Critical terrorism studies - Knowledge (XXG)

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emancipation is to think of it as a process of creating space and discussion that allows the focus to be on experiences, ideas and questions which have been "neglected in most orthodox accounts of security and terrorism". The emancipation of ideas, dialogue, and experience is a powerful "philosophical anchorage" that allows CTS to separate itself and its motives from that of traditional and orthodox terrorism studies. Traditional terrorism studies theorists understand the value behind the idea of emancipatory nature of CTS's research, but many feel such a claim is overstated. CTS's claim of emancipation is seen as simply reinventing the wheel, a wheel that has been working effectively for orthodox scholars for decades. And the claim to be the first in a field as politically charged and somewhat emotionally delicate as terrorism studies to ask hard questions and challenge commonly held beliefs and assumptions is seen as a gross over-simplification and generalization that risks replacing one dominant discourse with another, and in turn, marginalizing the research and voices of traditional terrorism studies. Further, criticism has been levied at this "emancipatory agenda" by virtue of its seeming lack of recourse for the "Heterogeneity of the human experience." Despite traditional terrorism studies' negative response to CTS's emancipatory claim, CTS still strives to keep emancipation as one of its core motivations for continued research. Emancipatory research in terrorism studies can bring to light overlooked perspectives such as the war in Iraq being a form of occupation bringing more violence than peace, the idea that State sponsored research is often biased and unreliable and that any and all valuable research should be conducted free of political bias to truly increase understanding. These few listed ideas are examples of what CTS hopes to bring to the field of terrorism studies through emancipatory research.

59:; there has been a massive increase in research related to terrorism. Terrorism has become one of the most powerful signifiers in contemporary society with the term generating vast amounts of social and political activity. It has also become a cultural taboo which invokes emotions – fear and hatred. CTS takes issue with previous terrorism studies in what it perceives as having methodological and analytical weaknesses, including a reliance on poor research methods and procedures, an overreliance on secondary resources, and a failure to undertake primary research; a failure to come up with an accepted definition of terrorism, and an inability to be cross-disciplinary. According to Jeroen Gunning: "core epistemological, methodological and political-normative problems persist, ranging from lack of conceptual clarity and theoretical sterility to political bias and a continuing dearth of primary research data". CTS is a response to these research problems. With its origins in the Frankfurt School of critical theory, and the Welsh School of critical security studies (in which the primary referent to be secured is individuals not states), CTS is a self-reflective, critical approach to the study of terrorism which challenges the ontological, epistemological and ideological commitments of mainstream terrorism scholars. CTS also looks to attract academics from other disciplines who are uncomfortable with the mainstream discourse around terrorism and looks to engage directly with those who are perceived as 'terrorists' and/or terrorist sympathisers. 719: – inform the public of this enemy, this fictional reality is reinforced through journalism and entertainment in which the war is framed as inevitable and the enemy as evil. This all reinforces the fantasy that this war is about fighting evil in general, and the Western soldiers that are killed are fighting for a greater good. The hyperbolic, dramatic language used in the media casts the Western world as heroes who fight the villains. CTS reflects on who this narrative of the enemy benefits. This perception that reinforces patriotism and justifications for war, profits the Western world and furthers the dominance and oppression that divides the two regions. When the motives and ideology of terrorists are largely unknown – let alone the number and whereabouts – the greater the possibility is to rely on stereotype and myth-based discourse. Because the enemy is foreign (even alien) this possibility is increased due to limited knowledge and physical connection to the region. When reality falls short, the narrative of foreign peoples is shaped by "shortcuts provided by stylized imagery compounded of stories, films and our own imaginations". Politicians use this to back up their dehumanized claims, so the image of the terrorist mimics 353:, etc.) But, in a broader sense, it simply means researching and writing to challenge commonly held social, political, and personal beliefs about terrorism that often go unchallenged (specifically in traditional terrorism studies). OTS scholars agree that critical thinking and the utilization of critical theory should be a prominent aspect of any valuable research. However, they also feel that such research already exists within the field of terrorism studies and that CTS is bringing more of a critical eye to the field, but that there is no cause for it to be a whole separate sub-field. However, unlike traditional terrorism studies, CTS is strict on its adherence to the critical element of research, as it believes critical analysis is one of the few ways to overcome the problematic gaps within traditional terrorism studies. CTS also hopes that the critical element will also eventually bridge the traditional and critical approaches, if both begin to follow the research procedures that allow critical analysis. 63:

studying terrorism and a concrete research agenda for the future". While critical approaches to the study of terrorism are not new, previous efforts have often occurred outside of the terrorism studies field. Such as the critical approach that some anthropology scholars have taken. These alternative approaches have "had little cross-fertilization with the orthodox field and have largely failed to alter its practices, priorities, approaches, outputs and myths". CTS seeks to engage directly with the orthodox field, and question its normative assumptions. Prompted by the growing unease over the state of current terrorism research, and the relationship between much orthodox terrorism research and the institutions of state power, CTS sets out to "stimulate, encourage, and more clearly articulate the nascent but observable 'critical turn' that was starting to become visible within the broader terrorism studies field".

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divides the world in two safe and unsafe zones. Over past decades, many voices alerted on the negative effects of terrorism over the industry of tourism and mobilities in developed and underdeveloped economies. The emergent theories explained terrorism as an indicator of the lack of democracy, or even extreme poverty which represents a fertile ground for ethnic resentment necessary to rechannel terrorism. Since tourists are ambassadors of first World, not surprisingly they were targets of terrorist cells in zones dotted with lower levels of security. However, some other scholars questioned this idea considering that tourism recovers its attraction and growth after elapsed little time from the original event; or even producing "traumaescape" which means zones whipped by terrorism that becomes tourist attractions. Some sociological studies focus on the concept of

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terrorism. Moreover, this becomes accepted as the general consensus at the macro, meso and micro levels of government and institutions, and is reflected in policy and the way the mainstream view terrorism. Traditional terrorism studies is also largely concerned with "problem solving theory", which looks at the world "with the prevailing social and power relationships and the institutions into which they are organised, as the given framework for action", and then works to "make these relationships and institutions work smoothly by dealing effectively with particular sources of trouble". Therefore, they look at dealing with the issue of terrorism within the current dominant structures of power. An example of this is the scholars and associated research that is affiliated with the

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military interventions internationally. The stereotype of the enemy is perpetuated and normalized through American culture, media, entertainment and politics. And the shared hate for the enemy contributes to a unified patriotism within America that deflects attention from the deeply entrenched inequalities within the nation. The war on terror acts as a distraction mechanism from local problems in the Western world, and maintains a war culture of its own that produces justifications and legitimate rationality for prolonging the war in the Middle East. The patriotism that the war on terror creates contributes to large sources of revenue for the American military industrial economy through

587:; an evil, destructive and repressive people who America refused to negotiate with and must defeat (45). The estimates of how many thousands of civilians, insurgents, soldiers (both American and otherwise) and Islamists that have been killed in the war on terror vary widely from 220,000 to 650,000. However these statistics are unreliable due to their varied date, source and amount – it is not possible to know how many people have been victims of the war on terror. Not only has this war killed, tortured and displaced hundreds of thousands of people, there is no proof that it has been effective in reducing terrorism, and has led to a further proliferation of terrorist attacks. 104:(BISA) occurred in early 2006, while in October 2006, a conference was held entitled; 'Is it time for a critical terrorism studies?' This was followed by two journal articles that called for a critical appraisal of the current state of terrorism studies. Richard Jackson's "Introduction: The Case for Critical Terrorism Studies" and Jeroen Gunning's "A case for Critical Terrorism Studies". In his "A case for Critical Terrorism Studies", Gunning calls for a critical approach that will "encourage researchers to historicize and contextualize the conflict by looking at the evolution of violence, broader processes of 602:

community. Third, there was an element of idealism that believed that war would help to spread democracy, human rights and liberties. And lastly, Bush endeavoured to maintain American hegemony by reaffirming the vital role of American military strength. It is argued that the negative effects of this war will be felt for generations, due to the culture of division, stereotyping and hate between the Middle East and the West. The formation of a new "suspect community" in the Middle East has undermined human rights and civil liberties, and impaired the functionality of the international system.

374:" as obvious and not wholly necessary. Bias is unavoidable and viewing it as such has the possibility to weaken arguments already made. Also, there is not a complete lack of ethnocentric-free research within terrorism studies and therefore CTS is seen as simply creating a bifurcation between the subfields. Despite this criticism, CTS remains determined to conduct research free from state-centric and ethnocentric perspectives, opening space for new perspectives and discourses that may have been overlooked by terrorism studies as a whole. 456:

until this point, terrorism was largely, though not exclusively, defined by its use by state. And it was not until later that academic circles shifted the focus to non-state actors. There is research to suggest that states that have witnessed severe upheaval throughout their history will utilise state-terrorism. Such as Iraq, Syria, Israel, Burundi, Rwanda, Zaire, Myanmar, Indonesia, Serbia and Chechnya. Furthermore, for weak states, state terrorism is often viewed as a legitimate total state consolidation.

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connotation. And since many scholars study and research the causes, effects, and nature of terrorism because of passionate ideas and interests, it would be irresponsible to assert that simply because a piece of research is free of state centricism and bias that it is automatically politically neutral. Again, traditional terrorism studies sees CTS's research attempts as oversimplifications to claim innovation in an already established field.

662:– he cited the drones that were killing the people of his community as the reason for his vengeance. Unmanned drone attacks in Afghanistan and Pakistan tend to target public places and gatherings, such as weddings and funerals, and are increasing the threat of terrorism. Violence emanates and results from counterinsurgency/terrorism. What America calls preventative war, the Middle East calls state terrorism. 370:

or ethnocentric research by responding directly to already published research, finding holes and gaps in the arguments, and by completing new research that challenges ethnocentric claims and provides new claims from the perspective of non-state entities, and specifically, the perspectives of the so-labeled 'terrorists' themselves. OTS scholars see this shift from so-called "

474:: Political violence in the name of religion by religiously motivated people. A problematic term that is used to categorise terrorism and differentiate it from other forms of terrorism, by assuming there is a casual relationship between religion and violence, rather than looking at the study of beliefs and practices in the production of political violence. 100:. Jackson called for scholars to resist the current terrorism studies discourse: "I believe we have an ethical duty to resist the discourse, to deconstruct it at every opportunity and continually to interrogate the exercise of power". The setting up of the Critical Studies on Terrorism Working Group (CSTWG) within the 209:

isolated event. For instance, CTS questions why a terrorist action happens, asking whether the terrorists simply hate western notions of freedom, or whether they have deeper underlying political motivations? CTS adopts the ontological position that "terrorism" is fundamentally a social fact rather than brute fact.

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previously unavailable to them. And again, politically neutral scholars are more able to bring to attention and help fight acts of state terrorism that are often overlooked and even justified in orthodox studies. There are however some questions over how CTS can be both politically neutral and emancipatory.

279:: creating the conditions of oppositional violence. To analyse the way traditional terrorism discourse is used to discredit oppositional groups and justify state policies. The applying of historical materialist approaches to systematic research of state terrorism has started to be critically assessed by 735:

was a pioneer in discussing the paradigms of mobilities within the age of terror. Per his viewpoint, terrorism operates in a world of contrasting complexities where the power, far from being static, flows. The power is mobile in the same way, its gravity-effects on the world of consumption. Terrorism

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administration. The major problem with this association with government is that it privileges research on threats by non-state actors, and marginalises research around state sponsorship of terrorism. According to Burnett and Whyte, the Corporation acts "effectively as an influential prestigious voice

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and Soviet Russia, through the use of secret police, used tension to subdue and kill those deemed enemies of the state. Further, a number of Latin American states backed by the US utilised state-terrorism to silence the population and consolidate their control – Chile and Nicaragua in particular. Up

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was not productive in countering terrorism. Upward of 60 examples of terrorist incidents in America are proven consequences of United States foreign policy and military intervention. Still, no academic scholar in orthodox terrorism studies has considered American military intervention as the primary

531:, the leading centre for the study of terrorism in the UK. As well, experts associated with the RAND-St Andrews nexus have significant professional ties with businesses and military personnel associated with counter-terrorism activity, many of which have made "windfall profits" in the Iraq conflict. 497:

that can be seen to be furthering the agendas of certain states, because OTS is a discipline that is primarily concerned with looking at acts of terrorism by non-state actors. This is a very state-centric perspective which has a limited set of assumptions and narratives about the nature and cause of

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nature of research, CTS is referring not only to the emancipation of previously marginalized peoples' voices in the field of OTS, but the emancipation of ideas, questions and theories that have been marginalized, overlooked, or seen as non-issues in orthodox studies. A simple way to understand CTS's

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scholars and experts, there is a disproportionate amount of research articulating states' perspectives and experiences (namely western state-actors), leaving almost all non-state actors without any fair, unbiased representation in the research field. In response to this, CTS challenges state-centric

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CTS adopts the epistemological position that the nature of knowledge in terrorism studies is a social process which relies on contextual factors, including the influence of the researcher. CTS scholars argue that by being continuously aware of context, social processes, and the 'known' and 'unknown'

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Orthodox terrorism studies researchers see the idea of political and policy neutral research as a nice sentiment, but impossible to execute. Many have criticized CTS for claiming policy free and politically neutral research, as even the word terrorism itself is not free of any political meaning and

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CTS aims to approach terrorism studies from a critical angle, that is, to encourage and further the adoption of a more self-consciously critical approach to the study of terrorism. However CTS does not only criticise the state of terrorism studies, it also attempts to "suggest an alternative way of

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in Afghanistan, and also the men who attacked the twin towers were from Saudi Arabia. American power internationally meant that they authorized the attacks in Iraq and Afghanistan, and also drone strikes in Pakistan, Yemen and Somalia. While Bush legitimises the enemy by asserting that terrorists

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However, CTS sees the criticism from orthodox scholars as extenuating the need for there to be more than one avenue of academic discourse available. By aiming to keep all research politically neutral and policy free, a space opens up for experts with non-state experience to enter a field which was

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and de-legitimizes any argument that would challenge or condemn such actions. Also, when research is sponsored for political reasons, the 'experts' become not those who have the most relevant experience, but those who are willing to support whatever political view that will result in more funding,

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with the beard, turban, black eyes and hollow glum face creating a stereotyped stigma. This enemy is merciless, believes in extreme religious values and will do anything to destroy the West. Such imagery and language degrades common humanity, and prevents us from understanding that the enemy is a

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Terrorism therefore has a number of meanings and interpretations that we can use to assess terrorist acts in the contemporary era. Terrorism is a heavily contested concept and it is the context in which a violent act occurs as to how people define the act. It is symbolic violence, a communicative

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foundations of critical terrorism studies. Within CTS, there is a broad agreement on the need to examine terrorism and terrorists from a historical, contextualized perspective asking 'how' questions of causation and constitution, rather than the more orthodox problem solving questions of a single

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CTS's new approach and perspective has been widely welcomed in the field of terrorism studies. Nevertheless, it has been subject to criticism for its desire to distinguish itself from what it deems "traditional" or "orthodox" terrorism studies, and for its claim of maintaining absolute political

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occurred in early 2007. The idea behind launching the journal was "one small part of a much broader attempt to foster a more self-reflective, critical approach to the study of terrorism, and bring in those who study aspects of 'terrorism', but are uncomfortable with or hostile to the (perceived)

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sense. Therefore; "Ultimately, a critical approach to terrorism suggests that more positive and progressive change is always possible and that we can break out of seemingly endless cycles of terrorist/counter-terrorist violence, if only we can begin to think, study, speak and act outside of the

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CTS scholars argue that terrorism should be de-exceptionalised as a form of political violence, not singled out as a unique form of "evil" violence, but should be treated as other forms of political violence are. CTS also encourages researchers to engage with terrorists as humans, and not form

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are referred to as successes and justifications for future war. Rather than concentrating resources and money on problems that have widespread negative effects on American society, like poverty, education, health or the environment, the United States has spent US$ 1.283 trillion since 9/11 on

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The rationality behind Bush's decision to start a war on terrorism comes in four parts. First it was implemented as a preventive war, and as an excuse to act pre-emptively. Second, it was based on unilateralism, although where necessary, Bush attempted to enlist support from the international

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CTS would not have come into existence unless scholars saw the need for a change in many of the perspectives within terrorism studies as a whole. Some of the most common criticisms CTS consistently presents including the inconsistent 'definition' of terrorism, the political power held by most

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in the American military-industrial lobby and in world politics; particularly with regard to its interventions on the war on terror". Scholars, or "embedded experts" associated with RAND have key editorial positions in the two most prominent English-language terrorism journals,

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Generic terrorism: "The systematic use of violence and intimidation to coerce a government or community, into acceding to specific political demands." It is the use of or the threat of violence that is meant to intimidate a wider target than the immediate victims of

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Scholars created CTS in response to what they felt was missing from traditional terrorism studies, namely, the critical aspect of research. Employing critical thinking in terrorism research can mean employing any one of several existing critical theories (such as

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act, with the sole purpose to send the message. It is the psychological effect of using fear, as it is not the victims of a terrorist act. But the wider audience who are the target, because the victims become instrumental as they are the message carriers.

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has continued the Bush-instigated War on Terror by plainly stating that the biggest threat to America is still terrorism. So, despite the reduction of military occupation in the Middle East, the trace of War on Terror still remains.

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neutrality. However, scholars both from critical and traditional terrorism studies remain determined not to allow any distinction between the subfields to cause bifurcation and incompatibility within the field of research itself.

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is viewed by many CTS scholars as an act of terror. Terror on terror makes no sense, and did not produce positive results. The attack on Iraq was illogical considering America's past partnership with Iraq, the whereabouts of

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One of the largest voids of orthodox terrorism studies CTS aims to fill is the void of politically neutral and policy-free research and ideas. Post-9/11, almost all research on terrorism has been sponsored and conducted by

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Examining the constructed information flow produced through academic research, basic education, political rhetoric, state and international law, and media. Reframing the discourse through a reflexive epistemology.

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and those who are willing to adhere to any current policy around terrorism (e.g. "Our country does not negotiate with terrorists" therefore all research reflects the impossibility of negotiating with terrorist).

2177: 47:, or a label, that is applied to certain violent acts through a range of political, legal and academic processes. It also seeks to understand and critique dominant forms of counter-terrorism. 451:, and to eliminate those labeled enemies of the revolution. Thus, the state was the first proponent of using terrorism as a political tool. Moving into the twentieth century, the regimes of 96:. This book was a critical appraisal of many of the international community's commonly-held assumptions about terrorism. A further catalyst for CTS came from Richard Jackson's 2005 book, 480:: Involves the intimidation of the civilian population into submission. This occurs when a third-party is used to silence dissidents, and kill people, instilling fear in the population. 229:

knowledge in circulation, you can gain further insights into the study of terrorism. CTS also acknowledges the link between power and knowledge, and who research is ultimately for.

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commitments of existing terrorism studies." CTS has continued to expand as a sub-discipline of terrorism studies and there has been a growth of CTS programs in universities such as

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Gendering serves to maintain gender hierarchy and reinforces essentialist stereotypes of women as peaceful and powerless. Reframing women's interaction with terrorism and violence.

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Throughout American history, military strength has been at the heart of identity; it is embedded in politics and culture. War as a solution is rooted in American culture, as

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Exploring the extent to which the status quo contributes to the problem of terrorism. "Whom defines terrorism? Whom defines terrorist? Whom defines the dominant response?".

572: 190:: Observer and observed, or subject and object, are distinctly separate (For a clear alternative discussion on critical realism and CTS, see: Stump and Dixit 2013, 2011). 552: 2604: 468:

Non-state terrorism: Involves attacks on civilians, symbolic and random targets and is usually, though not exclusively, aimed at bringing about political change.

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want to 'kill all Americans', there is no discernable difference between this falsified aim and the goal of American Military intervention in the Middle East.

308:/traditional terrorism studies (OTS) in several fundamental ways. Some of the most significant points of difference include its emphasis on the utilization of 1218:

Horgan, J. & Boyle, M. J., (2008). A case against 'Critical Terrorism Studies', Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1:1, 51-64, DOI: 10.1080/17539150701848225.

528: 88:, who published critical works relating to the state and terrorism from the late 1970s. One of the first major works that gave impetus to a CTS discourse was 1184:

Mueller, J., 2006. Overblown: how politicians and the terrorism industry inflate national security threats and why we believe them. New York, NY: Free Press.

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Cox, R. (1981). Social forces, states and world orders: Beyond international relations theory. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 10(2), 126-155.

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Rengger, N.; Thirkell-White, B. (2007). "Still critical after all these years? The past, present and future of critical theory in international relations".

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Winkler, C., 2006. In the name of terrorism: presidents on political violence in the post-World War II era. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press

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of peoples previously marginalized in traditional terrorism studies, and its attempt to avoid political bias and a problem-solving policy-orientation.

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The culture of war is created through the imagery and language used in politics and popular entertainment in order to frame a narrative of the enemy.

101: 649:. While counter-terrorism may deter some attacks, it cannot prevent all, and often has the result of provoking rather than reducing terrorism. The 196:: Observer and observed or subject and object are deeply interconnected (For a more reflective discourse see: Jackson, Javis, Gunning, Smyth 2009). 2386: 1984:

Pizam, A.; Smith, G. (2000). "Tourism and terrorism: A quantitative analysis of major terrorist acts and their impact on tourism destinations".

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Orthodox scholars, the ineffectiveness of the War on Terror, the glorification of patriotism, and the demonising narrative of the 'enemy'.

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Human security over state security/national security. Move away from state-centric policies on security, to focusing on people and liberty.

108:, the relationship between violent organizations and wider social movements, and the relationship between social movements and the state." 905:

Jackson, R., Breen Smyth, M., & Gunning, J. (Eds.).(2009). Critical terrorism studies: A new research agenda. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

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Fontan, V (2006). "Polarization between occupier and occupied in post-Saddam Iraq: humiliation and the formation of political violence".

400:, many standing to gain politically from the conclusions drawn from such research. CTS feels that the prominent discourse maintained by 556: 365:

in traditional terrorism studies. Prominent scholars Jackson, Gunning and Smyth claim that since most research on terrorism is done by

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Jackson, R., Jarvis, L., Gunning, J., & Breen-Smyth, M. (2011). Terrorism: A critical introduction. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan

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With the focus on epistemological understanding, it is now possible to question how we receive knowledge and who it benefits and why.

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The overall ineffective and illegitimate result of the war on terror means that the costs have thus far outweighed the successes.

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Bayoumi, M. (2008). Endless War? Hidden Functions of the 'War on Terror' by David Keen. Development and Change. 39(5), p.870-871.

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stands as the main justification for the war on terror. This means that new technologies and methods in war are legalized. The

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Pearsall, J., and Trumble, B., eds, (2006). Oxford Referencing Dictionary, 2nd ed., revised, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Jackson, R. (2005) Writing the War on Terror: Language, politics and counter-terrorism. Manchester University Press, p. 188

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to prevent any more terrorist attacks on the Western world. Bush immediately framed these terrorists as being motivated by

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A CTS critique of OTS revolves around many OTS scholars' links to institutions of power. CTS questions these links to

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Podoshen, J. S. (2013). "Dark tourism motivations: Simulation, emotional contagion and topographic comparison".

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Enders, W.; Sandler, T.; Parise, G. F. (1992). "An econometric analysis of the impact of terrorism on tourism".

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have been constructed as a dangerous other in Western culture. Not only do politicians – especially in the

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have backfired and are not proven to work, and have even perpetuated the number of terrorist attacks, including

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Sönmez, S. F.; Apostolopoulos, Y.; Tarlow, P. (1999). "Tourism in crisis: Managing the effects of terrorism".

502:. Now an independent think tank, RAND was established by the US air force in 1945, and was contracted to the 2381: 2321: 732: 671: 256:: the misconception that typically women are seen as victims of political violence and men as perpetrators. 2396: 2336: 129: 1389:

Wilkinson, P. (2012). "The Utility of the Concept of Terrorism" in R. Jackson and S. J. Sinclair (eds.),

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Silke, A., ed., 2004. Research on terrorism: trends, achievements and failures. London: Frank Cass.

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Keen, D (2006). "War without end? Magic, Propaganda and the hidden functions of counter-terror".

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Lum, C., Kennedy, L. W., & Sherley, A. (2006). Are counter-terrorism strategies effective?

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Tzanelli, R. (2016). Thanatourism and Cinematic Representations of Risk. Abingdon: Routledge.

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Zalman, A.; Clarke, J. (2009). "The Global War on Terror: A Narrative in Need of a Rewrite".

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Gunning, J.; Jackson, R. (2011). "What's so 'religious' about 'religious terrorism'?".

917:"Drones, Witches and other Flying Objects: the Force of Fantasy in US Counterterrorism" 708: 655: 576: 515: 334: 105: 2018:

Mansfeld, Y., & Pizam, A. (Eds.). (2006). Tourism, security and safety. Routledge.

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Fleischer, A.; Buccola, S. (2002). "War, terror, and the tourism market in Israel".

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Aretxaga, B (2001). "Terror as a thrill: First thoughts on the 'war on terrorism'".

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Shepherd, J., 2007. The rise and rise of terrorism studies. The Guardian, 3 July.

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Sluka, J., 2000. "Introduction: State terror and anthropology" in J. Sluka, ed.

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Smyth, M.B.; Gunning, J.; Jackson, R.; Kassimeris, G.; Robinson, P. (2008).

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Burnett, J.; Whyte, D. (2005). "Embedded expertise and the new terrorism".

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Heritage that hurts: Tourists in the memoryscapes of September 11 (Vol. 4)

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Jackson, R (2007b). "The core commitments of critical terrorism studies".

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CTS attempts to combat what they feel is a prevalent state-centricity and

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Bégin, R (2014). "Digital Traumascape From the Trümmerfilme to Wall e.".

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Mapping terrorism research: state of the art, gaps and future directions

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St Andrew Centre for Studies in Terrorism and Political Violence (CSTPV)

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of critical security studies, CTS seeks to understand terrorism as a

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McDonald, M (2007). "Emancipation and critical terrorism studies".

901: 899: 897: 2203: 1405:"Old myths, new fantasies and the enduring realities of terrorism" 1030:"Symposium: Introduction: the case for critical terrorism studies" 696: 447:

when it was used by the Jacobins to kill known supporters of the

2207: 815: 429: 1535:"The War on Terror in numbers » OWNI.eu, News, Augmented" 866:

Gunning, J (2007a). "A case for critical terrorism studies?".

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There has been a huge amount of academic discussion about the

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Urry, J (2002). "The global complexities of September 11th".

744:

to denote a connection of terrorism and tourist consumption.

94:

Terror and Taboo: The Follies, Fables, and Faces of Terrorism

31:

and politically progressive critical theory to the study of

1503:

State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The north in the south

1560:

Lindsay, Ivo H. Daalder and James M. (1 December 2001).

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from all research, its goal to facilitate the spread of

218:

Critical realism: best approximation to objective world.

1240:

Michel, Torsten; Richards, Anthony (16 November 2009).

687:, military personnel and orthodox terrorism academics. 262:

Study of political terror (violence), state terrorism,

2178:"Consuming dark tourism: A thanatological perspective" 1519:

Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism

1562:"Nasty, Brutish and Long: America's War on Terrorism" 1360:. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. 430:

CTS's main critiques of traditional terrorism studies

2552: 2481: 2314: 2283: 2262: 2241: 1879:Urry, J (2005). "The complexities of the global". 573:Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania 443:The term "terrorism" gained prominence during the 2605:2020s controversies around critical race theory 1385: 1383: 1381: 1379: 1377: 1375: 312:in research, its focus on removing the bias of 1657:"The Obama doctrine: Anti-war or forever war?" 1635:"Sept. 20, 2001 - Bush Declares War on Terror" 822:"Critical terrorism studies – an introduction" 300:Divergences from traditional terrorism studies 2219: 1699: 1697: 1695: 1358:Death squad: The anthropology of state terror 1135: 1133: 1131: 1129: 1127: 1125: 1123: 1121: 988: 986: 984: 982: 980: 978: 553:hijacked four commercial planes and flew them 404:research contributes to the justification of 80:CTS's antecedents lie with academics such as 8: 1330: 1328: 1326: 1324: 1322: 1320: 1318: 1214: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1206: 1204: 1352: 1350: 1194: 1192: 1190: 176:Ontological and epistemological foundations 2311: 2226: 2212: 2204: 1819: 1817: 1651: 1649: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1596: 1594: 1529: 1527: 1513: 1511: 1584: 1582: 1420: 1337:Journal for Crime, Conflict and the Media 1161: 1053: 932: 837: 102:British International Studies Association 1914:Urry, J (2005). "The complexity turn". 1235: 1233: 753: 421:Traditional terrorism studies' response 378:Facilitating the spread of emancipation 57:terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 1762:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 1755: 1633:ConspiracyWorld (September 3, 2010). 660:2010 Times Square car bombing attempt 92:and William Douglass's seminal work, 7: 1609:Journal of International Development 527:. RAND scholars helped to found the 2600:Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory 2042:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1992.tb02758.x 1788:Ethics & International Affairs 957:Jackson, R., ed. (25 April 2016). 14: 1391:Contemporary Debates on Terrorism 691:Creating a narrative of the enemy 181:Two ontological critical theories 67:explanations of terrorists in an 2176:Stone, P.; Sharpley, R. (2008). 1825:"Terror -- America's Archetypes" 1800:10.1111/j.1747-7093.2009.00201.x 1289:Terrorism and Political Violence 880:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2007.00228.x 666:The War on Terror and patriotism 658:'s trial – following his failed 521:Terrorism and Political Violence 1670:Ivan Eland (17 December 1998). 1092:Review of International Studies 493:actors and structures from the 2387:international relations theory 514:, both leading members of the 324:Utilization of critical theory 111:The setting up of the journal 72:dominant terrorism paradigm." 1: 2615:Privilege (social inequality) 2291:Archetypal literary criticism 2163:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.08.002 1916:Theory, Culture & Society 1881:Theory, Culture & Society 1846:Theory, Culture & Society 1460:Critical Studies on Terrorism 1409:Critical Studies on Terrorism 1246:Critical Studies on Terrorism 921:Critical Studies on Terrorism 826:Critical Studies on Terrorism 654:problem. It is noted that at 113:Critical Studies in Terrorism 2194:10.1016/j.annals.2008.02.003 2134:Sather-Wagstaff, J. (2011). 1472:10.1080/17539153.2011.623405 1439:(rev. ed.). London: Vintage. 1154:10.1057/palgrave.eps.2210141 1046:10.1057/palgrave.eps.2210140 1007:10.1057/palgrave.eps.2210142 934:10.1080/17539153.2012.659909 555:into the Twin Towers of the 547: – in association with 98:Writing the War on Terrorism 1858:10.1177/0263276402019004004 629:Counter-insurgency failures 213:Epistemological perspective 39:of critical theory and the 2657: 2270:Outline of critical theory 2182:Annals of Tourism Research 1998:10.5367/000000000101297523 1963:10.1177/004728759903800104 1951:Journal of Travel Research 1142:European Political Science 1034:European Political Science 995:European Political Science 959:Critical Terrorism Studies 594: 569:Arlington County, Virginia 233:Overview of research areas 170:Critical Terrorism Studies 162:Queen's University Belfast 17:Critical terrorism studies 2570:Hermeneutics of suspicion 2069:10.1080/00036840110099252 1706:Anthropological Quarterly 1675:(Foreign policy briefing) 1422:10.1080/17539150701846443 1301:10.1080/09546550500383266 1258:10.1080/17539150903306097 1104:10.1017/s0260210507007371 1076:Ranstorp, M., ed., 2006. 868:Government and Opposition 839:10.1080/17539150701868538 724:human who is victimized. 402:state-sponsored terrorism 2104:10.1177/1206331214543868 1928:10.1177/0263276405057188 1893:10.1177/0263276405057201 1521:. New York: Random House 1505:. London, UK: Routledge. 728:Terrorism and mobilities 683:, weapon suppliers, the 504:Douglas Aircraft Company 439:Definitions of terrorism 138:University of Manchester 961:. Routledge Handbooks. 672:The War of Independence 420: 1393:, Abingdon: Routledge. 525:Conflict and Terrorism 382:When referring to the 357:Removing ethnocentrism 266:and cultural violence. 130:Aberystwyth University 1794:(2): 101–113, 89–90. 1718:10.1353/anq.2002.0002 1501:Blakeley, R. (2009). 608:2003 invasion of Iraq 158:University of Florida 150:Georgetown University 2641:Academic disciplines 2595:Critical rationalism 2407:medical anthropology 1080:. London: Routledge. 1028:Jackson, R (2007a). 168:Handbooks published 35:. With links to the 2327:applied linguistics 2138:. Left Coast Press. 1833:. 8 September 2014. 1435:Pilger, J. (1994). 915:Zulaika, J (2012). 571:, and a field near 472:Religious terrorism 391:Freedom from policy 264:structural violence 45:social construction 27:approach rooted in 2539:Siegfried Kracauer 2464:technical practice 2417:university studies 2402:management studies 2392:language awareness 2357:discourse analysis 2151:Tourism Management 557:World Trade Center 343:post-structuralism 134:University of Kent 41:Aberystwyth School 2623: 2622: 2574:Critical realism 2565:Immanent critique 2560:Binary opposition 2514:Friedrich Pollock 2494:Theodor W. Adorno 2477: 2476: 2469:terrorism studies 2092:Space and Culture 2063:(11): 1335–1343. 2057:Applied Economics 1986:Tourism Economics 1541:on 6 October 2014 1403:Stohl, M (2008). 681:mass surveillance 635:Counter-terrorism 597:The Bush Doctrine 591:The Bush Doctrine 585:Islamic extremism 541:11 September 2001 535:The War on Terror 445:French Revolution 304:CTS differs from 277:counter-terrorism 146:Durham University 29:counter-hegemonic 2648: 2610:Phallogocentrism 2544:Otto Kirchheimer 2449:security studies 2312: 2296:Deconstructivism 2275:Reconstructivism 2249:Frankfurt School 2228: 2221: 2214: 2205: 2198: 2197: 2173: 2167: 2166: 2146: 2140: 2139: 2131: 2125: 2122: 2116: 2115: 2087: 2081: 2080: 2052: 2046: 2045: 2025: 2019: 2016: 2010: 2009: 1981: 1975: 1974: 1946: 1940: 1939: 1911: 1905: 1904: 1876: 1870: 1869: 1841: 1835: 1834: 1821: 1812: 1811: 1783: 1777: 1774: 1768: 1767: 1761: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1743: 1737:. Archived from 1736: 1728: 1722: 1721: 1701: 1690: 1689: 1687: 1685: 1676: 1667: 1661: 1660: 1653: 1644: 1631: 1625: 1624: 1621:10.1002/jid.1264 1604: 1589: 1586: 1577: 1576: 1574: 1572: 1557: 1551: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1537:. Archived from 1531: 1522: 1517:Pape. R. (2005) 1515: 1506: 1499: 1493: 1490: 1484: 1483: 1455: 1449: 1446: 1440: 1433: 1427: 1426: 1424: 1400: 1394: 1387: 1370: 1367: 1361: 1354: 1345: 1344: 1332: 1313: 1312: 1284: 1278: 1277: 1237: 1228: 1225: 1219: 1216: 1199: 1196: 1185: 1182: 1176: 1175: 1165: 1137: 1116: 1115: 1087: 1081: 1074: 1068: 1067: 1057: 1025: 1019: 1018: 990: 973: 972: 954: 948: 945: 939: 938: 936: 912: 906: 903: 892: 891: 863: 852: 851: 841: 817: 790: 787: 647:suicide bombings 639:Targeted killing 637:efforts such as 512:Condoleezza Rice 500:RAND Corporation 142:Otago University 86:Edward S. Herman 37:Frankfurt School 2656: 2655: 2651: 2650: 2649: 2647: 2646: 2645: 2626: 2625: 2624: 2619: 2583:social sciences 2548: 2524:Jürgen Habermas 2504:Walter Benjamin 2489:Herbert Marcuse 2473: 2310: 2306:Technocriticism 2301:New historicism 2279: 2258: 2237: 2235:Critical theory 2232: 2202: 2201: 2175: 2174: 2170: 2157:(35): 263–271. 2148: 2147: 2143: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2119: 2089: 2088: 2084: 2054: 2053: 2049: 2027: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2013: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1913: 1912: 1908: 1878: 1877: 1873: 1843: 1842: 1838: 1823: 1822: 1815: 1785: 1784: 1780: 1775: 1771: 1754: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1734: 1732:"Archived copy" 1730: 1729: 1725: 1703: 1702: 1693: 1683: 1681: 1674: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1655: 1654: 1647: 1632: 1628: 1606: 1605: 1592: 1587: 1580: 1570: 1568: 1559: 1558: 1554: 1544: 1542: 1533: 1532: 1525: 1516: 1509: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1457: 1456: 1452: 1447: 1443: 1434: 1430: 1402: 1401: 1397: 1388: 1373: 1368: 1364: 1355: 1348: 1334: 1333: 1316: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1239: 1238: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1202: 1197: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1139: 1138: 1119: 1089: 1088: 1084: 1075: 1071: 1027: 1026: 1022: 992: 991: 976: 969: 956: 955: 951: 946: 942: 914: 913: 909: 904: 895: 865: 864: 855: 819: 818: 793: 788: 755: 750: 730: 721:Osama bin Laden 693: 668: 631: 617:Osama bin Laden 604:Just war theory 599: 593: 537: 508:Donald Rumsfeld 487: 478:State terrorism 441: 432: 423: 406:state terrorism 393: 380: 367:state-sponsored 363:ethnocentricity 359: 326: 310:critical theory 302: 289:Richard Jackson 273:State terrorism 235: 215: 206:epistemological 183: 178: 122:epistemological 78: 53: 25:critical theory 12: 11: 5: 2654: 2652: 2644: 2643: 2638: 2628: 2627: 2621: 2620: 2618: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2591: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2572: 2567: 2562: 2556: 2554: 2550: 2549: 2547: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2531: 2529:Alfred Schmidt 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2499:Max Horkheimer 2496: 2491: 2485: 2483: 2479: 2478: 2475: 2474: 2472: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2420: 2419: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2382:historiography 2379: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2322:animal studies 2318: 2316: 2309: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2280: 2278: 2277: 2272: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2259: 2257: 2256: 2254:Freudo-Marxism 2251: 2245: 2243: 2239: 2238: 2233: 2231: 2230: 2223: 2216: 2208: 2200: 2199: 2188:(2): 574–595. 2168: 2141: 2126: 2117: 2098:(4): 379–387. 2082: 2047: 2036:(4): 531–554. 2020: 2011: 1992:(2): 123–138. 1976: 1941: 1906: 1887:(5): 235–254. 1871: 1836: 1813: 1778: 1769: 1723: 1712:(1): 138–150. 1691: 1662: 1645: 1626: 1590: 1578: 1552: 1523: 1507: 1494: 1485: 1466:(3): 369–388. 1450: 1441: 1437:Distant Voices 1428: 1395: 1371: 1362: 1346: 1314: 1279: 1252:(3): 399–413. 1229: 1220: 1200: 1186: 1177: 1148:(3): 244–251. 1117: 1082: 1069: 1040:(3): 225–227. 1020: 1001:(3): 252–259. 974: 968:978-0415743761 967: 949: 940: 907: 893: 874:(3): 363–393. 853: 791: 752: 751: 749: 746: 729: 726: 692: 689: 667: 664: 656:Faisal Shahzad 630: 627: 595:Main article: 592: 589: 577:George W. Bush 536: 533: 516:George W. 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