Criticism of the theory of relativity

200:, which was based on a radical new application of the relativity principle in connection with the constancy of the speed of light. In special relativity, the space and time coordinates depend on the inertial observer's frame of reference, and the luminiferous aether plays no role in the physics. Although this theory was founded on a very different kinematical model, it was experimentally indistinguishable from the aether theory of Lorentz and Poincaré, since both theories satisfy the relativity principle of Poincaré and Einstein, and both employ the Lorentz transformations. After Minkowski's introduction in 1908 of the geometric spacetime model for Einstein's version of relativity, most physicists eventually decided in favor of the Einstein-Minkowski version of relativity with its radical new views of space and time, in which there was no useful role for the aether. 227:(1906) introduced new techniques, which (especially in the area of low velocities) gave different results and which cast doubts on Kaufmann's methods. Therefore, Bucherer (1908) conducted new experiments and arrived at the conclusion that they confirm the mass formula of relativity and thus the "relativity principle of Lorentz and Einstein". Yet Bucherer's experiments were criticized by Bestelmeyer leading to a sharp dispute between the two experimentalists. On the other hand, additional experiments of Hupka (1910), Neumann (1914) and others seemed to confirm Bucherer's result. The doubts lasted until 1940, when in similar experiments Abraham's theory was conclusively disproved. (It must be remarked that besides those experiments, the relativistic mass formula had already been confirmed by 1917 in the course of investigations on the theory of spectra. In modern 1179:, a known nationalistic agitator, arranged the first public meeting against relativity in Berlin in 1919. While Lenard and Stark were also known for their nationalistic opinions, they declined to participate in Weyland's rallies, and Weyland's campaign eventually fizzled out due to a lack of prominent speakers. Lenard and others instead responded to Einstein's challenge to his professional critics to debate his theories at the scientific conference held annually at Bad Nauheim. While Einstein's critics, assuming without any real justification that Einstein was behind the activities of the German press in promoting the triumph of relativity, generally avoided antisemitic attacks in their earlier publications, it later became clear to many observers that antisemitism did play a significant role in some of the attacks. 1054:. It was seen as a tendency to abstract theory building, connected with the loss of intuitive "common sense". In fact, relativity was the first theory, in which the inadequacy of the "illustrative" classical physics was thought to have been demonstrated. Some of Einstein's critics ignored these developments and tried to revitalize older theories, such as aether drag models or emission theories (see "Alternative Theories"). However, those qualitative models were never sufficiently advanced to compete with the success of the precise experimental predictions and explanatory powers of the modern theories. Additionally, there was also a great rivalry between experimental and theoretical physicists, as regards the professorial activities and the occupation of chairs at German universities. The opinions clashed at the " 1351:), also some alleged elementary failures of the theory were included; however, as some commented, those failures were due to the authors' misunderstanding of relativity. For example, Hans Reichenbach wrote a report in the entertainment section of a newspaper, describing the book as "a magnificent collection of naive mistakes" and as "unintended droll literature". Albert von Brunn interpreted the book as a pamphlet "of such deplorable impotence as occurring elsewhere only in politics" and "a fallback into the 16th and 17th centuries" and concluded “it can only be hoped that German science will not again be embarrassed by such sad scribblings”, and Einstein said, in response to the book, that if he were wrong, then one author would have been enough. 1078:. Their views were typically characterized by the fact that they practically rejected the entire terminology and the (primarily mathematical) methods of modern science. Their works were published by private publishers, or in popular and non-specialist journals. It was significant for many "free researchers" (especially the monists) to explain all phenomena by intuitive and illustrative mechanical (or electrical) models, which also found its expression in their defense of the aether. For this reason they objected to the abstractness and inscrutability of the relativity theory, which was considered a pure calculation method that cannot reveal the true reasons underlying the phenomena. The "free researchers" often used 742:(1917), who argued that every theory of space and time (even including Newtonian dynamics) can be formulated in a covariant way, if additional parameters are included, and thus general covariance of a theory would in itself be insufficient to implement a generalized relativity principle. Although Einstein (1918) agreed with that argument, he also countered that Newtonian mechanics in general covariant form would be too complicated for practical uses. Although it is now understood that Einstein's response to Kretschmann was mistaken (subsequent papers showed that such a theory would still be usable), another argument can be made in favor of general covariance: it is a natural way to express the 355:. Two signals were sent in opposite directions around a rotating platform. After their arrival a displacement of the interference fringes occurs. Sagnac himself believed that he had proved the existence of the aether. However, special relativity can easily explain this effect. When viewed from an inertial frame of reference, it is a simple consequence of the independence of the speed of light from the speed of the source, since the receiver runs away from one beam, while it approaches the other beam. When viewed from a rotating frame, the assessment of simultaneity changes during the rotation, and consequently the speed of light is not constant in accelerated frames. 219:(1904) developed another model, in which the electron is contracted in the line of motion, and dilated in the transverse direction, so that the volume remains constant. While Kaufmann was still evaluating his experiments, Einstein published his theory of special relativity. Eventually, Kaufmann published his results in December 1905 and argued that they are in agreement with Abraham's theory and require rejection of the "basic assumption of Lorentz and Einstein" (the relativity principle). Lorentz reacted with the phrase "I am at the end of my Latin", while Einstein did not mention those experiments before 1908. Yet, others started to criticize the experiments. 1022:, which caused a popular "relativity hype" ("Relativitätsrummel", as it was called by Sommerfeld, Einstein, and others). This triggered a counter-reaction of some scientists and scientific laymen who could not accept the concepts of modern physics, including relativity theory and quantum mechanics. The ensuing public controversy regarding the scientific status of Einstein's theory of gravity, which was unprecedented, was partly carried out in the press. Some of the criticism was not only directed to relativity, but personally at Einstein as well, who some of his critics accused of being behind the promotional campaign in the German press. 971:(1921) and others claimed that the foundations of relativity were only fictitious and even self-contradictory. Examples were the constancy of the speed of light, time dilation, length contraction. These effects appear to be mathematically consistent as a whole, but in reality they allegedly are not true. Yet, this view was immediately rejected. The foundations of relativity (such as the equivalence principle or the relativity principle) are not fictitious, but based on experimental results. Also, effects like constancy of the speed of light and relativity of simultaneity are not contradictory, but complementary to one another. 1374:) were present—but a reaction of an inadequately educated academic citizenship, which did not know what to do with relativity. As regards the average age of the authors: 57% were substantially older than Einstein, one third was around the same age, and only two persons were substantially younger. Two authors (Reuterdahl, von Mitis) were antisemitic and four others were possibly connected to the Nazi movement. On the other hand, no antisemitic expression can be found in the book, and it also included contributions of some authors of Jewish ancestry (Salomo Friedländer, Ludwig Goldschmidt, Hans Israel, 1432:) they were rarely accepted for publication in reputable scientific journals (except for a few articles by, say, Mansuripur and Javanshiry regarding some paradoxes in the definition of, respectively, the Lorentz force and force (general form) in special relativity). Just as in the 1920s, most critical works are published in small publication houses, alternative journals (like "Apeiron" or "Galilean Electrodynamics"), or private websites. Consequently, where criticism of relativity has been dealt with by the scientific community, it has mostly been in historical studies. 1240:

physics, while Einstein himself was to be personally discredited. It was argued by Einstein's supporters that such personal accusations were unwarranted, since the physical content and the applicability of former theories were quite different from Einstein's theory of relativity. However, others argued that between them Poincaré and Lorentz had earlier published several of the core elements of Einstein's 1905 relativity paper, including a generalized relativity principle that was intended by Poincaré to apply to all physics. Some examples:

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basics of relativity; consequently, the participants of the discussions were talking past each other. In fact, the theory that was criticized by them was not relativity at all, but rather a caricature of it. The "free researchers" were mostly ignored by the scientific community, but also, in time, respected physicists such as Lenard and Gehrcke found themselves in a position outside the scientific community. However, the critics didn't believe that this was due to their incorrect theories, but rather due to a

783:. Lenard also argued that Einstein's general theory of relativity admits the existence of superluminal velocities, in contradiction to the principles of special relativity; for example, in a rotating coordinate system in which the Earth is at rest, the distant points of the whole universe are rotating around Earth with superluminal velocities. However, as Weyl pointed out, it is incorrect to handle a rotating extended system as a rigid body (neither in special nor in general relativity)—so the 1082:, in which gravity is caused by some sort of "aether pressure" or "mass pressure from a distance". Such models were regarded as an illustrative alternative to the abstract mathematical theories of gravitation of both Newton and Einstein. The enormous self-confidence of the "free researchers" is noteworthy, since they not only believed themselves to have solved the great riddles of the world, but many also seemed to expect that they would rapidly convince the scientific community. 886:, it was claimed that space-time curvature caused by matter and energy is impossible, since matter and energy already require the concepts of space and time. Also the three-dimensionality of space, Euclidean geometry, and the existence of absolute simultaneity were claimed to be necessary for the understanding of the world; none of them can possibly be altered by empirical findings. By moving all those concepts into a metaphysical area, any form of criticism of 933:, and Reichenbach. They argued that Poincaré's conventionalism could be modified to bring it into accord with relativity. Although it is true that the basic assumptions of Newtonian mechanics are simpler, it can only be brought into accord with modern experiments by inventing auxiliary hypotheses. On the other hand, relativity doesn't need such hypotheses, thus from a conceptual viewpoint, relativity is in fact simpler than Newtonian mechanics. 1199:(1922) and murder threats against Einstein, he left Berlin for some time. Gehrcke's book on "The mass suggestion of relativity theory" (1924) was not antisemitic itself, but it was praised by the far-right press as describing an alleged typical Jewish behavior, which was also imputed to Einstein personally. Philipp Lenard in 1922 spoke about the "foreign spirit" as the foundation of relativity, and afterward he joined the 410:. So the clock-synchronization by light signals could in principle be replaced by a clock-synchronization by instantaneous gravitational signals. In 1905, Poincaré himself solved this problem by showing that in a relativistic theory of gravity the speed of gravity is equal to the speed of light. Although much more complicated, this is also the case in Einstein's theory of 750:, the equivalence in the description of a free-falling observer and an observer at rest, and thus it is more convenient to use general covariance together with general relativity, rather than with Newtonian mechanics. Connected with this, also the question of absolute motion was dealt with. Einstein argued that the general covariance of his theory of gravity supports 796:, one can think of these gravitational fields as induced by the distant masses. In this respect the criticism of Lenard and Mie has been vindicated, since according to the modern consensus, in agreement with Einstein's own mature views, Mach's principle as originally conceived by Einstein is not actually supported by general relativity, as already mentioned above. 843:. However, this is misleading as it was emphasized by Einstein or Planck. On one hand it's true that space and time became relative, and the inertial frames of reference are handled on equal footing. On the other hand, the theory makes natural laws invariant—examples are the constancy of the speed of light, or the covariance of Maxwell's equations. Consequently, 192:") holding the electron together can be formulated in a Lorentz covariant way, and showed that in principle it is possible to create a Lorentz covariant model for gravitation which he considered non-electromagnetic in nature as well. Thus the consistency of Lorentz's theory was proven, but the electromagnetic worldview had to be given up. Eventually, 24: 1258:(1898) published a formula for the perihelion advance of Mercury, which was formally identical to an approximate solution given by Einstein. However, since Einstein's formula was only an approximation, the solutions are not identical. In addition, Gerber's derivation has no connection with General relativity and was even regarded as meaningless. 620:(1920) as a counter-model of relativity. In this theory, the aether was completely dragged within and in the vicinity of matter, and it was believed that various phenomena, such as the absence of aether drift, could be explained in an "illustrative" way by this model. However, such theories are subject to great difficulties. Especially the 1304:

Some contemporary historians of science have revived the question as to whether Einstein was possibly influenced by the ideas of Poincaré, who first stated the relativity principle and applied it to electrodynamics, developing interpretations and modifications of Lorentz's electron theory that appear

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Reacting to this underlying mood, Einstein himself openly speculated in a newspaper article that in addition to insufficient knowledge of theoretical physics, antisemitism at least partly motivated their criticisms. Some critics, including Weyland, reacted angrily and claimed that such accusations of

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etc., who led many discussions with critics in semi-popular journals and newspapers. However, most of these discussions failed from the start. Physicists like Gehrcke, some philosophers, and the "free researchers" were so obsessed with their own ideas and prejudices that they were unable to grasp the

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concerned the existence of "fictitious" gravitational fields in accelerating frames, which according to Einstein's Equivalence Principle are no less physically real than those produced by material sources. Lenard and Mie argued that physical forces can only be produced by real material sources, while

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Criticizing Lorentz's 1904 theory, Abraham (1904) held that the Lorentz contraction of electrons requires a non-electromagnetic force to ensure the electron's stability. This was unacceptable to him as a proponent of the electromagnetic worldview. He continued that as long as a consistent explanation

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anisotropy as "New Aether drift experiments". Smoot explained that "one problem to overcome was the strong prejudice of good scientists who learned the lesson of the Michelson and Morley experiment and Special Relativity that there were no preferred frames of reference." He continued that "there was

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is slightly faster than the speed of light. However, sources of errors were found and confirmed in 2012 by the OPERA collaboration, which fully explained the initial results. In their final publication, a neutrino speed consistent with the speed of light was stated. Also subsequent experiments found

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Some of Einstein's critics, like Lenard, Gehrcke and Reuterdahl, accused him of plagiarism, and questioned his priority claims to the authorship of relativity theory. The thrust of such allegations was to promote more traditional alternatives to Einstein's abstract hypothetico-deductive approach to

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at the end of the 1950s. However, the self-consistency of the reciprocity of time dilation had already been demonstrated long before in an illustrative way by Lorentz (in his lectures from 1910, published 1931) and many others—they alluded to the fact that it is only necessary to carefully consider

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can be completely resolved by consideration of acceleration in special relativity. If two twins move away from each other, and one of them is accelerating and coming back to the other, then the accelerated twin is younger than the other one, since he was located in at least two inertial frames of

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to collect over 5000 newspaper clippings which were related to relativity, and published his findings in a book. However, Gehrcke's claims were rejected, because the simple existence of the "relativity hype" says nothing about the validity of the theory, and thus it cannot be used for or against

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of reference, as in the aether-based theories of Lorentz, Larmor, and Poincaré. However, the idea of an aether hidden from any observation was not supported by the mainstream scientific community, therefore the aether theory of Lorentz and Poincaré was superseded by Einstein's special relativity

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pointed out that Miller had not appropriately considered the influence of temperature. A modern analysis by Roberts shows that Miller's experiment gives a null result, when the technical shortcomings of the apparatus and the error bars are properly considered. Additionally, Miller's result is in

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However, this does not mean that there is no further development in modern physics. The progress of technology over time has led to extremely precise ways of testing the predictions of relativity, and so far it has successfully passed all tests (such as in particle accelerators to test special

1300:(1901) developed a philosophical "space-time" model in which time plays the role of an imaginary fourth dimension. Palágyi's model was only a reformulation of Newtonian physics, and had no connection to electromagnetic theory, the relativity principle, or to the constancy of the speed of light. 758:

in 1916, Mach's principle is not completely fulfilled in general relativity because there exist matter-free solutions of the field equations. This means that the "inertio-gravitational field", which describes both gravity and inertia, can exist in the absence of gravitating matter. However, as

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regarded relativity as the product of the "too formal and abstract" German spirit, which was in conflict with the "common sense". Similarly, popular criticism in the Soviet Union and China, which partly was politically organized, rejected the theory not because of factual objections, but as

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of the initial experiment. However, in 1921–1926, Miller conducted new experiments which apparently gave positive results. Those experiments initially attracted some attention in the media and in the scientific community but have been considered refuted for the following reasons: Einstein,

775:" had changed in time, so it could no longer be used as a criterion for the validity of a physical theory. Lenard also argued that with his relativistic theory of gravity Einstein had tacitly reintroduced the aether under the name "space". While this charge was rejected (among others) by 1061:

In addition, there were many critics (with or without physical training) whose ideas were far outside the scientific mainstream. These critics were mostly people who had developed their ideas long before the publication of Einstein's version of relativity, and they tried to resolve in a

1335:), published in 1931. It contains very short texts from 28 authors, and excerpts from the publications of another 19 authors. The rest consists of a list that also includes people who only for some time were opposed to relativity. From among Einstein's concepts the most targeted one is 374:, and the resultant curvature of the path of light led Einstein (1912) to the conclusion that (like in extended accelerated frames) the speed of light is not constant in extended gravitational fields. Therefore, Abraham (1912) argued that Einstein had given special relativity a 1251:

in the vicinity of celestial bodies, long before Einstein's prediction which was based on general relativity. However, Soldner's derivation has nothing to do with Einstein's, since it was fully based on Newton's theory, and only gave half of the value as predicted by general

771:, the latter stated the following objections: He criticized the lack of "illustrativeness" of Einstein's version of relativity, a condition that he suggested could only be met by an aether theory. Einstein responded that for physicists the content of "illustrativeness" or " 184:. However, Lorentz's theory only partially satisfied the relativity principle, because his transformation formulas for velocity and charge density were incorrect. This was corrected by Poincaré (1905) who obtained full Lorentz covariance of the electrodynamic equations. 779:, in an inaugural address given at the University of Leiden in 1920, shortly after the Bad Nauheim debates, Einstein himself acknowledged that according to his general theory of relativity, so-called "empty space" possesses physical properties that influence matter and 188:

is missing as to how those forces and potentials act together on the electron, Lorentz's system of hypotheses is incomplete and doesn't satisfy the relativity principle. Poincaré (1905) removed this objection by showing that the non-electromagnetic potential ("

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It was also claimed that special relativity cannot handle acceleration, which would lead to contradictions in some situations. However, this assessment is not correct, since acceleration actually can be described in the framework of special relativity (see

452:(denoted by Einstein as "spooky action at a distance"), according to which the quantum state of one entangled particle cannot be fully described without describing the other particle, does not imply superluminal transmission of information (see 144:(1902) subsequently sketched a theoretical explanation of Kaufmann's result in which the electron was considered as rigid and spherical. However, it was found that this model was incompatible with the results of many experiments (including the 1358:, and the feelings of the critics of being suppressed by contemporary physicists advocating the new theory. The compilation of the authors show, Goenner continues, that this was not a reaction within the physics community—only one physicist ( 921:(1920) argued that the classical concepts of space, time, and geometry were, and will always be, the most convenient expressions in natural science, therefore the concepts of relativity cannot be correct. This was criticized by proponents of 1107:

as well), which allegedly tried to put down the critics, and to preserve and improve their own positions within the academic world. For example, Gehrcke (1920/24) held that the propagation of relativity is a product of some sort of mass

839:. Many philosophical critics had insufficient knowledge of the mathematical and formal basis of relativity, which led to the criticisms often missing the heart of the matter. For example, relativity was misinterpreted as some form of 1085:

Since Einstein rarely defended himself against these attacks, this task was undertaken by other relativity theoreticians, who (according to Hentschel) formed some sort of "defensive belt" around Einstein. Some representatives were

1006:, and although special relativity was accepted by most of the theoretical physicists and mathematicians by 1911, it was not before publication of the experimental results of the eclipse expeditions (1919) by a group around 378:. Einstein responded that within its area of application (in areas where gravitational influences can be neglected) special relativity is still applicable with high precision, so one cannot speak of a coup de grâce at all. 110:

objections to Einstein's Jewish heritage also occasionally played a role in these objections. There are still some critics of relativity today, but their opinions are not shared by the majority in the scientific community.

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Bucherer, A. H. (1908), "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der Lorentz-Einsteinschen Theorie. (Measurements of Becquerel rays. The Experimental Confirmation of the Lorentz-Einstein Theory)",

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ancestry of some leading relativity proponents such as Einstein and Minkowski made them targets of racially minded critics, although many of Einstein's German critics did not show evidence of such motives. The engineer

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pointed out by Einstein, there is one fundamental difference between this concept and absolute space of Newton: the inertio-gravitational field of general relativity is determined by matter, thus it is not absolute.

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for the development of general relativity, and took the position that the general covariance of his 1915 theory of gravity ensured implementation of a generalized relativity principle. This view was challenged by

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of light. As in special relativity the aether concept is discarded, yet the main difference from relativity lies in the fact that the velocity of the light source is added to that of light in accordance with the

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should be scrambled according to this model—which was not observed. Also in modern experiments in particle accelerators no such velocity dependence could be observed. These results are further confirmed by the

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straightforward manner some or all of the enigmas of the world. Therefore, Wazeck (who studied some German examples) gave to these "free researchers" the name "world riddle solver" ("Welträtsellöser", such as

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antisemitism were only made to force the critics into silence. However, subsequently Weyland, Lenard, Stark and others clearly showed their antisemitic biases by beginning to combine their criticisms with

5423: 847:(1910) called it the "invariant theory of the Lorentz group" instead of relativity theory, and Einstein (who reportedly used expressions like "absolute theory") sympathized with this expression as well. 5830:(This paper is only partly to be considered as critical, since the question after the validity of the relativity principle remained undecided. It was Poincaré himself, who solved many problems in 1905.) 211:: To conclusively decide between the theories of Abraham and Lorentz, Kaufmann repeated his experiments in 1905 with improved accuracy. However, in the meantime the theoretical situation had changed. 337:(1911) showed that rigid bodies cannot exist in special relativity, since the propagation of signals cannot exceed the speed of light, so an accelerating and rotating body will undergo deformations. 176:) that was premised on the existence of an immobile aether and employed a set of space and time coordinate transformations that Poincaré called the Lorentz transformations, including the effects of 640:. As the hypothesis of complete aether drag, it can explain the negative outcome of all aether drift experiments. Yet, there are various experiments that contradict this theory. For example, the 1227:

and others. For example, Müller erroneously claimed that relativity was a purely "Jewish affair" and it would correspond to the "Jewish essence" etc., while Thüring made comparisons between the

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Reasons for criticism of the theory of relativity have included alternative theories, rejection of the abstract-mathematical method, and alleged errors of the theory. According to some authors,

329:(1909), who demonstrated that a rotating rigid body would, according to Born's definition, undergo a contraction of the circumference without contraction of the radius, which is impossible ( 807:, who initially was a supporter of the special theory, objected at different occasions against general relativity. In 1920 he argued that the deflection of light by the sun, as observed by 5326: 624:

contradicted the theory, and all auxiliary hypotheses, which were invented to rescue it, are self-contradictory, extremely implausible, or in contradiction to other experiments like the

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Also attempts to introduce some sort of relativistic aether (consistent with relativity) into modern physics such as by Einstein on the basis of general relativity (1920), or by

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reference, and therefore his assessment of which events are simultaneous changed during the acceleration. For the other twin nothing changes since he remained in a single frame.

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argued that it might be possible to experimentally determine the motion of such an aether, but it was never found despite numerous experimental tests of Lorentz invariance (see

362:. Einstein was also unsatisfied with the fact that inertial frames are preferred over accelerated frames. Thus over the course of several years (1908–1915), Einstein developed 1621: 1272:. As Voigt himself acknowledged, his theory was not based on electromagnetic theory, but on an elastic aether model. His transformation also violates the relativity principle. 140:(1901–1903), who measured an increase of the mass of a body with velocity which was consistent with the hypothesis that the mass was generated by its electromagnetic field. 874:

etc.). While some of them only rejected the philosophical consequences, others rejected also the physical consequences of the theory. Einstein was criticized for violating

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that relativity was noticed by the public. Following Eddington's publication of the eclipse results, Einstein was glowingly praised in the mass media, and was compared to

5656:"Vorbemerkung zu Soldners "Über die Ablenkung eines Lichtstrahls von seiner geradlinigen Bewegung durch die Attraktion eines Weltkörpers, an welchem er nahe vorbeigeht";" 2576:

Goenner, Hubert (1993b). "The reaction to relativity theory in Germany III. Hundred Authors against Einstein". In Earman, John; Janssen, Michel; Norton, John D. (eds.).

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an education job to convince them that this did not violate Special Relativity but did find a frame in which the expansion of the universe looked particularly simple."

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and others. Biological organisms consist of physical processes, so there is no reason to assume that they are not subject to relativistic effects like time dilation.

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The theory of relativity is considered to be self-consistent, is consistent with many experimental results, and serves as the basis of many successful theories like

628:. In summary, a sound mathematical and physical model of complete aether drag was never invented, consequently this theory was no serious alternative to relativity. 5992: 956:

cannot be applied to biological organisms, therefore he denied the relativistic solution of the twin paradox. However, those claims were rejected by Paul Langevin,

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Havas, P. (1993). "The General-Relativistic Two-Body Problem and the Einstein-Silberstein Controversy". In Earman, John; Janssen, Michel; Norton, John D. (eds.).

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the gravitational field that Einstein supposed to exist in an accelerating frame of reference has no concrete physical meaning. Einstein responded that, based on

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relativity, and by astronomical observations to test general relativity). In addition, in the theoretical field there is continuing research intended to

625: 5985:

The Newspaper clippings and works collected by Gehrcke and Reuterdahl form an important basis for historic research on the criticism of relativity;

948:(in German speaking countries) argued that there is a fundamental difference between physical, biological and psychological phenomena. For example, 403: 260:(1930) used an apparatus of similar dimensions to Miller's, but he obtained null results. In recent experiments of Michelson–Morley type where the 2815: 1428:) has not been taken seriously by the scientific community, and due to the lack of quality of many critical publications (found in the process of 306: 1162:

Shortly before and during World War I, there appeared some nationalistically motivated criticisms of relativity and modern physics. For example,

1211:, which only accepted scientific knowledge based on experiments, and only if accessible to the senses. According to Lenard (1936), this is the " 1079: 820: 4006: 3304: 5738: 5483: 5455: 5395: 4231: 3344: 3325: 3289: 3265: 3246: 3223: 3165: 3124: 3082: 3059: 2946: 2876: 2841: 2804: 2687: 2668: 2608: 2589: 2458: 1837: 1728: 1691: 1497: 592: 6005: 4733:

Planck, Max (1906b), "Die Kaufmannschen Messungen der Ablenkbarkeit der β-Strahlen in ihrer Bedeutung für die Dynamik der Elektronen" [

3177: 4734: 657:. (1963);, which all show that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the source within the limits of experimental accuracy. 1305:

to have anticipated what is now called special relativity. Another discussion concerns a possible mutual influence between Einstein and

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Insufficient knowledge of the basics of special relativity, especially the application of the Lorentz transformation in connection with

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Silberstein, Ludwik (1936). "Two-Centers Solution of the Gravitational Field Equations, and the Need for a Reformed Theory of Matter".

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Javanshiry, M. (2021), "The Mechanical Behavior of a Multispring System Revealing Absurdity in the Relativistic Force Transformation",

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Interpretationen und Fehlinterpretationen der speziellen und der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie durch Zeitgenossen Albert Einsteins

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Mansuripur, M. (2012), "Trouble with the Lorentz Law of Force: Incompatibility with Special Relativity and Momentum Conservation",

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which is never faster than the speed of light. Similarly, it is also argued that the apparent superluminal effects discovered by

321:). Paradoxes relying on insufficient understanding of these facts were discovered in the early years of relativity. For example, 1219:" as opposed to the alleged formal-dogmatic "Jewish physics". Additional antisemitic criticisms can be found in the writings of 701: 145: 3214:

Vizgin, V. P.; Gorelik G. E. (1987). "The Reception of the Theory of Relativity in Russia and the USSR". In Glick, T.F. (ed.).

6037: 5418: 2965: 310: 289: 325:(1909) tried to combine the concept of rigid bodies with special relativity. That this model was insufficient was shown by 6047: 6027: 5898: 4143: 1559:

Alväger, T.; Nilsson, A.; Kjellman, J. (1963), "A Direct Terrestrial Test of the Second Postulate of Special Relativity",

1467: 1220: 983: 898:(1920), tried to modify Kant's philosophy. Subsequently, Reichenbach rejected Kantianism at all and became a proponent of 836: 831:

The consequences of relativity, such as the change of ordinary concepts of space and time, as well as the introduction of

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Around the end of the 19th century, the view was widespread that all forces in nature are of electromagnetic origin (the "

153: 4187: 4066: 1133: 690: 632: 4352:"Uber den physikalischen Sinn der Relativitätspostulate. A. Einsteins neue und seine ursprüngliche Relativitätstheorie" 3137: 1291: 716:

Note that measurements regarding the speed of light are actually measurements of the two-way speed of light, since the

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and other experiments (see "Alternative theories"). In 1935, Silberstein claimed to have found a contradiction in the

653:(1913), conclusively repeated in the X-ray spectrum by K. Brecher in 1977; and the terrestrial experiment by Alväger, 566: 137: 4387: 2888:"The Reception of Miller's Ether-Drift Experiments in the USA: The History of a Controversy in Relativity Revolution" 978:. The theory of relativity was rejected as anti-materialistic and speculative, and a mechanistic worldview based on " 506: 484:

and their explanation were already mentioned above. Besides the twin paradox, also the reciprocity of time dilation (

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As was shown by Einstein, the only form of accelerated motion that cannot be non-locally described is the one due to

41: 34: 1698: 3074: 2868: 2814:

Kleinert, Andreas (1979). "Nationalistische und antisemitische ressentiments von wissenschaftlern gegen Einstein".

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Thüring, Bruno (1941). "Albert Einsteins Umsturzversuch der Physik und seine inneren Möglichkeiten und Ursachen".

5757:

Miller, Dayton C. (1933). "The Ether-Drift Experiment and the Determination of the Absolute Motion of the Earth".

4735:

The Measurements of Kaufmann on the Deflectability of β-Rays in their Importance for the Dynamics of the Electrons

1046:

and others criticized the increasing abstraction and mathematization of modern physics, especially in the form of

488:

every inertially moving observer considers the clock of the other one as being dilated) was heavily criticized by

4890:

Sommerfeld, Arnold (1907). "Ein Einwand gegen die Relativtheorie der Elektrodynamik und seine Beseitigung" [

1039: 4884: 2547:

Goenner, Hubert (1993a). "The reaction to relativity theory I: the Anti-Einstein campaign in Germany in 1920".

1310: 1244: 1113: 1007: 670: 526: 391: 6042: 5343: 4686:

Michelson, A. A.; Gale, Henry G. (1925). "The Effect of the Earth's Rotation on the Velocity of Light, II".

3051: 1405: 1030:

Some academic scientists, especially experimental physicists such as the Nobel laureates Philipp Lenard and

637: 542: 530: 165: 4456:"Die Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der Gravitation. Bemerkungen zur gleichnamigen Abhandlung von P. Gerber" 2471:(1993). "A misunderstood rebellion: The twin-paradox controversy and Herbert Dingle's vision of science". 1275: 1269: 832: 717: 605: 371: 169: 5796:

Die Einsteinsche Relativitätstheorie und ihr mathematischer, physikalischer und philosophischer Charakter

4940: 1383: 1354:

According to Goenner, the contributions to the book are a mixture of mathematical–physical incompetence,

1297: 1170:

So in those countries, the Germans or the Western civilization were the enemies. However, in Germany the

1148:

were also members. The alliance disappeared as early as the mid-1920s in Germany and by 1930 in the USA.

811:

et al. (1919), is not necessarily a confirmation of general relativity, but may also be explained by the

5698:"Relativitätstheorie und Relativismus. Betrachtungen über Relativitätstheorie, Logik und Phänomenologie" 2450: 1294:

goes much further, since it is derived from the relativity principle and applies to all forms of energy.

1141: 1136:

and as well as Gehrcke and Mohorovičić in Germany. It is unknown whether other American critics such as

1121: 1003: 975: 743: 609: 453: 2847: 1448:. Some variations of those models also predict violations of Lorentz invariance on a very small scale. 1191:

emphasized the alleged negative consequences of the "Jewish spirit" within relativity physics, and the

5595:"Fiktion und Hypothese in der Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie. Erkenntnistheoretische Betrachtungen" 1125: 673:(1910) and others, the constancy of the speed of light can be interpreted as a natural consequence of 5927: 5888: 5766: 5667: 5574: 5506: 5435: 5355: 4969: 4920: 4806: 4759: 4695: 4637: 4602: 4557: 4512: 4467: 4363: 4317: 4288: 4202: 4158: 4131: 4081: 4021: 3992: 3951: 3905: 3890: 3860: 3805: 3772: 3186: 3096: 3015: 2974: 2933:

Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911)

2821: 2511: 2480: 1763: 1568: 1525: 1445: 1437: 1279: 449: 399: 228: 189: 173: 125: 100: 1058:

debates" in 1920 between Einstein and (among others) Lenard, which attracted much public attention.

787:

of an object never exceeds the speed of light. Another criticism that was raised by both Lenard and

754:, which would eliminate any "absolute motion" within general relativity. However, as pointed out by 4045: 1011: 987: 816: 793: 751: 709: 621: 577: 550: 538: 422: 314: 252: 157: 4243: 2938: 6002: 5852: 5782: 5717: 5614: 4959: 4863: 4830: 4775: 4627: 4590:"Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light" 4575: 4547: 4174: 4037: 3876: 3850: 3763: 3202: 3031: 2990: 2907: 2722: 2564: 2535: 1753: 1631: 1626: 1586: 1541: 1363: 1192: 974:

In the Soviet Union (mostly in the 1920s), philosophical criticism was expressed on the basis of

937: 922: 899: 804: 734: 613: 465: 411: 367: 363: 197: 177: 83:

was mainly expressed in the early years after its publication in the early twentieth century, on

5474:

Friedlaender, Salomo (2005) . "Kant gegen Einstein". In Geerken, Hartmut; Thiel, Detlef (eds.).

4789: 1095: 957: 4437:

Laue, Max von (1911), "Zur Diskussion über den starren Körper in der Relativitätstheorie" [

3938: 3069:

Paty, Michel (1987). "The scientific reception of relativity in France". In Glick, T.F. (ed.).

558:

which was subsequently formulated in the framework of four-dimensional spacetime by Minkowski.

5988: 5734: 5528:

Kritik der Relativitätstheorie : Gesammelte Schriften über absolute und relative Bewegung

5479: 5451: 5391: 4997: 4716:

Planck, Max (1906a), "Das Prinzip der Relativität und die Grundgleichungen der Mechanik" [

4665: 3841: 3340: 3321: 3285: 3261: 3242: 3219: 3161: 3120: 3078: 3055: 2942: 2872: 2837: 2800: 2772: 2760: 2714: 2683: 2664: 2631: 2626: 2604: 2585: 2527: 2454: 1844: 1833: 1779: 1724: 1687: 1493: 1287: 1137: 1100: 1051: 1047: 906: 739: 481: 430: 426: 387: 330: 224: 164:(1902) conjectured that this failure arose from a general law of nature, which he called "the 161: 3258:

Einsteins Gegner: Die öffentliche Kontroverse um die Relativitätstheorie in den 1920er Jahren

1504: 576:

in relation to quantum mechanics (1951), were not supported by the scientific community (see

256:

disagreement with all other experiments, which were conducted before and after. For example,

5935: 5844: 5774: 5709: 5675: 5606: 5582: 5514: 5363: 4987: 4977: 4928: 4822: 4814: 4767: 4703: 4655: 4645: 4565: 4520: 4475: 4371: 4325: 4296: 4218: 4210: 4166: 4099: 4089: 4029: 3913: 3868: 3813: 3780: 3194: 3023: 2982: 2899: 2829: 2764: 2706: 2656: 2556: 2519: 2488: 1806: 1771: 1662: 1576: 1533: 1425: 1283: 1224: 1196: 1129: 1091: 1063: 1043: 895: 812: 808: 755: 546: 493: 407: 375: 318: 280: 261: 239: 1440:, between which a fundamental incompatibility still remains. The most promising models are 99:

bases. Though some of these criticisms had the support of reputable scientists, Einstein's

6009: 5876: 5494: 5417: 4908: 4455: 4351: 3896: 3793: 3175:

Swenson, Loyd S. (1970). "The Michelson-Morley-Miller Experiments before and after 1905".

2796: 1710: 1604: 1208: 1188: 1157: 1015: 1002:

Although Planck already in 1909 compared the changes brought about by relativity with the

910: 879: 784: 588: 562: 554: 518: 434: 212: 193: 80: 5865: 5697: 5594: 4874: 4421: 4404: 3926: 2650: 442: 5931: 5892: 5804: 5770: 5671: 5578: 5510: 5439: 5406: 5359: 4973: 4924: 4810: 4763: 4699: 4641: 4606: 4561: 4516: 4471: 4367: 4321: 4292: 4206: 4162: 4135: 4085: 4025: 3996: 3955: 3909: 3864: 3809: 3776: 3758: 3282:

Einstein's Opponents: The Public Controversy about the Theory of Relativity in the 1920s

3190: 3019: 2978: 2958:"General Covariance and the Foundations of General Relativity: Eight Decades of Dispute" 2825: 2753:"'No Success like Failure ...': Einstein's Quest for General Relativity, 1907–1920" 2515: 2484: 1767: 1572: 1529: 990:. (On the other hand, other philosophers considered relativity as being compatible with 5537:

Die Massensuggestion der Relativitätstheorie: Kulturhistorisch-psychologische Dokumente

5376: 4992: 4947: 4660: 4615: 4570: 4533: 4488: 3235: 3092: 2931: 2789: 2502: 1516:

Brecher, K. (1977), "Is the speed of light independent of the velocity of the source",

1462: 1421: 1409: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1340: 1261: 1204: 1066:, Hermann Fricke or Johann Heinrich Ziegler). Their views had quite different roots in 1031: 926: 891: 851: 768: 644:

is based on the independence of light speed from the source velocity, and the image of

617: 502: 489: 438: 418: 326: 45: 3872: 2923: 2919: 509:, which also can simply be solved by consideration of the relativity of simultaneity. 6021: 5856: 5721: 5618: 4834: 4383: 4178: 3206: 2994: 2986: 2911: 2581: 2568: 2492: 2443: 1441: 1417: 1306: 1145: 1035: 953: 949: 930: 875: 871: 641: 534: 469: 352: 340: 235: 223:(1906) alluded to inconsistencies in the theoretical interpretation of the data, and 216: 129: 88: 5905:

Silberstein, Ludwik (1920). "The Recent Eclipse Results and Stokes-Planck's Æther".

5818: 4826: 4779: 3880: 3035: 3003: 2752: 2735: 2726: 2539: 1545: 553:, and preferred to interpret the Lorentz transformation based on the existence of a 5786: 4885:

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Anisotropies: Their Discovery and Utilization

4579: 4108: 4041: 3043: 2957: 1775: 1720: 1590: 1176: 1163: 1124:. One of them was the "Academy of Nations", which was founded in 1921 in the US by 1087: 1071: 1019: 979: 964: 918: 914: 867: 776: 772: 522: 477: 344: 334: 133: 107: 5344:"Relativität und Gravitation. Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung des Herrn A. Einstein" 4279:

Einstein, Albert; Rosen, Nathan (1936). "Two-Body Problem in General Relativity".

3917: 2736:"From classical to relativistic mechanics: Electromagnetic models of the electron" 3889: 2903: 2768: 1827: 1714: 1681: 1666: 1487: 1347:, with other concepts following. Besides philosophic objections (mostly based on 5637: 4253: 4116: 2468: 1537: 1429: 1413: 1379: 1359: 1255: 1216: 1055: 968: 859: 855: 844: 645: 584: 359: 243: 141: 40:

The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of

4222: 3981:"On the relativity of inertia. Remarks concerning Einstein's latest hypothesis" 3198: 3004:"Einstein's Investigations of Galilean Covariant Electrodynamics prior to 1905" 5848: 3027: 2560: 1348: 1336: 1200: 887: 840: 788: 573: 257: 220: 92: 5778: 5679: 5586: 5518: 5367: 4932: 4524: 4501:"Erwiderung auf Hrn. Lenards Vorbemerkungen zur Soldnerschen Arbeit von 1801" 4479: 4375: 4300: 4214: 4170: 4094: 3817: 3784: 2833: 2500:

Darrigol, Olivier (2004). "The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincaré Connection".

1120:

Afterward, some critics tried to improve their positions by the formation of

1075: 815:

of complete aether drag. However, such models are in contradiction with the

395: 5939: 5001: 4669: 4144:"Relativität und Gravitation. Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung von M. Abraham" 3937: 3759:"Die Theorie des starren Körpers in der Kinematik des Relativitätsprinzips" 2718: 2531: 1811: 1783: 4117:"Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen" 982:" was required as an alternative. Similar criticisms also occurred in the 5947:

Stark, Johannes; Müller, Wilhelm (1941). "Jüdische und Deutsche Physik".

4788: 1212: 1109: 952:(1921), who otherwise was a proponent of special relativity, argued that 941: 835:

in general relativity, were criticized by some philosophers of different

445:

can be explained by a thorough consideration of the velocities involved.

322: 284: 248: 96: 4982: 4867: 4650: 5713: 5610: 4818: 4771: 4589: 2660: 991: 767:

In the "Bad Nauheim Debate" (1920) between Einstein and (among others)

473: 160:("aether drift") had been observed despite numerous attempts to do so. 84: 5991:. Over 2700 newspaper articles collected by Gehrcke, digitized at the 5325:

Abraham, Max (1904). "Die Grundhypothesen der Elektronentheorie" [

4964: 4718:

The Principle of Relativity and the Fundamental Equations of Mechanics

4632: 4329: 4103: 3855: 1581: 850:

Critical responses to relativity were also expressed by proponents of

5419:"Gleichförmige Rotation starrer Körper und Relativitätstheorie" 4439:

On the Discussion Concerning Rigid Bodies in the Theory of Relativity

4033: 1355: 1228: 1184: 1171: 1067: 5655: 5558: 5544:

Ives, Herbert E. (1951). "Revisions of the Lorentz transformation".

4500: 3145:

Nuncius Hamburgensis—Beiträge zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften

4707: 2887: 2710: 2523: 1090:, Max Born, etc. and on popular-scientific and philosophical level 156:), according to which no motion of an observer with respect to the 4552: 1758: 1103:

of the relativistic physicists (and in the 1920s and 1930s of the

269: 265: 4595:

Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

3944:

Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

3237:

Masters of Theory: Cambridge and the Rise of Mathematical Physics

1195:-press continued this propaganda unhindered. After the murder of 720:

depends on which convention is chosen to synchronize the clocks.

6001:, digizied by the University of St. Thomas Libraries, which are 5817: 4860:

An Explanation of Dayton Miller's Anomalous "Ether Drift" Result

4267:

Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft

3891:"On the Theory of Relativity: Analysis of the Postulates" 3154:

Einstein's generation. The origins of the relativity revolution

2680:

Physics and national socialism: an anthology of primary sources

1603:

Israel, Hans; Ruckhaber, Erich; Weinmann, Rudolf, eds. (1931).

1489:

Research Methodology: The Aims, Practices and Ethics of Science

5867:

Scientific theism versus materialism. The space-time potential

4909:"Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in dispergierenden Medien" 4232:"Meine Antwort—Über die anti-relativitätstheoretische G.m b.H" 3794:"Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in dispergierenden Medien" 3284:. Translated by Geoffrey S. Koby. Cambridge University Press. 1799:

International Journal of Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences

1104: 472:, led and still leads to the construction of various apparent 456:), and it is therefore in conformity with special relativity. 17: 5424:

Uniform Rotation of Rigid Bodies and the Theory of Relativity

4948:"The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment" 4892:

An Objection Against the Theory of Relativity and its Removal

3839:

Carlip, Steve (2000). "Aberration and the Speed of Gravity".

2820:. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 100. pp. 501–516. 1622:"100 Authors against Einstein: A Look in the Rearview Mirror" 1167:

ideologically motivated as the product of western decadence.

492:

and others. For example, Dingle wrote a series of letters to

5971:"Das Ding an sich" und das Ende der sog. Relativitätstheorie 5835:

Prokhovnik, Simon Jacques (1963). "The Case for an Aether".

5636: 5495:"Zur Kritik und Geschichte der neueren Gravitationstheorien" 4252: 3318:

Poincaré's Philosophy: From Conventionalism to Phenomenology

1327:

A collection of various criticisms can be found in the book

1207:

did the same in 1930. Both were proponents of the so-called

425:

is higher than the speed of light. This was investigated by

136:(1900). This was apparently confirmed by the experiments of 4405:"Sur la théorie de relativité et l'expérience de M. Sagnac" 3928:

Substance and function, and Einstein's theory of relativity

3218:. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 265–326. 2697:

Hu, Danian (2007). "The Reception of Relativity in China".

669:

insufficiently substantiated. However, as already shown by

433:(1914). They came to the conclusion that in such cases the 283:

published results which appeared to show that the speed of

2603:. Vol. 5. Boston—Basel: Birkhäuser. pp. 88–122. 4308:

Fox, J. G. (1965). "Evidence Against Emission Theories".

3939:"A proof of the constancy of the velocity of light" 696:

The velocity of light is independent of the direction of

417:

Another apparent contradiction lies in the fact that the

231:, the relativistic mass formula is routinely confirmed.) 5378:

Durée et simultanéité. A propos de la théorie d'Einstein

5811:. Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner. pp. 392–404. 4493:. Vol. 1. Braunschweig: Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn. 3305:"Einstein's sceptics: Who were the relativity deniers?" 3138:"Bruno Thürings Umsturzversuch der Relativitätstheorie" 238:

repeated the Michelson–Morley experiment together with

5877:"Recherches critiques sur l'Électrodynamique Générale" 1832:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 148. 823:. The claim was refuted by Einstein and Rosen (1935). 5448:

The Special Theory of Relativity: A Critical Analysis

5327:

The Fundamental Hypotheses of the Theory of Electrons

3931:. Chicago; London: The Open court publishing company. 390:

is impossible, since this would violate the Poincaré-

172:(1904) created a detailed theory of electrodynamics ( 120:

Relativity principle versus electromagnetic worldview

3964:"On the relativity of rotation in Einstein's theory" 5809:

Die logischen Grundlagen der exakten Wissenschaften

4750:Planck, Max (1925). "Vom Relativen zum Absoluten". 4588: 4534:"Lorentz Violation: Motivation and new constraints" 4188:"Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" 3337:

Einsteins Schleier: Die neue Welt der Quantenphysik

2759:. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 2473:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A

667:

principle of the constancy of the velocity of light

3234: 3119:. Fundamental Theories of Physics. Vol. 165. 2930: 2788: 2442: 1661:. D. Reidel Publishing Company. pp. 273–274. 1235:Accusations of plagiarism and priority discussions 386:In special relativity, the transfer of signals at 5837:The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 5546:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4879:(3. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 4722:Verhandlungen Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft 2740:Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy 1408:. Therefore, fundamental criticism (like that of 3136:Posch, Th.; Kerschbaum, F.; Lackner, K. (2006). 2601:The Attraction of Gravitation (Einstein Studies) 2578:The Attraction of Gravitation (Einstein Studies) 661:Principle of the constancy of the speed of light 4843:The theory of relativity and a priori knowledge 2205:Hentschel (1990), pp. 199–239, 254–268, 507–526 1282:and momentum (which were known long before) to 1247:(1801) was credited for his calculation of the 890:would be prevented. Other pseudo-Kantians like 549:) were uncomfortable with the rejection of the 437:is not equal to the group velocity, but to the 196:published in September 1905 what is now called 5819:"The Principles of Mathematical Physics" 5381:(second ed.). Saint-Germain: Félix Alcan. 3101:Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften 2755:. In Michel Janssen; Christoph Lehner (eds.). 2734:Janssen, Michel; Mecklenburg, Matthew (2007). 1492:(illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 81. 4539:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 103:is now accepted by the scientific community. 8: 5826:. New York: Science Press. pp. 297–320. 5628:Über Relativitätsprinzip, Äther, Gravitation 4799:Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo 2419: 2417: 2407: 2405: 2266: 2264: 2262: 1659:Hans Reichenbach Selected Writings 1909–1953 681:The velocity of light is independent of the 591:(2006) described his own experiments on the 5467:Der Fehler in Einsteins Relativitätstheorie 4854:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 4845:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 4398:. Translated by J. B. Sykes in 1973: 31–54. 4265:Einstein, Albert (1924). "Über den Äther". 1865: 1863: 1861: 1683:Mathematical Problems in Elasticity, Vol 18 1438:unite general relativity and quantum theory 402:, Poincaré (1904) alluded to the fact that 4852:Axiomatization of the theory of relativity 4532:Liberati, Stefano; Maccione, Luca (2009). 4343:Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt 4124:Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik 2738:. In V. F. Hendricks; et al. (eds.). 2240: 2238: 2187:Hentschel (1990), Chapter 6.2, pp. 555–557 366:. This theory includes the replacement of 5752:. Chicago: University Press. p. 155. 4991: 4981: 4963: 4659: 4649: 4631: 4569: 4551: 4093: 3854: 1919: 1917: 1907: 1905: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1810: 1757: 1620:Cuntz, Manfred (November–December 2020). 1580: 64:Learn how and when to remove this message 5635:Lenard; Einstein; Gehrcke; Weyl (1920). 5630:(3. enlarged ed.). Leipzig: Hirzel. 4941:is FTL travel or communication Possible? 3241:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1895: 1893: 1891: 1889: 398:principle. Following an old argument by 5408:Relativitätstheorie und Ökonomieprinzip 5390:. London: Martin Brian & O'Keeffe. 5015: 3360: 3216:The Comparative Reception of Relativity 3071:The Comparative Reception of Relativity 2791:Electrodynamics from Ampére to Einstein 1949: 1947: 1857: 1657:Maria Reichenbach; R. S. Cohen (1978). 1478: 1290:. Yet, the applicability of Einstein's 497:the relevant measurement rules and the 307:Proper reference frame (flat spacetime) 288:agreement with the speed of light, see 5151:Lenard, Einstein, Gehrcke, Weyl (1920) 5147: 5145: 4876:Space and time in contemporary physics 4790:"Sur la dynamique de l'électron" 3501: 3499: 2252: 2250: 2223:Hentschel (1990), pp. 240–243, 441–455 1080:Mechanical explanations of gravitation 821:two-body problem in general relativity 733:Einstein emphasized the importance of 689:, Sagnac effect, and many others (see 631:Another alternative was the so-called 5691:. Vol. 1. München: J.F. Lehmann. 5559:"Über die Konstitution des Elektrons" 4883:Smoot, G. F.; (2006), Nobel lecture: 3008:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 2196:Hentschel (1990), pp. 92–105, 401–419 2151:Janssen (2008), pp. 3–4, 17–18, 28–38 998:Relativity hype and popular criticism 593:Cosmic microwave background radiation 404:Newton's law of universal gravitation 209:Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments 77:Criticism of the theory of relativity 7: 4616:"Modern Tests of Lorentz Invariance" 4067:"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" 3178:Journal for the History of Astronomy 2106:Warwick (2003), pp. 410–419, 469–475 612:(1844), was used by some critics as 5949:Vorträge an der Universität München 5563:On the Constitution of the Electron 5450:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2757:The Cambridge Companion to Einstein 2306:Wazeck (2009), pp. 113–193, 217–292 1026:Academic and non-academic criticism 677:experimentally demonstrated facts: 264:is increased considerably by using 5654:Lenard, Philipp. (Hrsg.) (1921b). 4571:10.1146/annurev.nucl.010909.083640 4255:Ether and the Theory of Relativity 2244:Vizgin/Gorelik (1987), pp. 265–326 1458:Alternatives to general relativity 1333:A Hundred Authors Against Einstein 1322:A Hundred Authors Against Einstein 578:Luminiferous aether#End of aether? 406:is founded on an infinitely great 296:Acceleration in special relativity 277:Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly 14: 5969:Ziegler, Johann Heinrich (1920). 4388:"The evolution of space and time" 4339:Lehrbuch der theoretischen Physik 4260:. London: Methuen. pp. 3–24. 2682:. Basel—Boston—Bonn: Birkhäuser. 2655:. Basel—Boston—Bonn: Birkhäuser. 2052:Pais (1982), pp. 177–207, 230–232 1686:. World Scientific. p. 125. 626:Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment 303:Acceleration (special relativity) 150:Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace 5881:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 5824:The Value of Science (Chap. 7–9) 4587:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904). 2043:Laue (1921a), pp. 25–26, 128–130 800:Silberstein–Einstein controversy 687:De Sitter double star experiment 651:De Sitter double star experiment 501:. Other known paradoxes are the 272:the results are still negative. 204:Claimed experimental refutations 22: 4795:On the Dynamics of the Electron 3143:. In Gudrun Wolfschmidt (ed.). 2351:* Hentschel (1990), pp. 131–150 1268:, which is very similar to the 128:"), especially in the works of 5805:"Das Relativitätsprinzip etc." 5638:"The Bad Nauheim Debate" 3320:. Chicago: Open Court Pub Co. 3260:. Frankfurt—New York: Campus. 2966:Reports on Progress in Physics 2142:Hentschel (1990), pp. 343–348. 1776:10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.193901 1606:Hundert Autoren gegen Einstein 1329:Hundert Autoren gegen Einstein 1278:(1904) applied the concept of 290:measurements of neutrino speed 1: 5794:Mohorovičić, Stjepan (1923). 5748:Michelson, Albert A. (1927). 3918:10.1103/physrevseriesi.35.153 3873:10.1016/S0375-9601(00)00101-8 2865:Dirac. A Scientific Biography 2580:. Vol. 5. Boston—Basel: 2381:Hentschel (1990), pp. 150–162 2324:Hentschel (1990), pp. 123–131 2297:Hentschel (1990), pp. 163–195 2232:Hentschel (1990), pp. 276–292 2214:Hentschel (1990), pp. 293–336 1829:Quantum Mechanics and Gravity 1468:History of special relativity 1215:physics or physics by man of 1112:. Therefore, he instructed a 343:and von Laue showed that the 5973:. Zürich: Weltformel-Verlag. 4952:Living Reviews in Relativity 4620:Living Reviews in Relativity 4422:"Sur l'expérience de Sagnac" 2920:Herbert Dingle and the Twins 2904:10.1080/00033790.2011.637473 2769:10.1017/CCO9781139024525.008 2493:10.1016/0039-3681(93)90063-P 2169:Goenner (1993a), pp. 124–128 1953:Darrigol (2000), pp. 372–392 1667:10.1007/978-94-009-9761-5_31 1362:) and three mathematicians ( 1134:Thomas Jefferson Jackson See 706:Kennedy–Thorndike experiment 423:anomalously dispersive media 4907:Sommerfeld, Arnold (1914). 4850:Reichenbach, Hans (1969) . 4841:Reichenbach, Hans (1965) . 4350:Kretschmann, Erich (1917). 4310:American Journal of Physics 3979:De Sitter, Willem (1916b). 3962:De Sitter, Willem (1916a). 3158:University of Chicago Press 2441:Beyerchen, Alan D. (1977). 2279:Hentschel (1990), pp. 74–91 2034:Laue (1921a), pp. 59, 75–76 1538:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.1051 1400:Tests of general relativity 1396:Tests of special relativity 1315:Relativity priority dispute 1313:of general relativity (see 1152:Chauvinism and antisemitism 963:Based on the philosophy of 702:Michelson–Morley experiment 567:tests of special relativity 146:Michelson–Morley experiment 6064: 5958:Forschungen zur Judenfrage 5864:Reuterdahl, Arvid (1920). 5626:Lenard, Philipp (1921a) . 5342:Abraham, Max, Max (1912). 4946:Will, Clifford M. (2006). 4251:Einstein, Albert (1920b). 4065:Einstein, Albert (1905a), 3936:De Sitter, Willem (1913), 3888:Carmichael, R. D. (1910). 3199:10.1177/002182867000100108 3075:Kluwer Academic Publishers 2987:10.1088/0034-4885/56/7/001 2929:Miller, Arthur I. (1981). 2869:Cambridge University Press 2787:Darrigol, Olivier (2000). 2432:Wazeck (2009), pp. 356–361 2390:Wazeck (2009), pp. 194–216 2372:Wazeck (2009), pp. 271–392 2333:Wazeck (2009), pp. 232–236 2315:Wazeck (2009), pp. 293–378 2097:Miller (1983), pp. 216–217 2070:Miller (1981), pp. 257–264 2016:Lalli (2012), pp. 187–212. 1989:Staley (2009), pp. 219–259 1393: 1345:relativity of simultaneity 1309:as regards completing the 1155: 984:People's Republic of China 499:relativity of simultaneity 5816:Poincaré, Henri (1913) . 5759:Reviews of Modern Physics 5643:Physikalische Zeitschrift 5557:Kaufmann, Walter (1906), 5428:Physikalische Zeitschrift 5388:Science at the Crossroads 5331:Physikalische Zeitschrift 4896:Physikalische Zeitschrift 4739:Physikalische Zeitschrift 4614:Mattingly, David (2005). 4443:Physikalische Zeitschrift 4186:Einstein, Albert (1916). 4142:Einstein, Albert (1912). 4115:Einstein, Albert (1908), 3828:Physikalische Zeitschrift 3541:Smoot (2006), pp. 123–124 3335:Zeilinger, Anton (2005). 3097:"Die Relativitätstheorie" 3028:10.1007/s00407-004-0085-6 2817:Einstein Symposion Berlin 2678:Hentschel, Klaus (1996). 2649:Hentschel, Klaus (1990). 2561:10.1017/S0269889700001332 2124:Kragh (1990), pp. 189–205 2025:Pauli (1920), pp. 689–691 2007:Swenson (1970), pp. 63–68 1998:Lalli (2012), pp. 171–186 1980:Pauli (1981), pp. 334–352 1971:Pauli (1921), pp. 636–637 1962:Janssen (2007), pp. 25–34 513:Aether and absolute space 126:electromagnetic worldview 5989:The Ernst Gehrcke Papers 5870:. New York: Devin-Adair. 5779:10.1103/RevModPhys.5.203 5733:. Whitefish: Kessinger. 5687:Lenard, Philipp (1936). 5680:10.1002/andp.19213701503 5587:10.1002/andp.19063240303 5535:Gehrcke, Ernst (1924b). 5526:Gehrcke, Ernst (1924a). 5519:10.1002/andp.19163561704 5469:. Wolfenbüttel: Heckner. 5465:Fricke, Hermann (1919). 5416:Ehrenfest, Paul (1909), 5386:Dingle, Herbert (1972). 5375:Bergson, Henri (1923) . 5368:10.1002/andp.19123431013 4933:10.1002/andp.19143491002 4873:Schlick, Moritz (1921). 4827:2027/uiug.30112063899089 4787:Poincaré, Henri (1906), 4525:10.1002/andp.19213712005 4480:10.1002/andp.19173581103 4376:10.1002/andp.19183581602 4301:10.1103/PhysRev.49.404.2 4215:10.1002/andp.19163540702 4171:10.1002/andp.19123431014 4095:10.1002/andp.19053221004 3925:Cassirer, Ernst (1923). 3818:10.1002/andp.19143491003 3792:Brillouin, Léon (1914). 3785:10.1002/andp.19093351102 3233:Warwick, Andrew (2003). 3152:Staley, Richard (2009). 3002:Norton, John D. (2004). 2956:Norton, John D. (1993). 2924:What Happened to Dingle? 2834:10.1007/3-540-09718-X_91 2751:Janssen, Michel (2014). 2411:Goenner (1993b), p. 251. 2288:Wazeck (2009), pp. 27–84 2178:Havas (1993), pp. 97–120 2133:Norton (2004), pp. 14–22 2115:Paty (1987), pp. 145–147 1941:Miller (1981), pp. 75–85 1932:Miller (1981), pp. 47–75 1245:Johann Georg von Soldner 1114:media monitoring service 1008:Arthur Stanley Eddington 698:velocity of the observer 671:Robert Daniel Carmichael 527:Albert Abraham Michelson 507:Bell's spaceship paradox 392:Einstein synchronization 154:Trouton–Noble experiment 5999:Arvid Reuterdahl Papers 5849:10.1093/bjps/XIV.55.195 5729:Lodge, Oliver (2003) . 5702:Annalen der Philosophie 5696:Linke, Paul F. (1921). 5599:Annalen der Philosophie 5493:Gehrcke, Ernst (1916). 4499:Laue, Max von (1921b). 4490:Die Relativitätstheorie 4487:Laue, Max von (1921a). 4420:Langevin, Paul (1937). 4403:Langevin, Paul (1921). 3514:Sommerfeld (1907, 1914) 3303:Wazeck, Milena (2010). 3280:Wazeck, Milena (2013). 3256:Wazeck, Milena (2009). 3052:Oxford University Press 2886:Lalli, Roberto (2012). 2445:Scientists under Hitler 1746:Physical Review Letters 1716:A brief history of time 1680:Russo, Remigio (1996). 1609:. Leipzig: Voigtländer. 1518:Physical Review Letters 1406:quantum electrodynamics 1292:Mass–energy equivalence 913:, philosophers such as 827:Philosophical criticism 708:, and many others (see 638:Galilean transformation 604:The theory of complete 531:Edmund Taylor Whittaker 351:Another example is the 166:principle of relativity 6008:8 October 2011 at the 5940:10.1103/PhysRev.49.268 5907:Philosophical Magazine 5405:Dingler, Hugo (1922). 4454:Laue, Max von (1917). 4230:Einstein, A. (1920a). 3550:Joos (1959), pp. 448ff 2622:"Was Einstein a fake?" 1826:Sachs, Mendel (2013). 1486:Pruzan, Peter (2016). 1343:as a constant and the 1270:Lorentz transformation 833:non-Euclidean geometry 718:one-way speed of light 683:velocity of the source 517:Many physicists (like 372:non-Euclidean geometry 170:Hendrik Antoon Lorentz 6038:Philosophy of physics 5899:englische Übersetzung 5875:Ritz, Walter (1908). 5803:Natorp, Paul (1910). 5798:. Berlin: de Gruyter. 5593:Kraus, Oskar (1921). 5446:Essen, Louis (1971). 5411:. Leipzig: S. Hirzel. 5283:* Stark/Müller (1941) 4688:Astrophysical Journal 4341:. Frankfurt am Main: 4007:"Is there an Aether?" 3622:Einstein/Rosen (1936) 3613:Einstein (1920, 1924) 3339:. München: Goldmann. 3278:English translation: 2863:Kragh, Helge (2005). 2620:John Farrell (2007). 2451:Yale University Press 2061:Pauli (1921), 672–673 1630:. Amherst, New York: 1142:Charles Francis Brush 1132:. Other members were 1004:Copernican Revolution 976:dialectic materialism 837:philosophical schools 744:equivalence principle 700:, as demonstrated by 685:, as demonstrated by 610:George Gabriel Stokes 454:quantum teleportation 242:. They confirmed the 229:particle accelerators 6048:Criticism of science 6028:Theory of relativity 5476:Gesammelte Schriften 5316:Israel et al. (1931) 4939:Usenet Physics FAQ: 4858:Roberts, Thomas J.: 4677:Metz, André (1923). 4337:Joos, Georg (1959). 4246:on 14 December 2009. 4005:Dirac, Paul (1951). 3316:Zahar, Elie (2001). 3117:Theory of Relativity 3077:. pp. 113–168. 2630:(11). Archived from 2584:. pp. 248–273. 1812:10.1155/2021/2706705 1446:loop quantum gravity 1280:electromagnetic mass 813:Stokes-Planck theory 600:Alternative theories 543:Charles Émile Picard 450:quantum entanglement 400:Pierre-Simon Laplace 174:Lorentz ether theory 101:theory of relativity 5932:1936PhRv...49..268S 5893:1908AChPh..13..145R 5771:1933RvMP....5..203M 5672:1921AnP...370..593S 5579:1906AnP...324..487K 5511:1916AnP...356..119G 5478:. Books on Demand. 5440:1909PhyZ...10..918E 5360:1912AnP...343.1056A 5187:Friedlaender (1932) 5130:Silberstein (1921a) 4983:10.12942/lrr-2006-3 4974:2006LRR.....9....3W 4925:1914AnP...349..177S 4811:1906RCMP...21..129P 4764:1925NW.....13...53P 4752:Naturwissenschaften 4700:1925ApJ....61..140M 4651:10.12942/lrr-2005-5 4642:2005LRR.....8....5M 4607:1903KNAB....6..809L 4562:2009ARNPS..59..245L 4517:1921AnP...371..283L 4472:1917AnP...358..214V 4368:1918AnP...358..575K 4322:1965AmJPh..33....1F 4293:1936PhRv...49..404E 4223:2027/wu.89059241638 4207:1916AnP...354..769E 4163:1912AnP...343.1059E 4136:1908JRE.....4..411E 4109:English translation 4086:1905AnP...322..891E 4051:on 17 December 2008 4026:1951Natur.168..906D 3997:1917KNAB...19.1217D 3956:1913KNAB...15.1297D 3910:1912PhRvI..35..153C 3865:2000PhLA..267...81C 3810:1914AnP...349..203B 3777:1909AnP...335....1B 3191:1970JHA.....1...56S 3115:Pauli, W. (1981) . 3020:2004AHES...59...45N 2979:1993RPPh...56..791N 2826:1979LNP...100..501K 2516:2004Isis...95..614D 2485:1993SHPSA..24..741C 1853:Historical analyses 1845:Extract of page 148 1768:2012PhRvL.108s3901M 1699:Extract of page 125 1573:1963Natur.197.1191A 1530:1977PhRvL..39.1051B 1390:Status of criticism 1276:Friedrich Hasenöhrl 1249:deflection of light 1040:Stjepan Mohorovičić 1012:Nikolaus Copernicus 988:Cultural Revolution 936:Some proponents of 817:aberration of light 710:luminiferous aether 622:aberration of light 539:Ebenezer Cunningham 388:superluminal speeds 382:Superluminal speeds 315:Rindler coordinates 281:OPERA collaboration 253:Robert S. Shankland 158:luminiferous aether 6033:History of physics 5714:10.1007/BF02903490 5660:Annalen der Physik 5611:10.1007/BF02903489 5567:Annalen der Physik 5530:. Berlin: Meusser. 5499:Annalen der Physik 5348:Annalen der Physik 5232:Mohorovičić (1923) 5160:Silberstein (1936) 4913:Annalen der Physik 4819:10.1007/BF03013466 4772:10.1007/BF01559357 4505:Annalen der Physik 4460:Annalen der Physik 4356:Annalen der Physik 4236:Berliner Tageblatt 4195:Annalen der Physik 4151:Annalen der Physik 4074:Annalen der Physik 3798:Annalen der Physik 3764:Annalen der Physik 3757:Born, Max (1909). 3685:Reichenbach (1924) 3658:Reichenbach (1920) 3604:Kretschmann (1917) 3595:De Sitter (1916ab) 3048:Subtle Is the Lord 2746:. pp. 65–134. 2661:10.18419/opus-7182 2549:Science in Context 2348:* Beyerchen (1982) 2256:Hu (2007), 549–555 1638:on 30 January 2021 1632:Center for Inquiry 1627:Skeptical Inquirer 1505:Extract of page 81 1364:Jean-Marie Le Roux 967:, the philosopher 938:Philosophy of Life 923:logical positivism 900:logical positivism 805:Ludwik Silberstein 763:Bad Nauheim Debate 735:general covariance 729:General covariance 724:General relativity 665:Some consider the 614:Ludwig Silberstein 466:length contraction 412:general relativity 368:Euclidean geometry 364:general relativity 198:special relativity 178:length contraction 115:Special relativity 6003:online accessible 5831: 5750:Studies in Optics 5740:978-0-7661-7865-6 5731:Ether and Reality 5539:. Berlin: Meuser. 5485:978-3-8370-0052-8 5457:978-0-19-851921-8 5397:978-0-85616-060-8 5354:(10): 1056–1058. 5259:Reuterdahl (1921) 5103:Prokhovnik (1963) 4330:10.1119/1.1971219 4157:(10): 1059–1064. 4020:(4282): 906–907. 3842:Physics Letters A 3586:Carmichael (1910) 3356:Relativity papers 3346:978-3-442-15302-2 3327:978-0-8126-9435-2 3291:978-1-107-01744-3 3267:978-3-593-38914-1 3248:978-0-226-87375-6 3225:978-90-277-2498-4 3167:978-0-226-77057-4 3126:978-0-486-64152-2 3084:978-90-277-2498-4 3061:978-0-19-280672-7 2948:978-0-201-04679-3 2892:Annals of Science 2878:978-0-521-01756-5 2843:978-3-540-09718-1 2806:978-0-19-850594-5 2689:978-3-7643-5312-4 2670:978-3-7643-2438-4 2634:on 11 August 2014 2610:978-0-8176-3624-1 2591:978-0-8176-3624-1 2460:978-0-300-01830-1 2345:* Kleinert (1979) 2088:Mathpages: Dingle 1839:978-3-662-09640-6 1730:978-0-553-38016-3 1719:(10th ed.). 1693:978-981-02-2576-6 1582:10.1038/1971191a0 1524:(17): 1051–1054, 1499:978-3-319-27167-5 1288:thermal radiation 1264:(1887) derived a 1138:Charles Lane Poor 1052:quantum mechanics 1048:relativity theory 740:Erich Kretschmann 608:, as proposed by 482:Ehrenfest paradox 429:(1907, 1914) and 427:Arnold Sommerfeld 331:Ehrenfest paradox 311:Hyperbolic motion 225:Adolf Bestelmeyer 74: 73: 66: 6055: 5974: 5965: 5952: 5943: 5914: 5896: 5871: 5860: 5829: 5827: 5821: 5812: 5799: 5790: 5753: 5744: 5725: 5692: 5683: 5650: 5640: 5631: 5622: 5589: 5553: 5540: 5531: 5522: 5489: 5470: 5461: 5442: 5421: 5412: 5401: 5382: 5371: 5338: 5317: 5314: 5308: 5305: 5299: 5296: 5290: 5286:* Thüring (1941) 5275: 5269: 5266: 5260: 5257: 5251: 5248: 5242: 5239: 5233: 5230: 5224: 5221: 5215: 5212: 5206: 5203: 5197: 5194: 5188: 5185: 5179: 5176: 5170: 5167: 5161: 5158: 5152: 5149: 5140: 5137: 5131: 5128: 5122: 5119: 5113: 5110: 5104: 5101: 5095: 5094:Michelson (1927) 5092: 5086: 5083: 5077: 5074: 5068: 5065: 5059: 5056: 5050: 5049:Ehrenfest (1909) 5047: 5041: 5038: 5032: 5029: 5023: 5020: 5005: 4995: 4985: 4967: 4936: 4903: 4880: 4855: 4846: 4837: 4792: 4783: 4746: 4729: 4711: 4682: 4681:. 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Morley 89:pseudoscientific 69: 62: 58: 55: 49: 26: 25: 18: 6063: 6062: 6058: 6057: 6056: 6054: 6053: 6052: 6018: 6017: 6010:Wayback Machine 5982: 5977: 5968: 5955: 5946: 5920:Physical Review 5917: 5913:(230): 162–171. 5904: 5874: 5863: 5843:(55): 195–207. 5834: 5815: 5802: 5793: 5756: 5747: 5741: 5728: 5695: 5689:Deutsche Physik 5686: 5666:(15): 593–604. 5653: 5634: 5625: 5592: 5556: 5543: 5534: 5525: 5505:(17): 119–124. 5492: 5486: 5473: 5464: 5458: 5445: 5415: 5404: 5398: 5385: 5374: 5341: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5311: 5306: 5302: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5280:* Lenard (1936) 5276: 5272: 5268:Gehrcke (1924b) 5267: 5263: 5258: 5254: 5249: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5231: 5227: 5223:Gehrcke (1924a) 5222: 5218: 5213: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5195: 5191: 5186: 5182: 5177: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5159: 5155: 5150: 5143: 5138: 5134: 5129: 5125: 5120: 5116: 5111: 5107: 5102: 5098: 5093: 5089: 5084: 5080: 5075: 5071: 5067:Poincaré (1904) 5066: 5062: 5057: 5053: 5048: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5031:Kaufmann (1906) 5030: 5026: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5008: 4945: 4919:(10): 177–202. 4906: 4889: 4872: 4868:physics/0608238 4849: 4840: 4786: 4749: 4732: 4715: 4685: 4676: 4613: 4586: 4531: 4511:(20): 283–284. 4498: 4486: 4466:(11): 214–216. 4453: 4436: 4419: 4402: 4382: 4362:(16): 575–614. 4349: 4336: 4307: 4281:Physical Review 4278: 4264: 4250: 4229: 4190: 4185: 4146: 4141: 4119: 4114: 4080:(10): 891–921, 4069: 4064: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4009: 4004: 3985:Roy. Amst. Proc 3978: 3968:Roy. Amst. Proc 3961: 3935: 3924: 3897:Physical Review 3887: 3838: 3824: 3804:(10): 203–240. 3791: 3756: 3752: 3748:Liberati (2009) 3747: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3729: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3711: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3693: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3675: 3671: 3667:Cassirer (1921) 3666: 3662: 3657: 3653: 3648: 3644: 3640:Petzoldt (1921) 3639: 3635: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3603: 3599: 3594: 3590: 3585: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3545: 3540: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3518: 3513: 3509: 3505:PhysicsFaq: FTL 3504: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3484:Poincaré (1906) 3483: 3479: 3475:Einstein (1916) 3474: 3470: 3466:Einstein (1912) 3465: 3461: 3457:Einstein (1908) 3456: 3452: 3448:Langevin (1921) 3447: 3443: 3439:Langevin (1911) 3438: 3434: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3403:Bucherer (1908) 3402: 3398: 3393: 3389: 3385:Einstein (1905) 3384: 3380: 3376:Poincaré (1906) 3375: 3371: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3347: 3334: 3328: 3315: 3302: 3292: 3279: 3268: 3255: 3249: 3232: 3226: 3213: 3174: 3168: 3151: 3140: 3135: 3127: 3114: 3093:Pauli, Wolfgang 3091: 3085: 3068: 3062: 3042: 3001: 2960: 2955: 2949: 2928: 2885: 2879: 2862: 2853: 2851: 2844: 2813: 2807: 2797:Clarendon Press 2786: 2779: 2750: 2733: 2696: 2690: 2677: 2671: 2648: 2637: 2635: 2619: 2611: 2598: 2592: 2575: 2546: 2499: 2467: 2461: 2440: 2436: 2431: 2427: 2423:Goenner (1993b) 2422: 2415: 2410: 2403: 2399:Darrigol (2004) 2398: 2394: 2389: 2385: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2341: 2337: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2274: 2270:Goenner (1993a) 2269: 2260: 2255: 2248: 2243: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2146: 2141: 2137: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2119: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2101: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2015: 2011: 2006: 2002: 1997: 1993: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1961: 1957: 1952: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1915: 1910: 1903: 1898: 1887: 1882: 1873: 1868: 1859: 1855: 1850: 1840: 1825: 1824: 1820: 1796: 1795: 1791: 1743: 1742: 1738: 1731: 1723:. p. 193. 1709: 1708: 1704: 1694: 1679: 1678: 1674: 1656: 1655: 1651: 1641: 1639: 1619: 1618: 1614: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1515: 1514: 1510: 1500: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1454: 1402: 1392: 1325: 1311:field equations 1237: 1189:Theodor Fritsch 1187:. For example, 1160: 1158:Deutsche Physik 1154: 1028: 1016:Johannes Kepler 1000: 911:conventionalism 829: 802: 785:signal velocity 765: 731: 726: 691:emission theory 663: 633:emission theory 602: 589:George F. Smoot 563:Herbert E. Ives 561:Others such as 555:preferred frame 519:Hendrik Lorentz 515: 462: 435:signal velocity 384: 298: 213:Alfred Bucherer 206: 194:Albert Einstein 190:Poincaré stress 138:Walter Kaufmann 122: 117: 81:Albert Einstein 70: 59: 53: 50: 39: 33:has an unclear 27: 23: 12: 11: 5: 6061: 6059: 6051: 6050: 6045: 6043:Fringe physics 6040: 6035: 6030: 6020: 6019: 6016: 6015: 6014: 6013: 5996: 5981: 5980:External links 5978: 5976: 5975: 5966: 5953: 5944: 5926:(3): 268–270. 5915: 5902: 5872: 5861: 5832: 5813: 5800: 5791: 5765:(3): 203–242. 5754: 5745: 5739: 5726: 5708:(3): 397–438. 5693: 5684: 5651: 5632: 5623: 5605:(3): 335–396. 5590: 5573:(3): 487–553, 5554: 5541: 5532: 5523: 5490: 5484: 5471: 5462: 5456: 5443: 5413: 5402: 5396: 5383: 5372: 5339: 5321: 5319: 5318: 5309: 5307:Lenard (1921b) 5300: 5298:Gehrcke (1916) 5291: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5281: 5277: 5270: 5261: 5252: 5250:Ziegler (1920) 5243: 5234: 5225: 5216: 5207: 5205:Bergson (1921) 5198: 5196:Dingler (1922) 5189: 5180: 5171: 5162: 5153: 5141: 5132: 5123: 5121:Lenard (1921a) 5114: 5105: 5096: 5087: 5078: 5069: 5060: 5058:Abraham (1912) 5051: 5042: 5033: 5024: 5022:Abraham (1904) 5014: 5012: 5011:Critical works 5009: 5007: 5006: 4943: 4937: 4904: 4902:(23): 841–842. 4887: 4881: 4870: 4856: 4847: 4838: 4784: 4747: 4730: 4713: 4708:10.1086/142879 4683: 4674: 4611: 4584: 4546:(1): 245–267. 4529: 4496: 4484: 4451: 4434: 4426:Comptes Rendus 4417: 4409:Comptes Rendus 4400: 4380: 4347: 4345:. p. 448. 4334: 4305: 4287:(5): 404–405. 4276: 4262: 4248: 4227: 4201:(7): 769–782. 4183: 4139: 4112: 4062: 4002: 3976: 3959: 3933: 3922: 3904:(3): 153–176. 3885: 3849:(2–3): 81–87. 3836: 3822: 3789: 3753: 3751: 3750: 3741: 3732: 3723: 3714: 3705: 3696: 3687: 3678: 3676:Schlick (1921) 3669: 3660: 3651: 3642: 3633: 3624: 3615: 3606: 3597: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3561: 3552: 3543: 3534: 3525: 3516: 3507: 3495: 3486: 3477: 3468: 3459: 3450: 3441: 3432: 3423: 3414: 3412:Roberts (2006) 3405: 3396: 3394:Planck (1906b) 3387: 3378: 3369: 3367:Lorentz (1904) 3359: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3351: 3345: 3332: 3326: 3313: 3299: 3298: 3297: 3296: 3290: 3273: 3272: 3266: 3253: 3247: 3230: 3224: 3211: 3172: 3166: 3149: 3147:. Vol. 4. 3132: 3131: 3125: 3110: 3109: 3089: 3083: 3066: 3060: 3040: 2999: 2973:(7): 791–858. 2953: 2947: 2939:Addison–Wesley 2926: 2916: 2898:(2): 153–214. 2883: 2877: 2860: 2842: 2811: 2805: 2784: 2778:978-0521828345 2777: 2748: 2731: 2711:10.1086/521157 2705:(3): 539–557. 2694: 2688: 2675: 2669: 2645: 2644: 2616: 2615: 2609: 2596: 2590: 2573: 2544: 2524:10.1086/430652 2510:(4): 614–626. 2497: 2479:(5): 741–790. 2465: 2459: 2437: 2435: 2434: 2425: 2413: 2401: 2392: 2383: 2374: 2365: 2356: 2353: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2326: 2317: 2308: 2299: 2290: 2281: 2272: 2258: 2246: 2234: 2225: 2216: 2207: 2198: 2189: 2180: 2171: 2162: 2153: 2144: 2135: 2126: 2117: 2108: 2099: 2090: 2081: 2072: 2063: 2054: 2045: 2036: 2027: 2018: 2009: 2000: 1991: 1982: 1973: 1964: 1955: 1943: 1934: 1925: 1913: 1911:Farrell (2007) 1901: 1885: 1871: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1848: 1838: 1818: 1789: 1752:(19): 193901, 1736: 1729: 1702: 1692: 1672: 1649: 1612: 1595: 1567:(4873): 1191, 1551: 1508: 1498: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1470: 1465: 1463:Fringe science 1460: 1453: 1450: 1422:Maurice Allais 1410:Herbert Dingle 1391: 1388: 1376:Emanuel Lasker 1372:Hjalmar Mellin 1368:Emanuel Lasker 1341:speed of light 1324: 1319: 1302: 1301: 1295: 1273: 1266:transformation 1262:Woldemar Voigt 1259: 1253: 1236: 1233: 1221:Wilhelm Müller 1209:German Physics 1205:Johannes Stark 1156:Main article: 1153: 1150: 1032:Johannes Stark 1027: 1024: 999: 996: 927:Moritz Schlick 907:Henri Poincaré 892:Ernst Cassirer 852:neo-Kantianism 828: 825: 801: 798: 769:Philipp Lenard 764: 761: 730: 727: 725: 722: 714: 713: 694: 662: 659: 618:Philipp Lenard 601: 598: 514: 511: 503:Ladder paradox 490:Herbert Dingle 461: 458: 439:front velocity 431:Léon Brillouin 419:group velocity 383: 380: 327:Paul Ehrenfest 297: 294: 234:In 1902–1906, 205: 202: 162:Henri Poincaré 121: 118: 116: 113: 72: 71: 35:citation style 30: 28: 21: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6060: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6025: 6023: 6011: 6007: 6004: 6000: 5997: 5994: 5990: 5987: 5986: 5984: 5983: 5979: 5972: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5954: 5950: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5903: 5900: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5873: 5869: 5868: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5833: 5825: 5820: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5801: 5797: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5755: 5751: 5746: 5742: 5736: 5732: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5694: 5690: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5639: 5633: 5629: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5591: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5555: 5552:(2): 125–131. 5551: 5547: 5542: 5538: 5533: 5529: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5491: 5487: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5463: 5459: 5453: 5449: 5444: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5420: 5414: 5410: 5409: 5403: 5399: 5393: 5389: 5384: 5380: 5379: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5323: 5322: 5313: 5310: 5304: 5301: 5295: 5292: 5285: 5282: 5279: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5265: 5262: 5256: 5253: 5247: 5244: 5241:Fricke (1919) 5238: 5235: 5229: 5226: 5220: 5217: 5211: 5208: 5202: 5199: 5193: 5190: 5184: 5181: 5175: 5172: 5169:Natorp (1910) 5166: 5163: 5157: 5154: 5148: 5146: 5142: 5136: 5133: 5127: 5124: 5118: 5115: 5109: 5106: 5100: 5097: 5091: 5088: 5082: 5079: 5076:Dingle (1972) 5073: 5070: 5064: 5061: 5055: 5052: 5046: 5043: 5040:Miller (1933) 5037: 5034: 5028: 5025: 5019: 5016: 5010: 5003: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4966: 4965:gr-qc/0510072 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4944: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4888: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4877: 4871: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4848: 4844: 4839: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4791: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4684: 4680: 4679:La Relativité 4675: 4671: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4633:gr-qc/0502097 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4591: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4491: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4256: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4145: 4140: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4118: 4113: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4063: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3974:(1): 527–532. 3973: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3898: 3892: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3857: 3856:gr-qc/9909087 3852: 3848: 3844: 3843: 3837: 3834:(22): 755–762 3833: 3829: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3754: 3745: 3742: 3736: 3733: 3727: 3724: 3718: 3715: 3709: 3706: 3700: 3697: 3691: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3673: 3670: 3664: 3661: 3655: 3652: 3649:Planck (1925) 3646: 3643: 3637: 3634: 3628: 3625: 3619: 3616: 3610: 3607: 3601: 3598: 3592: 3589: 3583: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3565: 3562: 3556: 3553: 3547: 3544: 3538: 3535: 3529: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3511: 3508: 3502: 3500: 3496: 3493:Carlip (1999) 3490: 3487: 3481: 3478: 3472: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3454: 3451: 3445: 3442: 3436: 3433: 3427: 3424: 3418: 3415: 3409: 3406: 3400: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3382: 3379: 3373: 3370: 3364: 3361: 3355: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3329: 3323: 3319: 3314: 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