
Finland insisted on holding trials for aggression during the second war, as the armistice had required Finnish cooperation in trying those accused of war crimes. The law establishing the tribunal established criminal responsibility for those who "in a significant manner contributed in Finland's
778:
with
Romania obliged the country to apprehend and bring to trial people accused of "war crimes and crimes against peace and humanity". Consequently, on 18 August 1947, Romania issued its "Law for the Prosecution and Punishment of Those Guilty of War Crimes or Crimes against Peace or Humanity". At
275:
cited the loss of "the lives of millions of the best young men in Europe" and "the outrage upon international law which is involved in invading the territory of an independent country without its consent" as a crime for which someone should be held responsible. The proposed prosecution met with
1131:
Wars of aggression entail "legally unjustified killing that is otherwise anomalously non-criminal at both the international and national levels: the killing of combatants and proportionate collateral civilians through a manifestly illegal use of international force". The standard view is that
858:
that was a crime, but aggression in general. Crimes against peace, devised by the Allies as a temporary solution, soon exhausted their usefulness and were abandoned by 1950. In the early 1950s, attempts to codify the crime of aggression in a "Code of
Offences Against the Peace and Security of
609:
granted immunity for such serious crimes. The defendants were prosecuted even for acts that were legal under domestic law. Opinion on the
Nuremberg trials was divided. While some heralded it as a breakthrough in international law, crimes against peace specifically were subject to criticism as
215:, over the centuries, held that a war fought for territorial aggrandizement was unjust, and that just wars are fought only for self-defense, or in defense of allies, against such aggression. The philosophical basis for the criminalization of aggression derives from eighteenth-century theorist
737:
The charge of aggression was central to the trial; 36 out of 55 counts were for crimes against peace. The judgement in the Tokyo Trial was three times longer than the Nuremberg judgement, making it a valuable source of case law on aggression. The majority of the judges followed the Nuremberg
1151:
maintains that serious aggressions, entailing loss of life, can be subsumed under the category of crimes against humanity. Conversely, a war cannot be justified by a minor violation of territorial integrity, and a violation of territorial integrity that does not involve serious human rights
1083:(e) The use of armed forces of one State which are within the territory of another State with the agreement of the receiving State, in contravention of the conditions provided for in the agreement or any extension of their presence in such territory beyond the termination of the agreement;
283:
had the mandate of maintaining international peace. Interwar treaties criminalizing aggression were proposed but not ratified, and there was no progress towards the criminalization of aggression. Aggressive war became progressively delegitimized but was not considered illegal under
369:
decided to criminalize aggression and try their vanquished enemies although at the conference doubts were raised that wars of aggression were illegal under customary law. Both the Soviet Union, which invaded the Baltic States and Poland according to the secret protocols of the
964:("the Conference"), States Parties agreed by consensus to adopt resolution RC/Res.6 accepting the amendments to the Statute adding the definition of the crime and the conditions for the exercise of jurisdiction over this crime. Aggression is one of the core crimes in
1197:
732:
the planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a declared or undeclared war of aggression, or a war in violation of international law, treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the
1122:
The ICC's jurisdiction over aggression was activated on 17 July 2018 after a decision by two-thirds of states parties. As of 17 March 2022, 43 State Parties have ratified or acceded to the amendments on the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute.
219:, although Vattel did not envision formal trials for aggression, simply the execution of wrongdoers. Early modern just war theorists conceived aggression as the first wrong committed against another country, rather than the first military strike.
837:
was tried by a Chinese court for aggression, convicted, and executed. Sakai appears to have been responsible for carrying out policies designed by others, which would put him outside the Rome Statute definition of aggression. According to jurist
961:
390:
they extended into 1949; no one has been prosecuted for aggression before or since. The courts faced the challenge, first of proving the criminality of acts of aggression, and secondly in tying such acts to individuals.
1160:
moral or should incur legal liability. Soldiers have a right and a responsibility to refuse to commit war crimes, but in general the right to refuse to fight an illegal war is not recognized. International law scholar
360:
in ten months. Some prominent United States policymakers thought that execution without trial compromised the principles of the Allies and that formal trials before an international court would lend legitimacy. At the
152:
2435:"Rome statute of the International Criminal Court – Rome, 17 July 1998 – Amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court – Kampala, 11 June 2010 – Adoption of Amendments on the Crime of Aggression"
903:, but there is no agreement on the exact scope of aggression that is covered in customary law. This threshold is probably high, in order to distinguish criminal aggression from other acts of aggression. According to
88:
of ports. In general, committing an act of aggression is a leadership crime that can only be committed by those with the power to shape a state's policy of aggression, as opposed to those who discharge it.
477:, have been widely quoted. The judgement found that there was a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, whose goals were "the disruption of the European order as it had existed since the
1086:(f) The action of a State in allowing its territory, which it has placed at the disposal of another State, to be used by that other State for perpetrating an act of aggression against a third State;
324:. Trainin argued that although material and political responsibility rested with the state, criminal responsibility for aggressive war was vested in the individuals exercising authority. He blamed
1192:
1132:
aggression is a crime against the state that is attacked. The Rome Statute definition of aggression does not technically require harm to individuals, but the relatively bloodless invasion of the
417:, Finland managed to retake its ceded territory and progressed further to the areas of Soviet Union that had never been part of Finland. In 1944, the war turned against Finland, which signed
1115:
The International Criminal Court may only prosecute an act of aggression if the aggressing state has accepted its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression, or following a referral from the
3376:
378:, were aware that they could also be accused of acts of aggression and so they limited the definition of crimes against peace to the actions of their defeated enemies during World War II.
3170:
3158:
3411:
292:
did not contain any suggestion that war was criminal, it was cited as a precedent for the prosecution of German and Japanese leaders for waging aggressive wars after World War II.
64:
is the planning, initiation, or execution of a large-scale and serious act of aggression using state military force. The definition and scope of the crime is controversial. The
3203:
1180:
547:
473:
crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole." These words, originally written in a letter by British judge
468:, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.
312:
developed the ideas that were used to criminalize aggressive war, although he did not attract international attention until 1943. Others making similar proposals included
243:
554:. Although the court did not rule on acts of aggression short of war, it does not preclude the criminality of aggression for less large-scale actions than World War II.
3371:
957:
719:
1028:
883:
628:
3401:
1179:
ruled that "States parties engaged in acts of aggression as defined in international law, resulting in deprivation of life, violate ipso facto article 6 of the"
113:
2447:
2974:
2833:
2764:
1093:, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such gravity as to amount to the acts listed above, or its substantial involvement therein.
3381:
996:
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3196:
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to be counted as substantive crimes against peace, and ultimately two defendants were convicted for their role in these invasions. Chief prosecutor
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2581:
203:
has been part of human experience since the beginning of human history. The criminalization of aggression is of recent origin, dating to after
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3118:
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of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations. Any of the following acts, regardless of a
787:
was rehabilitated by the Romanian Supreme Court on 26 October 1998. Another Romanian sentenced for crimes against peace –
3488:
3189:
101:
41:
1164:
argues that soldiers should have a right not to fight in illegal wars, and those who refuse to do so should be recognized as refugees.
231:
was outlawed "as an Enemy and Disturber of the tranquillity of the World" in what was considered an "Exception to general rules of the
3238:
527:
523:
822:
states that the evidence that Greiser had participated in a conspiracy to wage aggressive war is weak or nonexistent. According to
32:
2363:
795:'s last finance minister (1 April to 23 August, 1944) – was rehabilitated by the Supreme Court on 17 January 2000.
486:
854:
passed a resolution affirming the criminality of "waging aggressive war" and stating that it was not just the aggression of the
386:
Almost all the trials for crimes against peace took place between November 1945 and November 1948, though in some cases such as
1040:
851:
503:
353:
336:
and German industrialists for acts of aggression against the Soviet Union, which he described as "the most heinous crime". The
183:
3442:
3386:
1172:
1137:
2765:"The Crime of Aggression: From the Trial of Takashi Sakai, August 1946, to the Kampala Review Conference on the ICC in 2010"
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region annexed from Poland, was tried and convicted by a Polish court in 1946 for aggression among other charges. Historian
3146:
3258:
871:
531:
268:
68:
contains an exhaustive list of acts of aggression that can give rise to individual criminal responsibility, which include
3473:
3406:
3391:
3220:
2585:
651:
623:
511:
507:
144:
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1080:(d) An attack by the armed forces of a State on the land, sea or air forces, or marine and air fleets of another State;
3447:
3228:
900:
673:
474:
442:
285:
136:
125:
2914:
The Crime of Aggression in International Criminal Law: Historical Development, Comparative Analysis and Present State
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of the Netherlands – dissented against the prosecution of crimes against peace. The prosecution used
3284:
3212:
965:
896:
775:
349:
341:
264:
167:
3061:
Jia, Bing Bing (2015). "The Crime of Aggression as Custom and the Mechanisms for Determining Acts of Aggression".
759:
3437:
1153:
1152:
violations cannot be considered a criminal act of aggression. This conception of aggression could also allow for
1097:
1000:
989:
515:
422:
362:
148:
2034:
Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776–1949: Multilateral, 1946–1949
763:
289:
931:
or to obtain economic advantages, or to interfere with the internal affairs" of the state that is aggressed.
3295:
2543:
1148:
973:
864:
632:
519:
175:
426:
engagement in the war...or prevented peace" between 1941 and 1944. Eight men were tried; wartime president
371:
3452:
3427:
3320:
2893:
May, Larry (2016). "Just War Theory and the Crime of Aggression". In KreĂź, Claus; Barriga, Stefan (eds.).
1020:
945:
602:
566:
535:
366:
309:
160:
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Maintenance of international peace and stability is a major function of the international order, and the
3483:
3478:
2392:
1016:
747:
606:
819:
605:. The Nuremberg verdict was groundbreaking, establishing international criminal law and rejecting that
3493:
3396:
3253:
807:
637:
598:
543:
478:
337:
3168:
10 .b Amendments on the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
839:
3353:
3263:
1044:
755:
551:
499:
410:
252:
208:
73:
842:, he probably would not have been convicted for crimes against peace if tried at the Tokyo trial.
788:
701:
345:
vulnerable to international aggression, which motivated its interest in criminalizing aggression.
3337:
3332:
3305:
3243:
3078:
2917:
2834:"'Germans are the Lords and Poles are the Servants': The Trial of Arthur Greiser in Poland, 1946"
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prohibits acts of aggression against other states. The prohibition of aggression is considered a
685:
313:
272:
784:
655:
3137:– Amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on the crime of aggression
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in 1939 was not prosecuted at Nuremberg. Some severe violations of state sovereignty (such as
558:
465:
457:
447:
280:
251:
are cited as a reason for the illegality of aggression. Pictured: aerial view of the ruins of
224:
97:
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was skeptical about prosecuting aggression, but ultimately charged defendants in four of the
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418:
414:
357:
321:
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3162:
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Thus, the crime of aggression is distinguished from the act of aggression, defined in the
904:
875:
697:
677:
482:
212:
117:
93:
2975:"The Finnish War-Responsibility Trial in 1945–6: The Limits of Ad Hoc Criminal Justice?"
1198:
Special international tribunal for the crime of aggression (Russian invasion of Ukraine)
1062:
by the armed forces of a State against the territory of another State or the use of any
227:, saw the principal wrong in aggression in the violation of individual rights. In 1815,
17:
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927:
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803:
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586:
570:
329:
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116:
provided criminal liability for waging aggressive war, which was the main focus of the
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Mankind" stalled. After the 1940s, other crimes against international law, especially
27:
Aggressive use of state military force that violates the Charter of the United Nations
3467:
3082:
1168:
1141:
834:
792:
780:
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578:
3156:
10 .a Amendment to article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
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Rethinking the Crime of Aggression: International and Interdisciplinary Perspectives
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1052:
827:
693:
590:
582:
325:
301:
220:
204:
140:
109:
105:
65:
45:
37:
3092:
The Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
2733:
Casey-Maslen, Stuart (2021). "Jus ad Bellum, Aggression, and the Right to Life".
1167:
One controversial issue is whether waging aggressive war inherently violates the
1089:(g) The sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or
557:
All 22 defendants were charged with crimes against peace, and 12 were convicted:
207:, but the idea of aggression as a grave moral transgression and violation of the
1133:
1090:
1059:
1012:
1008:
940:
855:
681:
594:
562:
506:, and 23 November 1939. The court considered the planning of acts of aggression
260:
156:
129:
81:
434:. The convicts were treated leniently in prison and all were released by 1949.
2857:
The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law
1048:
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918:
663:
in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.
494:
431:
427:
406:
333:
179:
132:. No one has been prosecuted for aggression either before or since the 1940s.
77:
49:
3181:
267:
for aggression was proposed by the United Kingdom and France. In a speech on
3342:
815:
811:
2823:
2806:
2049:
Communist Terror in Romania: Gheorghiu-Dej and the Police State, 1948–1965
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1036:
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912:
860:
706:
375:
228:
171:
85:
69:
1007:
2. For the purpose of paragraph 1, "act of aggression" means the use of
738:
interpretation of crimes against peace, but two judges –
2876:
Individual Criminal Liability for the International Crime of Aggression
1063:
692:. Of 66 defendants charged with aggression, only three were convicted (
387:
276:
disapproval from the judiciary and was rejected by the United States.
200:
3327:
305:
1047:, however temporary, resulting from such invasion or attack, or any
92:
The philosophical basis for the wrongness of aggression is found in
2735:
The Right to Life under International Law: An Interpretative Manual
627:
441:
242:
112:
made the first successful proposal to criminalize aggression. The
31:
3152:
UN Treaty Collection (UTC) – Status of Acceptance, Ratification
135:
It is generally accepted that the crime of aggression exists in
3185:
120:. Other participants in World War II were tried for aggression
2788:
The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence
2956:
The Global Prosecution of Core Crimes under International Law
2620:
2618:
2605:
2603:
1733:
1731:
1031:(XXIX) of 14 December 1974, qualify as an act of aggression:
3111:
The International Criminal Court and the Crime of Aggression
2429:
2427:
2425:
1193:
International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Aggression
766:
and in 1938–1939 it prepared for war with the Soviet Union.
492:
The planning of aggression was traced to Hitler's 1925 book
2544:"Crime of Aggression Activated at the ICC: Does it Matter?"
1127:
State- versus human-rights-centric approaches to aggression
783:
were sentenced in 1949 for crimes against peace, although
3377:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
2234:
2232:
1718:
1716:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
139:. The definitions and the conditions for the exercise of
2807:"The Criminalization of Aggression and Soldiers' Rights"
1871:
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1856:
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1343:
1341:
1217:
1215:
1213:
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International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
2487:
2485:
2483:
2470:
2468:
1703:
1701:
1373:
1371:
1358:
1356:
36:
The crime of aggression was conceived by Soviet jurist
2345:
2343:
2047:
Dennis Deletant, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1999,
826:, he would probably not be convicted according to the
762:
in which an expansionist policy was decided. In 1937,
2502:
2500:
2364:"Universal Jurisdiction and the Crime of Aggression"
2064:
Romania Since 1989: Politics, Economics, and Society
1572:
Romania Since 1989: Politics, Economics, and Society
1309:
1307:
1305:
1292:
1290:
1181:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
3420:
3351:
3282:
3219:
3044:
Criminal Responsibility for the Crime of Aggression
3367:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
3025:The Crime of Aggression, Humanity, and the Soldier
2582:"Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court"
1066:by a State against the territory of another State;
1055:of the territory of another State or part thereof;
3149:– Official Site of the Assembly of States Parties
3143:– Official Site of the Assembly of States Parties
956:In 1998, at the Rome Conference that adopted the
464:planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a
3397:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
3372:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
2897:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 273–286.
2737:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 122–140.
1039:or attack by the armed forces of a State of the
958:Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
720:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
714:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
2077:David Singer, American Jewish Committee, 2001,
1029:United Nations General Assembly resolution 3314
1005:
988:Under the Rome Statute, as amended in the 2010
884:United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314
730:
660:
462:
159:of some countries, and can be prosecuted under
155:. Aggression is criminalized according to the
114:Charter of the International Military Tribunal
3197:
779:least 8 members of the wartime government of
552:Japanese aggression against the United States
8:
2937:'Crimes Against Peace' and International Law
1983:
1971:
1959:
1947:
1923:
1107:The list of prohibited acts is exhaustive.
3382:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
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3182:
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2648:
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2624:
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2079:American Jewish Year Book 2001, Volume 101
2032:United States, Department of State, 1968,
348:Although there was not much in the way of
3402:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
2979:The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials
2838:The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials
2822:
2769:The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials
1073:of the ports or coasts of a State by the
642:testifies for the prosecution during the
514:, as well as wars of aggressions against
356:put together the legal framework for the
98:war without a just cause for self-defense
1692:
1680:
1668:
1656:
1644:
1632:
1620:
1608:
899:that the crime of aggression is part of
166:Aggression is one of the core crimes in
2334:
2250:
2238:
2223:
2211:
2199:
2187:
2175:
2163:
2062:Henry F. Carey, Lexington Books, 2004,
2019:
2007:
1995:
1935:
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1845:
1833:
1821:
1809:
1797:
1785:
1773:
1761:
1749:
1737:
1722:
1596:
1570:Henry F. Carey, Lexington Books, 2004,
1557:
1545:
1533:
1521:
1509:
1497:
1485:
1473:
1461:
1449:
1437:
1425:
1413:
1401:
1389:
1377:
1362:
1347:
1332:
1257:
1233:
1221:
1209:
548:declaration of war on the United States
3004:Bock, Stefanie; Conze, Eckart (2021).
2115:
2103:
2091:
1911:
1899:
1887:
1875:
895:It is generally agreed by scholars of
658:, which defined aggression as follows:
3063:American Journal of International Law
2895:The Crime of Aggression: A Commentary
2811:European Journal of International Law
2568:
2530:
2518:
2491:
2474:
2416:
2139:
2127:
1707:
1177:United Nations Human Rights Committee
984:Rome Statute definition of aggression
754:The judgement summarizes the rise of
498:and specific secret meetings held on
7:
2349:
2322:
2310:
2298:
2286:
2274:
2262:
2151:
1584:
401:War-responsibility trials in Finland
395:War-responsibility trials in Finland
2786:Cohen, David; Totani, Yuma (2020).
2696:
2672:
2506:
1313:
1296:
1281:
1269:
1245:
374:, and Western countries, which had
304:led to new thinking on aggression.
102:German invasion of the Soviet Union
42:German invasion of the Soviet Union
2453:from the original on 24 April 2022
867:, took priority over aggression.
421:on even less favorable terms. The
223:, often considered the founder of
25:
2368:Harvard International Law Journal
846:Development in the United Nations
833:In 1946, former Japanese general
2586:United Nations Treaty Collection
728:defined crimes against peace as
646:, giving evidence for aggression
460:defined crimes against peace as
407:the Soviet Union invaded Finland
3075:10.5305/amerjintelaw.109.3.0569
939:After 1948, many states passed
852:United Nations General Assembly
758:in the 1930s leading up to the
438:International Military Tribunal
409:, leading to a peace treaty on
354:United States Department of War
184:International Military Tribunal
3443:International humanitarian law
3387:Special Court for Sierra Leone
3094:. Cambridge University Press.
3027:. Cambridge University Press.
2939:. Cambridge University Press.
2790:. Cambridge University Press.
1902:, pp. 179, 181, 186, 201.
1173:international human rights law
1138:foreign electoral interference
999:by the amendments of the 2010
944:Aggression can be tried under
100:is unjust. In the wake of the
1:
872:Charter of the United Nations
376:planned an invasion of Norway
342:London International Assembly
249:loss of life and harms of war
3407:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
3392:International Criminal Court
2386:"Resolution RC/Res.6 !"
1027:, shall, in accordance with
760:Conference of 11 August 1936
652:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
624:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
618:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
332:, government officials, the
263:, the prosecution of Kaiser
147:were adopted in 2010 at the
145:International Criminal Court
3448:International speech crimes
3229:Customary international law
2981:. Oxford University Press.
2954:Soler, Christopher (2019).
2859:. Oxford University Press.
2840:. Oxford University Press.
2771:. Oxford University Press.
2362:Scharf, Michael P. (2012).
910:Aggression requires both a
901:international customary law
830:definition of aggression.
674:subsequent Nuremberg trials
550:and prior encouragement of
286:international customary law
153:states parties to the court
137:international customary law
126:subsequent Nuremberg trials
3510:
3489:International criminal law
3269:Convention Against Torture
3213:International criminal law
3090:McDougall, Carrie (2021).
3042:Grzebyk, Patrycja (2013).
2855:Heller, Kevin Jon (2011).
966:international criminal law
897:international criminal law
717:
621:
398:
350:international criminal law
168:international criminal law
3438:Joint criminal enterprise
2935:Sellars, Kirsten (2013).
1154:humanitarian intervention
1098:Kampala Review Conference
1043:of another State, or any
1001:Kampala Review Conference
990:Kampala Review Conference
850:On 11 December 1946, the
481:" and "the creation of a
423:Allied Control Commission
363:London Conference of 1945
271:, British Prime Minister
211:dates back much farther.
149:Kampala Review Conference
3358:(in order of foundation)
3161:13 December 2014 at the
3023:Dannenbaum, Tom (2018).
2912:Sayapin, Sergey (2014).
2832:Drumbl, Mark A. (2013).
2805:Dannenbaum, Tom (2018).
2763:Clark, Roger S. (2013).
239:World War I and interwar
18:Crimes against the peace
3296:Crimes against humanity
2973:Tallgren, Immi (2013).
1984:Cohen & Totani 2020
1972:Cohen & Totani 2020
1960:Cohen & Totani 2020
1948:Cohen & Totani 2020
1924:Cohen & Totani 2020
1011:by a State against the
974:crimes against humanity
865:crimes against humanity
176:crimes against humanity
143:over this crime by the
52:in ruins, December 1942
3453:Universal jurisdiction
3428:Command responsibility
3321:Incitement to genocide
3259:United Nations Charter
3109:Politi, Mauro (2017).
3008:. T.M.C. Asser Press.
2958:. T.M.C. Asser Press.
2874:Kemp, Gerhard (2010).
1105:
1021:political independence
946:universal jurisdiction
735:
665:
647:
633:Theodor von Hornbostel
603:Konstantin von Neurath
567:Joachim von Ribbentrop
470:
453:
310:Aron Naumovich Trainin
256:
161:universal jurisdiction
53:
1017:territorial integrity
882:On 14 December 1974,
631:
607:act of state doctrine
487:the frontiers of 1914
445:
246:
124:, Poland, China, the
80:by the use of force,
35:
3354:International courts
3254:Nuremberg principles
3173:15 June 2013 at the
2723:, pp. 868, 870.
2711:, pp. 865, 867.
2446:. 30 November 2010.
2265:, pp. 202, 207.
2130:, pp. 387, 390.
1587:, pp. 209, 211.
776:1947 treaty of peace
599:Arthur Seyss-Inquart
479:Treaty of Versailles
413:in 1940. During the
338:governments-in-exile
288:. Although the 1928
96:, in which waging a
3474:Crime of aggression
3301:Crime of aggression
3264:Genocide Convention
3147:Crime of Aggression
3135:Resolution RC/Res.6
2824:10.1093/ejil/chy054
2675:, pp. 279–280.
2663:, pp. 861–862.
2533:, pp. 104–105.
2521:, pp. 397–398.
2289:, pp. 209–210.
2277:, pp. 207–208.
2253:, pp. 105–106.
2214:, pp. 114–116.
2142:, pp. 396–397.
1998:, pp. 163–165.
1914:, pp. 201–202.
1890:, pp. 180–181.
1812:, pp. 157–159.
1800:, pp. 156–157.
1788:, pp. 155–156.
1776:, pp. 154–155.
1764:, pp. 152–154.
1752:, pp. 151–152.
1740:, pp. 150–151.
1647:, pp. 436–437.
1635:, pp. 435–436.
1284:, pp. 276–277.
1045:military occupation
806:, a Nazi leader in
764:Japan invaded China
756:Japanese militarism
340:represented in the
290:Kellogg–Briand Pact
209:international order
74:military occupation
62:crime against peace
58:crime of aggression
40:in the wake of the
3306:Crime of apartheid
3244:Geneva Conventions
2918:T.M.C. Asser Press
2550:. 19 December 2017
1926:, pp. 69, 71.
1536:, pp. x, 150.
1025:declaration of war
686:High Command trial
648:
520:Denmark and Norway
454:
372:German–Soviet pact
352:to work from, the
314:Hersch Lauterpacht
273:David Lloyd George
257:
54:
3461:
3460:
3287:international law
3249:Nuremberg Charter
3239:Hague Conventions
3141:Review Conference
3120:978-1-351-21829-0
3101:978-1-108-86476-3
3053:978-1-136-00120-8
3034:978-1-107-16918-0
3015:978-94-6265-467-9
2988:978-0-19-967114-4
2965:978-94-6265-335-1
2946:978-1-107-02884-5
2927:978-90-6704-927-6
2904:978-1-107-01526-5
2885:978-94-000-0013-1
2866:978-0-19-955431-7
2847:978-0-19-967114-4
2797:978-1-108-82068-4
2778:978-0-19-967114-4
2744:978-1-108-49478-6
2202:, pp. 82–83.
2190:, pp. 80–81.
1962:, pp. 72–73.
1524:, pp. 67–68.
1500:, pp. 57–58.
1464:, pp. 51–52.
1452:, pp. 49–50.
1404:, pp. 22–23.
1077:of another State;
962:Review Conference
926:, Israeli jurist
820:Catherine Epstein
546:, as well as the
466:war of aggression
458:Nuremberg Charter
448:Robert H. Jackson
446:Chief prosecutor
411:unfavorable terms
365:, the victorious
300:Invasions during
281:League of Nations
225:international law
187:a result of war.
16:(Redirected from
3501:
3421:Related concepts
3359:
3316:Genocidal intent
3206:
3199:
3192:
3183:
3124:
3105:
3086:
3057:
3038:
3019:
2992:
2969:
2950:
2931:
2908:
2889:
2870:
2851:
2828:
2826:
2801:
2782:
2749:
2748:
2730:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2688:
2682:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2613:
2607:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2522:
2516:
2510:
2504:
2495:
2489:
2478:
2472:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2452:
2439:
2431:
2420:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2398:on 20 March 2012
2397:
2391:. Archived from
2390:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2338:
2337:, p. xviii.
2332:
2326:
2320:
2314:
2308:
2302:
2296:
2290:
2284:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2260:
2254:
2248:
2242:
2236:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2119:
2113:
2107:
2101:
2095:
2089:
2083:
2074:
2068:
2059:
2053:
2044:
2038:
2029:
2023:
2017:
2011:
2005:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1864:
1858:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1726:
1720:
1711:
1705:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1375:
1366:
1360:
1351:
1345:
1336:
1330:
1317:
1311:
1300:
1294:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1117:Security Council
1101:
690:Ministries trial
644:Ministries trial
641:
575:Alfred Rosenberg
544:the Soviet Union
415:Continuation War
358:Nuremberg trials
269:11 November 1918
108:, Soviet jurist
21:
3509:
3508:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3464:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3433:Superior orders
3416:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3347:
3289:
3286:
3278:
3234:Peremptory norm
3215:
3210:
3175:Wayback Machine
3163:Wayback Machine
3131:
3121:
3108:
3102:
3089:
3060:
3054:
3041:
3035:
3022:
3016:
3003:
3000:
2998:Further reading
2995:
2989:
2972:
2966:
2953:
2947:
2934:
2928:
2911:
2905:
2892:
2886:
2878:. Intersentia.
2873:
2867:
2854:
2848:
2831:
2804:
2798:
2785:
2779:
2762:
2758:
2753:
2752:
2745:
2732:
2731:
2727:
2721:Dannenbaum 2018
2719:
2715:
2709:Dannenbaum 2018
2707:
2703:
2695:
2691:
2685:Dannenbaum 2018
2683:
2679:
2671:
2667:
2661:Dannenbaum 2018
2659:
2655:
2649:Dannenbaum 2018
2647:
2643:
2637:Dannenbaum 2018
2635:
2631:
2625:Dannenbaum 2018
2623:
2616:
2610:Dannenbaum 2018
2608:
2601:
2591:
2589:
2588:. 17 March 2022
2580:
2579:
2575:
2567:
2563:
2553:
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2454:
2450:
2437:
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2383:
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2356:
2348:
2341:
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2317:
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2297:
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2257:
2249:
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2237:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2174:
2170:
2162:
2158:
2150:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2122:
2114:
2110:
2102:
2098:
2090:
2086:
2075:
2071:
2060:
2056:
2045:
2041:
2030:
2026:
2018:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1994:
1990:
1982:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1922:
1918:
1910:
1906:
1898:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1867:
1859:
1852:
1844:
1840:
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1828:
1820:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1796:
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1780:
1772:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1748:
1744:
1736:
1729:
1721:
1714:
1706:
1699:
1691:
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1675:
1667:
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1607:
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1583:
1579:
1568:
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1556:
1552:
1544:
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1504:
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1492:
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1480:
1472:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1408:
1400:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1376:
1369:
1361:
1354:
1346:
1339:
1335:, p. xvii.
1331:
1320:
1312:
1303:
1295:
1288:
1280:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1211:
1206:
1189:
1175:. In 2019, the
1129:
1113:
1102:
1096:
986:
954:
937:
905:Antonio Cassese
893:
876:peremptory norm
848:
801:
772:
742:from India and
722:
716:
698:Wilhelm Keppler
678:IG Farben trial
635:
626:
620:
528:the Netherlands
508:against Austria
502:, 23 May 1939,
500:5 November 1937
483:Greater Germany
451:(on the pulpit)
440:
403:
397:
384:
298:
241:
213:Just war theory
198:
196:Just war theory
193:
182:. In 1946, the
118:Nuremberg trial
94:just war theory
84:, and military
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3507:
3505:
3497:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3466:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3363:
3361:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3318:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3292:
3290:
3285:Crimes against
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3225:
3223:
3217:
3216:
3211:
3209:
3208:
3201:
3194:
3186:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3165:
3150:
3144:
3138:
3130:
3129:External links
3127:
3126:
3125:
3119:
3106:
3100:
3087:
3069:(3): 569–582.
3058:
3052:
3039:
3033:
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2994:
2993:
2987:
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2964:
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2932:
2926:
2909:
2903:
2890:
2884:
2871:
2865:
2852:
2846:
2829:
2817:(3): 859–886.
2802:
2796:
2783:
2777:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2743:
2725:
2713:
2701:
2699:, p. 283.
2689:
2687:, p. 864.
2677:
2665:
2653:
2651:, p. 862.
2641:
2639:, p. 860.
2629:
2627:, p. 859.
2614:
2612:, p. 861.
2599:
2573:
2571:, p. 105.
2561:
2535:
2523:
2511:
2509:, p. 284.
2496:
2494:, p. 104.
2479:
2477:, p. 393.
2464:
2443:United Nations
2421:
2409:
2377:
2354:
2352:, p. 194.
2339:
2327:
2325:, p. 212.
2315:
2313:, p. 210.
2303:
2301:, p. 211.
2291:
2279:
2267:
2255:
2243:
2241:, p. 105.
2228:
2226:, p. 104.
2216:
2204:
2192:
2180:
2168:
2156:
2154:, p. 205.
2144:
2132:
2120:
2118:, p. 427.
2108:
2106:, p. 423.
2096:
2094:, p. 411.
2084:
2069:
2054:
2039:
2024:
2022:, p. 167.
2012:
2010:, p. 166.
2000:
1988:
1976:
1964:
1952:
1940:
1938:, p. 161.
1928:
1916:
1904:
1892:
1880:
1878:, p. 179.
1865:
1850:
1848:, p. 148.
1838:
1836:, p. 160.
1826:
1824:, p. 159.
1814:
1802:
1790:
1778:
1766:
1754:
1742:
1727:
1725:, p. 150.
1712:
1710:, p. 392.
1697:
1695:, p. 441.
1685:
1683:, p. 440.
1673:
1671:, p. 439.
1661:
1659:, p. 438.
1649:
1637:
1625:
1623:, p. 433.
1613:
1611:, p. 432.
1601:
1599:, p. 149.
1589:
1577:
1562:
1560:, p. xii.
1550:
1538:
1526:
1514:
1502:
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1466:
1454:
1442:
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1418:
1406:
1394:
1382:
1367:
1352:
1337:
1318:
1316:, p. 279.
1301:
1299:, p. 278.
1286:
1274:
1272:, p. 274.
1262:
1260:, p. xvi.
1250:
1248:, p. 273.
1238:
1226:
1224:, p. 165.
1208:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1188:
1185:
1171:guaranteed in
1162:Tom Dannenbaum
1128:
1125:
1112:
1109:
1104:
1103:
1100:, 11 June 2010
1094:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1067:
1056:
985:
982:
953:
950:
936:
933:
928:Yoram Dinstein
922:. In terms of
892:
889:
847:
844:
840:Roger S. Clark
824:Mark A. Drumbl
804:Arthur Greiser
800:
797:
771:
768:
740:Radhabinod Pal
718:Main article:
715:
712:
670:Telford Taylor
654:were based on
622:Main article:
619:
616:
571:Wilhelm Keitel
559:Hermann Göring
512:Czechoslovakia
504:22 August 1939
439:
436:
399:Main article:
396:
393:
383:
380:
318:Marcel de Baer
308:criminologist
297:
294:
240:
237:
233:Law of Nations
217:Emer de Vattel
197:
194:
192:
189:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3506:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3355:
3350:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3333:Slave trading
3331:
3329:
3326:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3313:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3281:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3207:
3202:
3200:
3195:
3193:
3188:
3187:
3184:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3122:
3116:
3113:. Routledge.
3112:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3049:
3046:. Routledge.
3045:
3040:
3036:
3030:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3007:
3002:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2961:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2942:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2910:
2906:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2887:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2793:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2760:
2755:
2746:
2740:
2736:
2729:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2587:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2562:
2549:
2548:Just Security
2545:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2512:
2508:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2449:
2445:
2444:
2436:
2430:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2419:, p. 89.
2418:
2413:
2410:
2394:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2355:
2351:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2328:
2324:
2319:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2268:
2264:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2205:
2201:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2184:
2181:
2178:, p. 77.
2177:
2172:
2169:
2166:, p. 76.
2165:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1989:
1986:, p. 74.
1985:
1980:
1977:
1974:, p. 75.
1973:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1950:, p. 70.
1949:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1863:, p. xi.
1862:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1693:Tallgren 2013
1689:
1686:
1682:
1681:Tallgren 2013
1677:
1674:
1670:
1669:Tallgren 2013
1665:
1662:
1658:
1657:Tallgren 2013
1653:
1650:
1646:
1645:Tallgren 2013
1641:
1638:
1634:
1633:Tallgren 2013
1629:
1626:
1622:
1621:Tallgren 2013
1617:
1614:
1610:
1609:Tallgren 2013
1605:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1554:
1551:
1548:, p. 38.
1547:
1542:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1518:
1515:
1512:, p. 67.
1511:
1506:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1491:
1488:, p. 57.
1487:
1482:
1479:
1476:, p. 53.
1475:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1440:, p. 40.
1439:
1434:
1431:
1428:, p. 23.
1427:
1422:
1419:
1416:, p. 28.
1415:
1410:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1395:
1392:, p. 45.
1391:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1350:, p. ix.
1349:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1236:, p. xv.
1235:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1169:right to life
1165:
1163:
1157:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1143:
1142:regime change
1139:
1135:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1118:
1110:
1108:
1099:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1004:
1002:
998:
993:
991:
983:
981:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
951:
949:
947:
942:
934:
932:
929:
925:
921:
920:
915:
914:
908:
906:
902:
898:
891:Customary law
890:
888:
885:
880:
877:
873:
868:
866:
862:
857:
853:
845:
843:
841:
836:
835:Takashi Sakai
831:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
798:
796:
794:
793:Ion Antonescu
790:
786:
782:
781:Ion Antonescu
777:
769:
767:
765:
761:
757:
752:
749:
745:
741:
734:
729:
727:
726:Tokyo Charter
721:
713:
711:
709:
708:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
664:
659:
657:
653:
645:
639:
634:
630:
625:
617:
615:
613:
612:ex post facto
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
579:Wilhelm Frick
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
496:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
475:Robert Wright
469:
467:
461:
459:
452:
449:
444:
437:
435:
433:
429:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
402:
394:
392:
389:
381:
379:
377:
373:
368:
364:
359:
355:
351:
346:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
322:Bohuslav EÄŤer
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
295:
293:
291:
287:
282:
279:Instead, the
277:
274:
270:
266:
262:
254:
250:
245:
238:
236:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
195:
190:
188:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
90:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
3484:Military law
3479:Wars by type
3300:
3274:Rome Statute
3110:
3091:
3066:
3062:
3043:
3024:
3005:
2978:
2955:
2936:
2913:
2894:
2875:
2856:
2837:
2814:
2810:
2787:
2768:
2734:
2728:
2716:
2704:
2692:
2680:
2668:
2656:
2644:
2632:
2590:. Retrieved
2576:
2564:
2552:. Retrieved
2547:
2538:
2526:
2514:
2455:. Retrieved
2441:
2412:
2400:. Retrieved
2393:the original
2380:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2335:Sayapin 2014
2330:
2318:
2306:
2294:
2282:
2270:
2258:
2251:Sayapin 2014
2246:
2239:Sayapin 2014
2224:Sayapin 2014
2219:
2212:Sayapin 2014
2207:
2200:Sayapin 2014
2195:
2188:Sayapin 2014
2183:
2176:Sayapin 2014
2171:
2164:Sayapin 2014
2159:
2147:
2135:
2123:
2111:
2099:
2087:
2078:
2072:
2063:
2057:
2048:
2042:
2033:
2027:
2020:Sayapin 2014
2015:
2008:Sayapin 2014
2003:
1996:Sayapin 2014
1991:
1979:
1967:
1955:
1943:
1936:Sayapin 2014
1931:
1919:
1907:
1895:
1883:
1861:Sellars 2013
1846:Sayapin 2014
1841:
1834:Sayapin 2014
1829:
1822:Sayapin 2014
1817:
1810:Sayapin 2014
1805:
1798:Sayapin 2014
1793:
1786:Sayapin 2014
1781:
1774:Sayapin 2014
1769:
1762:Sayapin 2014
1757:
1750:Sayapin 2014
1745:
1738:Sayapin 2014
1723:Sayapin 2014
1688:
1676:
1664:
1652:
1640:
1628:
1616:
1604:
1597:Sayapin 2014
1592:
1580:
1571:
1565:
1558:Sellars 2013
1553:
1546:Sayapin 2014
1541:
1534:Sellars 2013
1529:
1522:Sellars 2013
1517:
1510:Sellars 2013
1505:
1498:Sellars 2013
1493:
1486:Sellars 2013
1481:
1474:Sellars 2013
1469:
1462:Sellars 2013
1457:
1450:Sellars 2013
1445:
1438:Sellars 2013
1433:
1426:Sellars 2013
1421:
1414:Sellars 2013
1409:
1402:Sellars 2013
1397:
1390:Sellars 2013
1385:
1380:, p. x.
1378:Sellars 2013
1365:, p. 1.
1363:Sellars 2013
1348:Sellars 2013
1333:Sayapin 2014
1277:
1265:
1258:Sayapin 2014
1253:
1241:
1234:Sayapin 2014
1229:
1222:Sellars 2013
1166:
1158:
1147:Philosopher
1146:
1130:
1121:
1114:
1111:Jurisdiction
1106:
1075:armed forces
1053:use of force
1006:
1003:as follows:
997:Rome Statute
994:
987:
968:, alongside
955:
952:Rome Statute
938:
935:National law
923:
917:
911:
909:
894:
881:
869:
849:
832:
828:Rome Statute
802:
799:Other trials
789:Gheron Netta
773:
753:
736:
731:
723:
705:
702:Paul Koerner
694:Hans Lammers
666:
661:
649:
611:
591:Erich Raeder
583:Walther Funk
556:
493:
491:
471:
463:
455:
450:
419:an armistice
404:
385:
347:
326:Adolf Hitler
302:World War II
299:
296:World War II
278:
258:
253:Vaux, France
221:Hugo Grotius
205:World War II
199:
170:, alongside
165:
141:jurisdiction
134:
110:Aron Trainin
106:World War II
91:
66:Rome Statute
61:
57:
55:
48:. Pictured:
46:World War II
38:Aron Trainin
29:
3494:State crime
2116:Drumbl 2013
2104:Drumbl 2013
2092:Drumbl 2013
1912:Heller 2011
1900:Heller 2011
1888:Heller 2011
1876:Heller 2011
1134:Czech lands
1091:mercenaries
1060:Bombardment
1013:sovereignty
1009:armed force
941:statute law
856:Axis powers
785:one of them
744:Bert Röling
682:Krupp trial
636: [
595:Alfred Jodl
587:Karl Dönitz
563:Rudolf Hess
330:his cabinet
261:World War I
157:statute law
130:Tokyo trial
82:bombardment
3468:Categories
3338:Starvation
2569:Soler 2019
2531:Soler 2019
2519:Clark 2013
2492:Soler 2019
2475:Clark 2013
2417:Soler 2019
2140:Clark 2013
2128:Clark 2013
1708:Clark 2013
1204:References
1140:aiming at
1049:annexation
978:war crimes
919:actus reus
810:and later
748:conspiracy
733:foregoing.
656:Law No. 10
536:Yugoslavia
532:Luxembourg
495:Mein Kampf
432:hard labor
428:Risto Ryti
334:Nazi Party
265:Wilhelm II
191:Background
180:war crimes
128:, and the
122:in Finland
78:annexation
50:Stalingrad
3343:War crime
3083:147754466
2350:Kemp 2010
2323:Kemp 2010
2311:Kemp 2010
2299:Kemp 2010
2287:Kemp 2010
2275:Kemp 2010
2263:Kemp 2010
2152:Kemp 2010
1585:Kemp 2010
1149:Larry May
1041:territory
816:Warthegau
812:Gauleiter
405:In 1939,
3311:Genocide
3171:Archived
3159:Archived
2697:May 2016
2673:May 2016
2592:17 March
2507:May 2016
2457:9 August
2448:Archived
2081:, p. 430
2051:, p. 131
2036:, p. 405
1314:May 2016
1297:May 2016
1282:May 2016
1270:May 2016
1246:May 2016
1187:See also
1095:—
1071:blockade
1069:(c) The
1037:invasion
1035:(a) The
970:genocide
924:mens rea
913:mens rea
861:genocide
707:mens rea
382:Case law
229:Napoleon
172:genocide
86:blockade
70:invasion
3221:Sources
2756:Sources
2554:2 March
2066:, p. 75
1574:, p. 75
1064:weapons
1051:by the
814:in the
770:Romania
524:Belgium
485:beyond
388:Romania
255:, 1918.
201:Warfare
151:by the
104:during
44:during
3328:Piracy
3117:
3098:
3081:
3050:
3031:
3012:
2985:
2962:
2943:
2924:
2901:
2882:
2863:
2844:
2794:
2775:
2741:
2402:14 May
2374:: 357.
976:, and
808:Danzig
700:, and
688:, and
676:: the
601:, and
542:, and
540:Greece
516:Poland
367:Allies
320:, and
306:Soviet
259:After
178:, and
3079:S2CID
2451:(PDF)
2438:(PDF)
2396:(PDF)
2389:(PDF)
640:]
614:law.
3115:ISBN
3096:ISBN
3048:ISBN
3029:ISBN
3010:ISBN
2983:ISBN
2960:ISBN
2941:ISBN
2922:ISBN
2899:ISBN
2880:ISBN
2861:ISBN
2842:ISBN
2792:ISBN
2773:ISBN
2739:ISBN
2594:2022
2556:2022
2459:2022
2404:2012
1058:(b)
916:and
863:and
774:The
724:The
650:The
530:and
510:and
489:".
456:The
247:The
3071:doi
3067:109
2819:doi
1019:or
710:".
235:".
60:or
3470::
3077:.
3065:.
2977:.
2920:.
2916:.
2836:.
2815:29
2813:.
2809:.
2767:.
2617:^
2602:^
2584:.
2546:.
2499:^
2482:^
2467:^
2440:.
2424:^
2372:53
2370:.
2366:.
2342:^
2231:^
1868:^
1853:^
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