Crucifixion - Knowledge (XXG)

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most despicable had he wished to live to the point of crucifixion ... Is it worth so much to weigh down upon one's own wound, and hang stretched out from a patibulum? ... Is anyone found who, after being fastened to that accursed wood, already weakened, already deformed, swelling with ugly weals on shoulders and chest, with many reasons for dying even before getting to the cross, would wish to prolong a life-breath that is about to experience so many torments?" ("Contemptissimum putarem, si vivere vellet usque ad crucem ... Est tanti vulnus suum premere et patibulo pendere districtum ... Invenitur, qui velit adactus ad illud infelix lignum, iam debilis, iam pravus et in foedum scapularum ac pectoris tuber elisus, cui multae moriendi causae etiam citra crucem fuerant, trahere animam tot tormenta tracturam?" –

1925: 775: 1937: 1503: 1906: 1852: 667:, posit other causes of death. Zugibe suspended test subjects with their arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical. The test subjects had no difficulty breathing during experiments, but did suffer rapidly increasing pain, which is consistent with the Roman use of crucifixion to achieve a prolonged, agonizing death. However, Zugibe's positioning of the test subjects necessarily did not precisely replicate the conditions of historical crucifixion. In 2023, an analysis of medical literature concluded that asphyxiation is discredited as the primary cause of death from crucifixion. 34: 1890: 1234:

fibula, spear stab wounds into the heart, sharp blows to the front of the chest, or a smoking fire built at the foot of the cross to asphyxiate the victim." The Romans sometimes broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death and usually forbade burial. On the other hand, the person was often deliberately kept alive as long as possible to prolong their suffering and humiliation, so as to provide the maximum deterrent effect. Corpses of the crucified were typically left on the crosses to decompose and be eaten by animals.

1418: 1018:, for example, described crucifixion as "a most cruel and disgusting punishment", and suggested that "the very mention of the cross should be far removed not only from a Roman citizen's body, but from his mind, his eyes, his ears". Elsewhere he says, "It is a crime to bind a Roman citizen; to scourge him is a wickedness; to put him to death is almost parricide. What shall I say of crucifying him? So guilty an action cannot by any possibility be adequately expressed by any name bad enough for it." 610:, who was crucified in the 1st century CE. The remains included a heel bone with a nail driven through it from the side. The tip of the nail was bent, perhaps because of striking a knot in the upright beam, which prevented it being extracted from the foot. A first inaccurate account of the length of the nail led some to believe that it had been driven through both heels, suggesting that the man had been placed in a sort of sidesaddle position, but the true length of the nail, 11.5 centimetres ( 333: 1965: 308: 1759:, were retweeted by a Twitter account owned by a known member of ISIL causing major media outlets to incorrectly attribute the origin of the post to the militant group. In most of these cases of crucifixion the victims are shot first then their bodies are displayed but there have also been reports of crucifixion preceding shootings or decapitations as well as a case where a man was said to have been "crucified alive for eight hours" with no indication of whether he died. 1872: 1610:

the dead body to conserve costs. According to Haas, this could help to explain why only one nail has been found, as the tip of the nail in question was bent in such a way that it could not be removed. Haas had also identified a scratch on the inner surface of the right radius bone of the forearm, close to the wrist. He deduced from the form of the scratch, as well as from the intact wrist bones, that a nail had been driven into the forearm at that position.

1401:(i.e, being paraded about town on horseback); then the unfortunate was tied to a cross made from one vertical and two horizontal poles. The cross was raised, the convict speared several times from two sides, and eventually killed with a final thrust through the throat. The corpse was left on the cross for three days. If one condemned to crucifixion died in prison, his body was pickled and the punishment executed on the dead body. Under 2367:" (Alkimila), a female name. It is not clear, however, whether the inscription was written by the same person who drew the picture, or added by another person later. It is also not known whether the graffito is intended to depict an actual event, as distinguished from, perhaps, the writer's desire for someone to be crucified, or as a jest. As such, the graffito does not itself provide conclusive evidence of female crucifixion. 587: 1638: 1341: 1602:

relative to the bone suggests the feet had been nailed to the cross from their side, not from their front; various opinions have been proposed as to whether they were both nailed together to the front of the cross or one on the left side, one on the right side. The point of the nail had olive wood fragments on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olive wood or on an olive tree.

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down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet." One source claims that for Jews (apparently not for others), a man would be crucified with his back to the cross as is traditionally depicted, while a woman would be nailed facing her cross, probably with her back to onlookers, or at least with the

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In partic., a cross, Ter. And. 3, 5, 15; Cic. Verr. 2, 1, 3, § 7; 2, 1, 4, § 9; id. Pis. 18, 42; id. Fin. 5, 30, 92; Quint. 4, 2, 17; Tac. A. 15, 44; Hor. S. 1, 3, 82; 2, 7, 47; id. Ep. 1, 16, 48 et saep.: "dignus fuit qui malo cruce periret, Gracch. ap. Fest. l. l.: pendula", the pole of a carriage, Stat. S. 4, 3, 28.

1702:. If a crucified person were to survive three days of crucifixion, that person would be allowed to live. Execution by hanging is described as follows: "In execution by hanging, the prisoner will be hung on a hanging truss which should look like a cross, while his (her) back is toward the cross, and (s)he faces the direction of 1176:– a sign board proclaiming the prisoner's name and crime. Upon arrival at the place of execution, selected to be especially public, the convict would be stripped of any remaining clothing, then nailed to the cross naked. If the crucifixion took place in an established place of execution, the vertical beam ( 1082:, a satirical representation of the Christian worship, depicting a man worshiping a crucified donkey (Rome, c AD 85 to 3rd century). It is inscribed ΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ (ΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟϹ) ΣΕΒΕΤΕ (ϹΕΒΕΤΕ) ΘΕΟΝ, which translates as "Alexamenos worships his god". Visible at the museum on the Palatine Hill, Rome, Italy ( 1676:

in the 2000s, although on occasion they were first beheaded and then crucified. In March 2013, a robber was set to be executed by being crucified for three days. However, the method was changed to death by firing squad. The Saudi Press Agency reported that the body of another individual was crucified

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I saw many captives crucified, and remembered three of them as my former acquaintances. I was very sorry at this in my mind, and went with tears in my eyes to Titus, and told him of them; so he immediately commanded them to be taken down, and to have the greatest care taken of them, in order to their

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issued a statement that a court had sentenced two murderers to be crucified, to be followed by their executions the next day. A Ministry of Justice official later stated that the crucifixion sentence should be considered cancelled. The crucifixions were not carried out, and the convicts were instead

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has called "Islam's equivalent of the hanging, drawing and quartering that medieval Europeans inflicted on traitors") is subject to "complex and contested rules" in classical jurisprudence. Most scholars required crucifixion for highway robbery combined with murder, while others allowed execution by

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crux, ŭcis, f. (m., Enn. ap. Non. p. 195, 13; Gracch. ap. Fest. s. v. masculino, p. 150, 24, and 151, 12 Müll.) . I. Lit. A. In gen., a tree, frame, or other wooden instruments of execution, on which criminals were impaled or hanged, Sen. Prov. 3, 10; Cic. Rab. Perd. 3, 10 sqq. – B.

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wood was located between the bones and the head of the nail, presumably to keep the condemned from freeing his foot by sliding it over the nail. His legs were found broken, possibly to hasten his death. It is thought that because in earlier Roman times iron was valuable, the nails were removed from

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or traditional hanging. However, Rabbinic law limited capital punishment to just 4 methods of execution: stoning, burning, strangulation, and decapitation, while the passage in Deuteronomy was interpreted as an obligation to hang the corpse on a tree as a form of deterrence. The fragmentary Aramaic

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that speaks of preferring life to death even when life is burdened with all the disadvantages of old age or even with acute torture ("vel acuta si sedeam cruce"), Seneca disagrees with the sentiment, saying death would be better for a crucified person hanging from the patibulum: "I should deem him

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That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across

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Many of Haas' findings have, however, been challenged. For instance, it was subsequently determined that the scratches in the wrist area were non-traumatic – and, therefore, not evidence of crucifixion – while reexamination of the heel bone revealed that the two heels were not nailed together, but

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In Roman-style crucifixion, the condemned could take up to a few days to die, but death was sometimes hastened by human action. "The attending Roman guards could leave the site only after the victim had died, and were known to precipitate death by means of deliberate fracturing of the tibia and/or

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There may have been considerable variation in the position in which prisoners were nailed to their crosses and how their bodies were supported while they died. Seneca the Younger recounts: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head

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While a crucifixion was an execution, it was also a humiliation, by making the condemned as vulnerable as possible. Although artists have traditionally depicted the figure on a cross with a loin cloth or a covering of the genitals, the person being crucified was usually stripped naked. Writings by

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Four persons were crucified, viz. not nailed but tied with their hands and feet stretched out at full length, in an erect posture. In this posture they were to remain till death; every thing they wished to eat was ordered them with a view to prolong their lives and misery. In cases like this, the

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was murdered by a slave, some in the Senate tried to prevent the mass crucifixion of four hundred of his slaves because there were so many women and children, but in the end tradition prevailed and they were all executed. Although not conclusive evidence for female crucifixion by itself, the most

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with the crucified man's name on it, "Jehohanan, the son of Hagakol." Nicu Haas, from the Hebrew University Medical School, examined the ossuary and discovered that it contained a heel bone with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the man had been crucified. The position of the nail

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Six people were crucified in the following manner: their hands and feet nailed to a scaffold; then their eyes were extracted with a blunt hook; and in this condition they were left to expire; two died in the course of four days; the rest were liberated, but died of mortification on the sixth or

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Most classical jurists limit the period of crucifixion to three days. Crucifixion involves affixing or impaling the body to a beam or a tree trunk. Various minority opinions also prescribed crucifixion as punishment for a number of other crimes. Cases of crucifixion under most of the legally

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The punishment of those who wage war against Allah and His Apostle, and strive with might and main for mischief through the land is: execution, or crucifixion, or the cutting off of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land: that is their disgrace in this world, and a heavy

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Islam spread in a region where many societies, including the Persian and Roman empires, had used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels, robbers and criminal slaves. The Qur'an refers to crucifixion in six passages, of which the most significant for later legal developments is verse 5:33:

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Crucifixion was generally performed within Ancient Rome as a means to dissuade others from perpetrating similar crimes, with victims sometimes left on display after death as a warning. Crucifixion was intended to provide a death that was particularly slow, painful (hence the term

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Mason Hammond, Arthur M. Mack – 1997 p. 109, "The patibulum (in the next line) was a crossbar which the convicted criminal carried on his shoulders, with his arms fastened to it, to the place for ... Hoisted up on an upright post, the patibulum became the crossbar of the

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legs and feet of the criminals begin to swell and mortify at the expiration of three or four days; some are said to live in this state for a fortnight, and expire at last from fatigue and mortification. Those which I saw, were liberated at the end of three or four days.

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by How and Wells remarks: "They crucified him with hands and feet stretched out and nailed to cross-pieces; cf. vii.33. This act, supposedly unusual on the part of Greeks, may be explained by the enormity of the outrage or by Athenian deference to local feeling."

94:. His death is the most prominent example of crucifixion in history, which in turn has led many cultures in the modern world to associate the execution method closely with Jesus and with Christian spirituality. Other figures in Christianity (such as the apostle 985:

In some cases, the condemned was forced to carry the crossbeam to the place of execution. A whole cross would weigh well over 135 kg (300 lb), but the crossbeam would not be as burdensome, weighing around 45 kg (100 lb). The Roman historian

1798:, claimed to have been kidnapped by unknown persons "speaking in Russian accents" and tortured for a week. His captors kept him in the dark, beat him, cut off a piece of his ear, and nailed him to a cross. His captors ultimately left him in a forest outside 2503:

LSJ anastauro ἀνασταυρ-όω, = foreg., Hdt.3.125, 6.30, al.; identical with ἀνασκολοπίζω, 9.78: – Pass., Th. 1.110, Pl.Grg.473c. II. in Rom. times, affix to a cross, crucify, Plb. 1.11.5, al., Plu.Fab.6, al. 2. crucify afresh,

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The person executed may have been attached to the cross by rope, though nails and other sharp materials are mentioned in a passage by Josephus, where he states that at the Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), "the soldiers out of rage and hatred,

910:). Seneca the Younger wrote: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet". 2494:ἀποτυμπα^ν-ίζω (later ἀποτύμπα^ν-τυπ- UPZ119 (2nd century BC), POxy.1798.1.7), A. crucify on a plank, D.8.61,9.61: – Pass., Lys.13.56, D.19.137, Arist. Rh. 1383a5, Beros. ap. J.Ap.1.20. 2. generally, destroy, Plu.2.1049d. 568:) attached to the cross, perhaps for the purpose of taking the person's weight off the wrists, is sometimes included in representations of the crucifixion of Jesus but is not discussed in ancient sources. Some scholars interpret the 393:) states: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet." According to 537:

the wounds are described as being "in his hands"), Jesus is shown with nails in his hands. But in Greek the word "χείρ", usually translated as "hand", could refer to the entire portion of the arm below the elbow, and to denote the

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Four or five persons, after being nailed through their hands and feet to a scaffold, had first their tongues cut out, then their mouths slit open from ear to ear, then their ears cut off, and finally their bellies ripped open.

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CORRECTION: This story misidentified the origin of a tweet and attributed it to an ISIS member when it actually came from Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, a student at Oxford University who has no affiliation with ISIS. We regret the

1905: 663:, or have his feet supported by tying or by a wood block. When no longer able to lift himself, the condemned would die within a few minutes. This theory has been supported by multiple scholars. Other scholars, including 3731:

See Mishnah, Sanhedrin 7:1, translated in Jacob Neusner, The Mishnah: A New Translation 591 (1988), supra note 8, at 595–596 (indicating that court ordered execution by stoning, burning, decapitation, or strangulation

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scratched into a wall that was part of the imperial palace complex. It includes a caption – not by a Christian, but by someone taunting and deriding Christians and the crucifixions they underwent. It shows crude

1230:, or "horn," leading some scholars to believe it may have had a pointed shape designed to torment the crucified person. This would be consistent with Seneca's observation of victims with their private parts impaled. 1014:

Seneca the Younger state some victims suffered a stick forced upwards through their groin. Despite its frequent use by the Romans, the horrors of crucifixion did not escape criticism by some eminent Roman orators.

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Translation by Aubrey de Selincourt. The original, "σανίδα προσπασσαλεύσαντες, ἀνεκρέμασαν ... Τούτου δὲ τοῦ Ἀρταύκτεω τοῦ ἀνακρεμασθέντος ...", is translated by Henry Cary (Bohn's Classical Library:

1669:) imposed in Islamic law is variously interpreted as exposure of the body after execution, crucifixion followed by stabbing in the chest, or crucifixion for three days, survivors of which are allowed to live. 2069:

to imitate the sufferings of Christ. Pre-sterilised nails are driven through the palm of the hand between the bones, while there is a footrest to which the feet are nailed. Rolando del Campo, a carpenter in

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way to die that the subject was somewhat of a taboo in Roman culture, and few crucifixions were specifically documented. One of the only specific female crucifixions that are documented is that of Ida, a

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in the United Kingdom. Further studies suggested that the remains may be those of a slave, because at that time crucifixion was banned in Roman law for citizens, although not necessarily for slaves.

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and is upon a cross with arms spread wide and with hands nailed to the crossbeam. Here we have a Roman sketch of a Roman crucifixion, and it is in the traditional cross shape." Clayton F. Bower Jr.

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Gualdi-Russo, E., Thun Hohenstein, U., Onisto, N. et al. A multidisciplinary study of calcaneal trauma in Roman Italy: a possible case of crucifixion?. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 11, 1783–1791 (2019).

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by crucifixion. Upright posts would presumably be fixed permanently in that place, and the crossbeam, with the condemned person perhaps already nailed to it, would then be attached to the post.

640:) in November 2017 of the remains of the heel bone of a (probably enslaved) man with an iron nail through it, is believed by the archeologists to confirm the use of this method in ancient Rome. 6427: 1936: 1720:, includes execution followed by crucifixion as a penalty. When, in 2002, 88 people were sentenced to death for crimes relating to murder, armed robbery, and participating in ethnic clashes, 1192:. Next the feet or ankles would be nailed to the upright stake. The 'nails' were tapered iron spikes approximately 13 to 18 cm (5 to 7 in) long, with a square shaft 10 millimetres ( 918:, literally "out of crucifying"), gruesome, humiliating, and public, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and period. 7047: 2177:. The rebellion was eventually crushed and, while Spartacus himself most likely died in the final battle of the revolt, approximately 6,000 of his followers were crucified along the 200-km 2941:

XX, 478–480, a spear-point is said to have pierced the χεῖρ "where the sinews of the elbow join" (ἵνα τε ξενέχουσι τένοντες / ἀγκῶνος, τῇ τόν γε φίλης διὰ χειρὸς ἔπειρεν / αἰχμῇ χακλκείῃ).

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came across the number 300 in the Old Testament they took it to be a mystical prefiguring of the cross of Christ". The earliest example, written around the late first century CE, is the

416:. This was the simplest available construction for torturing and killing the condemned. Frequently, however, there was a cross-piece attached either at the top to give the shape of a T ( 1593:

by the Romans, there are few actual archaeological remains. A prominent example is the crucified body found in a Jewish tomb dating back to the first century CE which was discovered at

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The Greek and Latin words corresponding to "crucifixion" applied to many different forms of painful execution, including being impaled on a stake, or affixed to a tree, upright pole (a

457:, another writer of the same period, says that a cross is made of posts (plural) and nails and that the arms of the crucified are outstretched. Speaking of the generic execution cross, 271:, which classically referred to a tree or any construction of wood used to hang criminals as a form of execution. The term later came to refer specifically to a cross. The related term 3984: 2057:

frowns upon self-crucifixion as a form of devotion: "Penitential practices leading to self-crucifixion with nails are not to be encouraged." Despite this, the practice persists in the

1356:. A 25-year-old servant, Sokichi, was executed by crucifixion for murdering his employer's son during the course of a robbery. He was affixed by tying to a stake with two cross-pieces. 2831: 4458: 3096: 1121:

According to Roman law, if a slave killed his or her owner, all of the owner's slaves would be crucified as punishment. Both men and women were crucified. Tacitus writes in his

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ordered the crucifixion of 6,000 of Spartacus' followers who had been hunted down and captured after the slave defeat in battle. Josephus says that in the siege that led to the

2829:"The very form of the cross, too, has five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which the person rests who is fixed by the nails" ( Irenaeus, 2041: 98:) are traditionally believed to have undergone crucifixion as well. Today, limited numbers of Christians voluntarily undergo non-lethal crucifixions as a devotional practice. 6152: 1006:

those they caught, one after one way, and another after another, to the crosses, by way of jest". Objects used in the crucifixion of criminals, such as nails, were sought as

2437: 1104:, and enemies of the state. It was originally reserved for slaves (hence still called "supplicium servile" by Seneca), and later extended to citizens of the lower classes ( 982:

in AD 70, the Roman soldiers crucified Jewish captives before the walls of Jerusalem and out of anger and hatred amused themselves by nailing them in different positions.

939:, punishment in accordance with the custom of our ancestors) consisted of suspending someone from a tree, not dedicated to any particular gods, and flogging him to death. 3210: 1413:) awaited mostly Christians: a cross was raised at low tide; when the high tide came, the convict was submerged under water up to the head, prolonging death for many days 1332:

prescribed categories have been recorded in the history of Islam, and prolonged exposure of crucified bodies was especially common for political and religious opponents.

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Eulalia... was stripped, beaten, tormented with iron hooks, had her bosom mutilated, was burnt with torches, and was portrayed as hanging on a rack or X-shaped cross

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New Testament writings about the crucifixion of Jesus do not specify the shape of that cross, but subsequent early writings liken it to the letter T. According to

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and his soldiers. First, the condemned would be stripped naked and scourged. This would cause the person to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of

6184: 935:("inauspicious tree") dedicated to the gods of the nether world. This hypothesis is rejected by William A. Oldfather, who shows that this form of execution (the 4293: 2491: 710:

Since death does not follow immediately on crucifixion, survival after a short period of crucifixion is possible, as in the case of those who choose each year

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Plutarch Fabius Maximus 6.3 "Hannibal now perceived the mistake in his position, and its peril, and crucified the native guides who were responsible for it."

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if viewed from the front. Such concessions were "unique" and not made outside a Jewish context. Several sources mention some sort of seat fastened to the

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in which the condemned is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross, beam or stake and left to hang until eventual death. It was used as a punishment by the

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was venerated as a saint and represented as a crucified woman, however her legend comes from a misinterpretation of a full-clothed crucifix known as the

1822: 5884: 5652: 5523: 3709:. London, G. Bell and Sons 1917, pp. 591–592) as: "They nailed him to a plank and hoisted him aloft ... this Artayctes who was hoisted aloft". 1740:(ISIL) had committed "several cases of mass executions of boys, as well as reports of beheadings, crucifixions of children and burying children alive". 1206:

would also be fastened to the cross to notify onlookers of the person's name and crime as they hung on the cross, further maximizing the public impact.

1276:(scripturally prescribed) punishment. The preference for crucifixion over the other punishments mentioned in the verse or for their combination (which 628:

was the only confirmed example of ancient crucifixion in the archaeological record. A second set of skeletal remains with holes transverse through the

6435: 1871: 1502: 822:... revealed sins. Investigate and seek and know how Jonah wept. Thus, you shall not destroy the weak by wasting away or by ... (partially legible)- 1506:

Poster showing a German soldier nailing a man to a tree, as American soldiers come to his rescue. Published in Manila by Bureau of Printing (1917).

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describes the execution of a Persian general at the hands of Athenians in about 479 BC: "They nailed him to a plank and hung him up ... this

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inches), suggests instead that in this case of crucifixion the heels were nailed to opposite sides of the upright. As of 2011, the skeleton from

2213:, for instance, five times in his First Letter to the Corinthians, written in 57 CE (1:13, 1:18, 1:23, 2:2, 2:8). Pilate, the Roman governor of 5350: 4313: 2596: 1964: 1368:(1467–1573), after a 350-year period with no capital punishment. It is believed to have been suggested to the Japanese by the introduction of 441:

Second-century writers who speak of the execution cross describe the crucified person's arms as outstretched, not attached to a single stake:

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There is an ancient record of one person who survived a crucifixion that was intended to be lethal, but was interrupted. Josephus recounts:

2786:"It was his body that tyrants took for a model, his shape that they imitated, when they set up the erections on which men are crucified" ( 5522:

Ingham D., Duhig C. Crucifixion in the Fens: life & death in Roman Fenstanton. British Archaeology, January–February 2022, pp. 18–29

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The length of time required to reach death could range from hours to days depending on method, the victim's health, and the environment.

365: 5511: 3103: 2853: 1684: 468:), a Christian writer, describes it as composed of an upright and a transverse beam, sometimes with a small projection in the upright. 3820: 2091: 2083: 1468:, an Australian prisoner of war, was crucified for killing cattle, along with two others. He survived 63 hours before being let down. 931: 6561: 6359: 6119: 5440: 4416: 2151: 1527: 4314:"M. Tullius Cicero, Against Verres, actio 2, The Fifth Book of the Second Pleading in the Prosecution against Verres., section 170" 3300: 2187:: Jewish man who was crucified around the same time as Jesus; it is widely accepted that his ankles were nailed to the side of the 1029:, which was also frequently applied without crucifixion to slaves. This act hastened the death of the person but was also meant to 774: 6210: 5913: 4335: 1132:

ancient image of a Roman crucifixion may depict a crucified woman, whether real or imaginary. Crucifixion was such a gruesome and

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Granger Cook, John (2018). "Cross/Crucifixion". In Hunter, David G.; van Geest, Paul J. J.; Lietaert Peerbolte, Bert Jan (eds.).

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In 2007, a possible case of a crucified body, with a round hole in a heel bone, possibly caused by a nail, was discovered in the

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Crucifixion was intended to be a gruesome spectacle: the most painful and humiliating death imaginable. It was used to punish

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some other word could be added, as "ἄκρην οὔτασε χεῖρα" (he wounded the end of the χείρ, i.e., "he wounded him in the hand".

3928: 2074:, vowed to be crucified every Good Friday for 15 years if God would carry his wife through a difficult childbirth, while in 3688: 449:

as crucified "above the ravine with his hands outstretched". He also says that the shape of the letter Τ (the Greek letter

6975: 2169:: Between 73 and 71 BCE, a band of slaves, eventually numbering about 120,000, under the (at least partial) leadership of 874:, crucifixion was an established mode of execution, which could even be imposed on generals for suffering a major defeat. 4589:

Crucifixion in Antiquity: An Inquiry into the Background and Significance of the New Testament Terminology of Crucifixion

3017:

The beauty of the cross: the passion of Christ in theology and the arts, from the catacombs to the eve of the Renaissance

2283:

was venerated as a saint. According to her hagiography, she was stripped naked, tortured, and ultimately crucified on an

7108: 6036: 4225: 2849: 2712:"The ... oldest depiction of a crucifixion ... was uncovered by archaeologists more than a century ago on the 2129: 1180:) might be permanently embedded in the ground. In this case, the condemned person's wrists would first be nailed to the 943:

mentions a 1st-century AD case in which trees were used for crucifixion, but Seneca the Younger earlier used the phrase

579:), the earliest surviving depiction of the crucifixion, as including such a foot-rest. Ancient sources also mention the 472: 27: 2967: 2804: 7083: 6902: 6690: 6242: 5678: 5563: 2950: 2859: 33: 6677: 5524:

https://www.archaeologyuk.org/resource/free-access-to-crucifixion-in-the-fens-life-and-death-in-roman-fenstanton.html

3278:

Treatise on the Physical Cause of the Death of Christ and Its Relation to the Principles and Practice of Christianity

1262:

provides contradictory statements about the first use of crucifixion under Islamic rule, attributing it variously to

5627: 5334:

Overton, Iain (2001-04-17). "Revealed, the soldier who was crucified by Germans". International Express. p. 16.

7103: 7088: 7042: 6527: 4041: 2962: 2676:, 6.20.3, trans. John W. Basore, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1946) 2:69 2011: 1680: 1285:

Exposure of the culprit's body after execution by another method, ascribed to "most scholars" and in particular to

402: 5773: 4552: 2882: 2122: 1304:

Crucifying the culprit alive, then executing him with a lance thrust or another method, ascribed to Malikis, most

583:, a small seat attached to the front of the cross, about halfway down, which could have served a similar purpose. 6739: 6449: 2993: 2019: 652: 7098: 1625:, in northern Italy. In 2017 part of a crucified body, with a nail in the heel, was additionally discovered at 1526:. Two investigations, one a post-war official investigation, and the other an independent investigation by the 1222:

to help support the person's body, thereby prolonging the person's suffering and humiliation by preventing the

1128: 979: 139:" but which in antiquity was used for any kind of wooden pole, pointed or blunt, bare or with attachments) and 5134: 4951:

Vogel, F.E. (2012). "Ṣalb". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).

3742: 6296: 5888: 6845: 4336:"Wine Mixed with Myrrh (Mark 15.23) and Crurifragium (John 19.31–32): Two Details of the Passion Narratives" 2226: 1843: 1590: 1393:. Several related crucifixion techniques were used. Petra Schmidt, in "Capital Punishment in Japan", writes: 1097: 995: 806: 549:

A possibility that does not require tying is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, through the

5510:

First example of Roman crucifixion in UK discovered in Cambridgeshire village, Arkeonews, 9 December 2021,

3169: 6751: 6090: 2214: 2046: 1942: 1321: 863:, his official historian and biographer, for objecting to Alexander's adoption of the Persian ceremony of 844: 655:

held that, when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the typical cause of death was

229: 6014: 1586: 6872: 6860: 6734: 5834: 5346: 3546: 2235:: Christian apostle, who according to tradition was crucified upside-down at his own request (hence the 1721: 1665:

Crucifixion is still used as a rare method of execution in Saudi Arabia. The punishment of crucifixion (

1523: 1515: 1422: 1417: 490: 6667: 5749: 5053:

Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century

5816: 5714: 7078: 7000: 6840: 4782: 4777: 4528: 4516: 4085: 4080: 2319: 2294: 2280: 2236: 2198: 1826: 1327:

Crucifying the culprit alive and sparing his life if he survives for three days, ascribed to Shiites.

990:

records that the city of Rome had a specific place for carrying out executions, situated outside the

248: 75: 5591: 5512:

https://arkeonews.net/first-example-of-roman-crucifixion-in-uk-discovered-in-cambridgeshire-village/

5423:

11 (February, 1985): 44–53; Zias, Joseph. "The Crucified Man from Giv'at Ha-Mivtar: A Reappraisal",

430:

cross. It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of

332: 6877: 6865: 6794: 2600: 2329: 2301: 2260: 1430: 1154: 1110:). The victims of crucifixion were stripped naked and put on public display while they were slowly 1079: 840: 748: 625: 599: 569: 485: 307: 91: 6065: 4524: 4520: 3883: 3586:

Davis, CT (1962). "The Crucifixion of Jesus. The Passion of Christ From a Medical Point of View".

2361:(late 1st century to early 2nd century AD). An inscription over the person's left shoulder reads " 534: 7037: 6949: 6805: 6713: 6571: 5606: 5416: 5390: 4884: 4355: 3655: 2769: 2003:, Italy. The attempt was unsuccessful, and he was sent to an asylum, where he died a year later. 1402: 1390: 1115: 830: 691: 383: 56: 6672: 5282: 4798:

Macall believes that the person would be given back his or her clothing following the scourging.

3796: 3069: 1976: 1530:, concluded that there was no evidence to support the story. However, British documentary maker 586: 6590: 3605:

Wijffels, F (2000). "Death on the cross: did the Turin Shroud once envelop a crucified body?".

2574: 632:

heel bones, found in 2007, could be a second archaeological record of crucifixion. The find in

6622: 6557: 6407: 6355: 6218: 6160: 6127: 5846: 5542: 5464: 5436: 5374: 5316: 5306: 5236: 5211: 5201: 5171: 5144: 5026: 4906: 4712: 4649: 4643: 4622: 4592: 4412: 4278: 4255: 4245: 4209: 4202: 4119: 3949: 3904: 3856: 3800: 3767: 3647: 3524: 3475: 3421: 3389: 3363: 3257: 3191:"A multidisciplinary study of calcaneal trauma in Roman Italy:a possible case of crucifixion?" 3031: 3021: 2863: 2810: 2693: 2417: 2166: 1815: 1776: 1756: 963: 955:

are the two main sources for accounts of criminals carrying their own patibula to the upright

740: 679: 660: 60: 17: 6616: 6602: 6401: 5536: 4616: 3941: 3898: 3850: 3761: 2687: 2353:

It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of

726:

Josephus gives no details of the method or duration of the crucifixion of his three friends.

71:, among others. Crucifixion has been used in some countries as recently as the 21st century. 7093: 6830: 6825: 6815: 6746: 6322: 6270: 5256: 4956: 4347: 4158: 3828: 3637: 3561: 3514: 3506: 3465: 3457: 3381: 3353: 3345: 2761: 2458: 2409: 2405: 2218: 1896: 1862: 1454: 1123: 971: 791: 779: 694:. Death could result from any combination of those factors, or from other causes, including 675: 664: 64: 4137: 2034:("Brothers of Light"), have annually conducted reenactments of Christ's crucifixion during 1522:

or combat knives. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the

7012: 6929: 6661: 6247: 5984: 5909: 5866: 5411:

Haas, Nicu. "Anthropological observations on the skeletal remains from Giv'at ha-Mivtar",

4300: 4014: 3692: 2972: 2737: 2455: 2075: 2054: 1534:

in 2001 published an article claiming that the story was true, identifying the soldier as

1442: 1373: 1184:, and then he or she would be hoisted off the ground with ropes to hang from the elevated 311: 83: 46: 2523: 26:

This article is about crucifixion as a method of capital punishment. For other uses, see

3877: 3519: 3494: 3308: 2912: 2413: 6954: 6850: 6820: 6756: 5484:

Zias J.; Sekeles, E. (1985). "The Crucified Man from Giv'at ha-Mivtar: A Reappraisal".

5274: 4363: 4237: 3789: 3470: 3445: 3414: 3358: 3333: 2314: 2270: 2210: 2202: 2174: 1881: 1791: 1594: 1465: 1446: 1365: 1313: 1149:

Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding

991: 799: 795: 671: 637: 633: 533:

In popular depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus (possibly because in translations of

480: 351: 341: 6351:

The Man Who Crucified Himself: Readings of a Medical Case in Nineteenth-Century Europe

1637: 722:

recovery; yet two of them died under the physician's hands, while the third recovered.

7072: 7005: 6855: 6668:"Dishonour, Degradation and Display: Crucifixion in the Roman World" by Philip Hughes 5428: 4960: 4820: 4787: 4492: 4359: 4090: 3642: 3625: 3190: 2958: 2934: 2730: 2713: 2217:

at the time, is explicitly linked with the condemnation of Jesus by the Gospels, and

1803: 1290: 1277: 1036: 1022: 852: 744: 554: 522: 503: 418: 177: 112: 6648:"Forensic and Clinical Knowledge of the Practice of Crucifixion" by Frederick Zugibe 5023:

Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ..

4433: 3672: 3659: 2894: 2836: 2787: 1372:

into the region, although similar types of punishment had been used as early as the

1340: 885:, was put to death in 522 BCE by the Persians, and his dead body was then crucified. 6766: 6095: 5957:"Death and desecration in Syria: Jihadist group 'crucifies' bodies to send message" 5700: 5568: 5140: 5111:

Crucifixion and Death as Spectacle: Umayyad Crucifixion in Its Late Antique Context

4982: 4764:

A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon

3248:

Retief FP, Cilliers L (December 2003). "The history and pathology of crucifixion".

3148: 2722: 2647: 2274: 2242: 2087: 2007: 1948: 1911: 1831: 1772: 1673: 1556: 1531: 1461: 1369: 1345: 1106: 1044: 1040: 922: 899: 860: 814:

Testament of Levi (DSS 4Q541) interprets in column 6: "God ... (partially legible)-

699: 656: 375: 79: 68: 38: 6379: 5804:

Judicial Law on Retaliation, Stoning, Execution, Crucifixion, Hanging and Whipping

5302:

Prisoners of the Japanese: literary imagination and the prisoner-of-war experience

3349: 2476:

Prisoners of the Japanese: Literary imagination and the prisoner-of-war experience

2010:, as in the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of 1677:

after his execution in April 2019 as part of a crackdown on charges of terrorism.

1021:

Frequently, the legs of the person executed were broken or shattered with an iron

670:

There is scholarly support for several possible non-asphyxiation causes of death:

6349: 5980:"Islamic Extremists Now Crucifying People in Syria—and Tweeting Out the Pictures" 5679:

Saudi Arabia must immediately halt execution of children – UN rights experts urge

5444: 5300: 5230: 5195: 5165: 4408: 4180: 3493:

McGovern, Thomas W.; Kaminskas, David A.; Fernandes, Eustace S. (February 2023).

3126: 3015: 2536: 6995: 6810: 6800: 6761: 5097:(in Arabic). Vol. 17. وزارة الأوقاف والشئون الإسلامية في دولة الكويت. 1988. 5076:(in Arabic). Vol. 12. وزارة الأوقاف والشئون الإسلامية في دولة الكويت. 1988. 4385: 3931:("Having killed him in some way not fit to be told, Oroetes then crucified him") 3684: 2290: 2246: 2232: 2111: 2079: 2066: 2058: 2023: 2015: 1784: 1691:. In May 2014, Ali al-Nimr was sentenced to be publicly beheaded and crucified. 1688: 1642: 1511: 1133: 864: 856: 803: 687: 550: 454: 232: 95: 3461: 855:, as well as the doctor who unsuccessfully treated Alexander's lifelong friend 6959: 6923: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6897: 3510: 2209:, is referred to repeatedly as something well known in the earlier letters of 2178: 2027: 1811: 1795: 1717: 1713: 1626: 1535: 1450: 1438: 1317: 1298: 1286: 1138: 1030: 940: 878: 787: 754:

The Greeks were generally opposed to performing crucifixions. However, in his

518: 446: 422:) or just below the top, as in the form most familiar in Christian symbolism ( 6222: 6164: 6131: 5910:"Sudan: Imminent Execution/Torture/Unfair trial | Amnesty International" 4351: 4259: 3565: 2765: 2622: 2526:. Polybius. Theodorus Büttner-Wobst after L. Dindorf. Leipzig. Teubner. 1893. 2421: 1172:

after the scourging, would be led through the most crowded streets bearing a

7017: 6990: 6892: 5628:"Saudi Arabia executes 37 people, crucifying one, for terror-related crimes" 5499: 5356: 5320: 5215: 4781: 4084: 3035: 2184: 2170: 2035: 1618: 1572: 1551:

It has been reported that crucifixion was used in several cases against the

1539: 1150: 967: 848: 834: 809:. This reference is to being hanged from a tree, and may be associated with 763: 759: 629: 607: 603: 591: 426:). The most ancient image of a Roman crucifixion depicts an individual on a 358:(1629 edition, p. 19); on right, crucifixion of Jesus (1593 edition, p. 47). 251: 3651: 3528: 3479: 3367: 3261: 1641:

Prisoner kneeling on chains, thumbs supporting arms, photographic print on

6498: 6472: 5433:

Crucifixion in the ancient world and the folly of the message of the cross

4123: 1069: 778:

A nineteenth-century depiction of the crucifixion of rebel leaders by the

318:

depicts a crucified young woman and a young man laying flowers at her feet

7022: 6934: 4669: 4009: 3127:

David W. Chapman, Ancient Jewish and Christian perceptions of crucifixion

2752:

Cook, John Granger (2012). "Crucifixion as Spectacle in Roman Campania".

2717: 2440: 2334: 2071: 1768: 1743:

On 30 April 2014, a total of seven public executions were carried out in

1646: 1578: 1434: 1349: 1263: 1223: 1043:, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire in 337 out of veneration for 952: 871: 810: 683: 458: 394: 369: 87: 6323:"UAE: Further information on fear of imminent crucifixion and execution" 4459:"Crucifixion in the Roman World: The Use of Nails at the Time of Christ" 3276: 3145:"Joe Zias, Crucifixion in Antiquity — The Anthropological Evidence" 2773: 2205:(c. 30 or 33 CE), recounted in the four 1st-century canonical 1405:, one of the great 16th-century unifiers, crucifixion upside down (i.e, 877:

The oldest crucifixion may be a post-mortem one mentioned by Herodotus.

6944: 6939: 6887: 6882: 6771: 6729: 6428:"Directory on popular piety and the liturgy. Principles and guidelines" 6185:"Ukraine activist Dmytro Bulatov 'kidnapped, tortured and left to die'" 6153:"Ukraine protest leader 'crucified and mutilated' after being abducted" 5090: 5069: 4796:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 506. 4099:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 506. 2358: 2277:, he was depicted by followers as having died by crucifixion in 274 CE. 2254: 2222: 2136: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2095: 1807: 1752: 1598: 1552: 1519: 1309: 1294: 1266:

himself (for murder and robbery of a shepherd) or to the second caliph

1243: 1215: 1111: 1007: 987: 975: 948: 435: 130: 4903:

How Jesus became God: The exaltation of a Jewish preacher from Galilee

3332:

Habermas, Gary; Kopel, Jonathan; Shaw, Benjamin C.F. (July 30, 2021).

2239:), because he did not feel worthy enough to die the same way as Jesus. 1281:

other methods for this scenario. The main methods of crucifixion are:

925:

custom of crucifixion may have developed out of a primitive custom of

6682: 6658:"Crucifixion in antiquity – The Anthropological evidence" by Joe Zias 2726: 2401: 2397: 2354: 2206: 2000: 1818:. Bulatov said he believed Russian secret services were responsible. 1767:

The human rights group Karen Women Organization documented a case of

1622: 1606: 1582: 1305: 1259: 1101: 1015: 947:(unfortunate wood) for the transom ("patibulum") or the whole cross. 833:, king of Judea from 103 to 76 BCE, crucified 800 rebels, said to be 695: 442: 431: 406: 379: 236: 217: 205: 193: 181: 168: 164: 152: 140: 128: 116: 6618:

The Female Crucifix: Images of St. Wilgefortis Since the Middle Ages

4110:

Ball, DA (1989). "The crucifixion and death of a man called Jesus".

2090:, while the government has noted that it cannot deter devotees. The 1724:

wrote that they could be executed by either hanging or crucifixion.

1683:

was arrested in 2012 when he was 17 years old for taking part in an

1060: 698:

following infection due to the wounds caused by the nails or by the

5936:"ISIS is killing, torturing and raping children in Iraq, U.N. says" 5109: 4618:

The Letter to Philemon: A New Translation with Notes and Commentary

2249:'s brother, who is traditionally said to have been crucified on an 1614:

rather separately to either side of the upright post of the cross.

247:), "to fix or fasten to, impale, crucify" occurs only once, at the 6985: 4409:

Dictionary of Images and Symbols in Counselling By William Stewart

2938: 2194: 2040: 1780: 1748: 1744: 1709: 1703: 1501: 1477: 1416: 1361: 1353: 1339: 1226:

caused by hanging without support. Justin Martyr calls the seat a

1165:) to the place of execution, but not necessarily the whole cross. 1162: 882: 773: 585: 398: 306: 262: 136: 107: 42: 32: 5696:

When Beheading Won’t Do the Job, the Saudis Resort to Crucifixion

5564:"Saudi seven face crucifixion and firing squad for armed robbery" 2181:

between Capua and Rome as a warning to any other would-be rebels.

1460:

Crucifixion was used as a punishment for prisoners of war during

859:. Some historians have also conjectured that Alexander crucified 739:

Crucifixion (or impalement), in one form or another, was used by

702:

that often preceded crucifixion, or from stabbing by the guards.

412:

At times the gibbet was only one vertical stake, called in Latin

5197:

The Japanese mind: essentials of Japanese philosophy and culture

3386:

The cross and the shroud: a medical inquiry into the crucifixion

1799: 1706:, and his (her) legs are vertical and distant from the ground." 1699: 1695: 1560: 1272: 1267: 1169: 558: 382:(instrument of execution) for crucifixions took on many shapes. 6686: 5683:

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

3211:"Crucifixion in the Fens: life & death in Roman Fenstanton" 1895:

Car-float at the feast of the Virgin of San Juan de los Lagos,

1597:, Jerusalem in 1968. The remains were found accidentally in an 23:

Inflicting death by nailing or tying a victim to a wooden cross

6473:"Filipino penitent cancels 'crucifixion' anew due to Covid-19" 4887:, "Crucifixion – The Archaeological Evidence," 2304:: Japanese martyrs who were crucified and impaled with spears. 2105: 450: 4905:(First ed.). New York: HarperCollins. pp. 133–165. 2951: 2478:(St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 2006), Chapter 2 " 2362: 1157:. The convict then usually had to carry the horizontal beam ( 1033:

those who observed the crucifixion from committing offenses.

242: 223: 216:), "to crucify with" or "alongside" occurs five times, while 211: 199: 187: 158: 146: 122: 5801: 3495:"Did Jesus Die by Suffocation? An Appraisal of the Evidence" 2433: 2431: 1538:. Overton's article was the basis for a 2002 episode of the 4242:

The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach

3334:"Medical views on the death by crucifixion of Jesus Christ" 2086:

has repeatedly voiced disapproval of crucifixions and self-

1453:. The executions marked the beginning of a long history of 16:"Christ-like pose" redirects here. Not to be confused with 7048:

Resolutions concerning death penalty at the United Nations

3301:"Columbia University page of Pierre Barbet on Crucifixion" 6499:"DOH to penitents: Make sure nails, whips are sterilized" 6064:. Karen Women Organization. February 2010. Archived from 2038:, in which a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross. 453:) was that of the wooden instrument used for crucifying. 6605:. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 2023-05-07. 6120:"Ukrainian protester says he was kidnapped and tortured" 5170:. Knopf : distributed by Random House. p. 32. 5114:. American Oriental Series 96. American Oriental Society 4549:"Crucifixion in Antiquity: The Anthropological Evidence" 4334:

Koskenniemi, Erkki; Kirsi Nisula; Jorma Toppari (2005).

2022:. Also, since at least the mid-19th century, a group of 994:, and had a specific area reserved for the execution of 6015:"Group: ISIS 'crucifies' men in public in Syrian towns" 4205:

Ancient Jewish and Christian Perceptions of Crucifixion

3446:"Medical theories on the cause of death in crucifixion" 1457:, which continued until its decriminalization in 1871. 1141:(former slave) who was crucified by order of Tiberius. 192:), usually translated "cross". The most common term is 6653:

Jesus's death on the cross, from a medical perspective

6376:"Religion-Mexico: The Passion According to Iztapalapa" 5445:

Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, by Donald G. Kyle

2725:

of a boy reverencing his 'God', who has the head of a

2094:

recommends that participants in the rites should have

1389:, crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the 517:) sees the cross of Christ represented in the crossed 5653:"Saudi Arabia executes dozens on 'terrorism' charges" 5393:(1970). "Jewish Tombs at and near Giv'at ha-Mivtar". 5200:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 145. 5003: 2922:

the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb.

2482:

and the prisoner of war as Christ-figure", pp. 30–65.

1794:, a Ukrainian anti-government activist and member of 1672:

Several people have been subjected to crucifixion in

1168:

During the death march, the prisoner, probably still

6037:"ISIS terror in and around Rojava, March–April 2014" 5419:. "Crucifixion – The Archaeological Evidence", 4112:

Journal of the Mississippi State Medical Association

2098:

shots and that the nails used should be sterilized.

1585:

refer to the crucifixion of thousands in during the

1514:, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers 6968: 6780: 6720: 6008: 6006: 5305:. University of Queensland Press. p. 184 n.8. 5194:Moore, Charles Alexander; Aldyth V. Morris (1968). 2006:In some cases, a crucifixion is simulated within a 1930:

Protester tied to a cross in Washington D.C. (1970)

5626:Qiblawi, Tamara; Alhenawi, Ruba (April 23, 2019). 4766:. New York: Doubleday Image Books. pp. 46–51. 3788: 3413: 843:is reputed to have crucified 2,000 survivors from 299:, meaning "to crucify" or "to fasten to a cross". 6271:"UAE: Fear of imminent crucifixion and execution" 5833:Tribune, Tom Masland, Chicago (14 October 1988). 4275:Behold the Man: Jesus and Greco-Roman Masculinity 4042:"Appian • The Civil Wars – Book I" 2623:"Webster New World College Dictionary, "crucify"" 1397:Execution by crucifixion included, first of all, 802:, have interpreted an allusion to crucifixion in 6403:The Penitentes of New Mexico: Hermanos de la Luz 5189: 5187: 3547:"On the physical cause of death of Jesus Christ" 3444:Maslen, Matthew; Piers D Mitchell (April 2006). 3275:William Stroud; Sir James Young Simpson (1871). 2986:"Why the BBC thinks Christ did not die this way" 2672:Seneca, Dialogue "To Marcia on Consolation", in 1716:, based upon the government's interpretation of 902:), or to a combination of an upright (in Latin, 5704:. 24 September 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2017. 5685:. 22 September 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2017. 2394:Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online 1806:spy and accepting money from the US Embassy in 1694:Theoretically, crucifixion is still one of the 1482: 1395: 1251: 6211:"A Kiev Question: What Became of the Missing?" 5867:"Amnesty International, Document AFR 54/21/91" 5592:"The execution of the Saudi Seven – iPolitics" 5541:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–38. 5085: 5083: 5064: 5062: 3964:"Livy I.26 and the Supplicium de More Maiorum" 3722:(Clarendon Press, Oxford 1912), vol. 2, p. 336 2668: 2666: 2664: 2597:"Compact Oxford English Dictionary, "crucify"" 1382: 479:and represented the number 300, "wherever the 228:), "to crucify again" occurs only once at the 6698: 6591:Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica, III, xxxii. 6118:Walker, Oksana Grytsenko Shaun (2014-01-31). 5055:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–38. 4386:"Encyclopædia Britannica Online: crucifixion" 3942:"Dialogue "To Marcia on Consolation", 6.20.3" 3685:Stavros, Scolops (σταῦρός, σκόλοψ). The cross 3626:"Did Jesus Christ die of pulmonary embolism?" 3439: 3437: 3407: 3405: 711: 350:Two illustrations from editions of a book by 8: 6091:"Regime's human rights abuses go unpunished" 5851:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3763:Paul's Message of the Cross As Body Language 3416:The Crucifixion Of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry 3338:Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings 553:, between the two bones of the forearm (the 438:(late 1st century to early 2nd century CE). 6621:. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 32. 5743:"The Sanctions of the Islamic Criminal Law" 5611:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3823:History of Alexander the Great of Macedonia 3554:Journal of the American Medical Association 3327: 3325: 2692:. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 78. 2387: 2385: 2383: 294: 288: 282: 276: 266: 6705: 6691: 6683: 6576:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5715:"Iran's Islamic Criminal Law, Article 195" 5371:Armageddon: the Battle for Germany 1944–45 5046: 5044: 5042: 4621:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 16. 4340:Journal for the Study of the New Testament 3540: 3538: 2809:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 289; cf. pp. 7–8. 1437:, Japan. Among those executed were Saints 1409:) was frequently used. Water crucifixion ( 818:... right errors. ... (partially legible)- 180:uses four verbs, three of them based upon 6678:Crucifixion of Joachim of Nizhny-Novgorod 6450:"Man Crucifies Himself Every Good Friday" 5500:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0631-9 4813:"Postscript – The Mel Gibson Controversy" 3641: 3545:Edwards, WD; Gabel WJ; Hosmer FE (1986). 3518: 3469: 3357: 2599:. Oxford University Press. Archived from 2152:Learn how and when to remove this message 1802:after forcing him to confess to being an 966:in 73–71 BCE (the slave rebellion led by 962:Notorious mass crucifixions followed the 475:, because tau is shaped exactly like the 5294: 5292: 5281:. London: Button&son. 1815. p. 4946: 4944: 4942: 4610: 4608: 4493:"Crucifixion in Antiquity: The Evidence" 4432:. Bible-archaeology.info. Archived from 4226:Wikisource:Of Consolation: To Marcia#XX. 3450:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 3243: 3241: 3239: 3237: 2648:"Online Etymology Dictionary, "crucify"" 1636: 766:who suffered death by crucifixion." The 7053:Capital punishment for drug trafficking 5774:"Case Study in Iranian Criminal System" 5136:The body: photographs of the human form 5095:الموسوعة الفقهية (Encyclopedia of Fiqh) 5074:الموسوعة الفقهية (Encyclopedia of Fiqh) 4940: 4938: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4922: 4329: 4327: 4277:. Oxford University Press. p. 67. 3903:. Oxford University Press. p. 23. 3020:. Oxford University Press. p. 21. 2984:Wynne-Jones, Jonathan (16 March 2008). 2803:Cook, John Granger (10 December 2018). 2747: 2745: 2575:"Collins English Dictionary, "crucify"" 2379: 2346: 1995:In July 1805, a man named Mattio Lovat 1847: 1732:On 5 February 2015, the United Nations 1114:to death so that they would serve as a 6569: 5844: 5604: 4806: 4804: 4615:Barth, Markus; Blanke, Helmut (2000). 2806:Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World 2537:"Online Etymology Dictionary, "cross"" 1254:punishment is theirs in the Hereafter. 598:In 1968, archaeologists discovered at 151:) "crucify on a plank", together with 5916:from the original on December 3, 2007 4840: 4838: 4757: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4648:. Simon & Schuster. p. 193. 4582: 4580: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4452: 4450: 4075: 4073: 3139: 3137: 3135: 3091: 3089: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3047: 3045: 2325:List of methods of capital punishment 2225:. The civil charge was a claim to be 1751:. The pictures, originally posted to 1312:Shi'is; the majority of the Malikis; 409:captives to crosses in various ways. 204:), "to crucify", occurring 46 times; 167:"). In earlier pre-Roman Greek texts 7: 7058:Capital punishment for homosexuality 4975:"Quran Surah Al-Maaida ( Verse 33 )" 4891:11.1 (Jan./Feb. 1985), 44–53 (p. 49) 3129:(Mohr Siebeck, 2008), pp. 86–89 2267:, crucified in either 106 or 107 CE. 2134:adding citations to reliable sources 1738:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant 1734:Committee on the Rights of the Child 1455:persecution of Christianity in Japan 1324:; or Malikis, Hanafis, and Shafi'is. 1010:with perceived medicinal qualities. 405:, Roman soldiers nailed innumerable 6297:"Crucifixion sentence is cancelled" 5959:. CNN/Associated Press. May 2, 2014 5538:Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law 5355:. Season 9. Episode 5. 2002-07-04. 4244:. InterVarsity Press. p. 304. 3882:. Oxford University Press. p. 3170:"The Bioarchaeology of Crucifixion" 2414:10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000808 2063:voluntarily, non-lethally crucified 1563:forces at the end of World War II. 135:(which in modern Greek only means " 5590:Mar 18, Ali AlAhmed Published on. 3791:The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Bible 3420:. New York: M. Evans and Company. 3068:Kohler, Kaufmann; Hirsch, Emil G. 2557:Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, 974:in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. 921:One hypothesis suggested that the 14: 6981:Most recent executions by country 6664: (archived February 12, 2012) 6601:Sundermann, Werner (2009-07-20). 6497:Leilani, Junio (March 29, 2018). 5235:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 14–15. 2082:has been crucified 34 times. The 1661:Legal execution in Islamic states 1528:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 1348:crucifixion (c. 1865–1868), 826:... Let not the nail touch him." 6673:Jewish Encyclopedia: Crucifixion 6039:. Kurdistan Times. 13 April 2014 5885:"Death Penalty Worldwide: Sudan" 5822:from the original on 2022-10-09. 5790:from the original on 2022-10-09. 5731:from the original on 2016-03-28. 5275:"The Baptist Magazine, Volume 7" 5257:"The Baptist Union: Latest News" 5143:. Chronicle Books. p. 250. 4961:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6530 3643:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01525.x 3575:from the original on 2022-10-09. 2716:in Rome. It is a second-century 2173:were in open revolt against the 2110: 2018:, since 1833, and in the famous 1963: 1935: 1923: 1904: 1888: 1870: 1850: 1516:had crucified a Canadian soldier 1360:Crucifixion was introduced into 1068: 1059: 500: – c. 215). 366:Instrument of Jesus' crucifixion 340: 331: 176:The Greek used in the Christian 88:depicted with Jesus nailed to it 7033:Religion and capital punishment 6243:"Crucifixion for UAE murderers" 5978:Siegel, Jacob (30 April 2014). 5912:. Web.amnesty.org. 2002-07-17. 4736:. Kregel Academic. p. 265. 4181:"Jewish War, Book V Chapter 11" 3281:. Hamilton, Adams & Company 3223:from the original on 2022-10-09 2121:needs additional citations for 1918:magazine, April 15, 1896, issue 1859:Crucifixion, homage to Mondrian 90:) is Christianity's preeminent 6452:. Religious Freaks. 2006-04-12 6406:. Sunstone Press. p. 58. 6059:"Walking amongst sharp knives" 6013:Almasy, Steve (29 June 2014). 5488:. No. 35. pp. 22–27. 5004:"Surah Al-Ma'idah [5]" 4457:Robison, John C. (June 2002). 3876:Liddell, Henry George (1855). 3707:Herodotus Literally Translated 2883:Epistle of Barnabas, chapter 9 1991:Crucifixion in the Philippines 1577:Although the Roman historians 837:, in the middle of Jerusalem. 714:to be non-lethally crucified. 1: 6976:Enforcement or use by country 6209:Chivers, C. J. (2014-03-09). 5167:Japan, photographs, 1854–1905 4783:"Cross and Crucifixion" 4291:pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo 4086:"Cross and Crucifixion" 3412:Zugibe, Frederick T. (2005). 3350:10.1080/08998280.2021.1951096 3250:South African Medical Journal 3147:. Joezias.com. Archived from 1952: 1650: 1188:while it was fastened to the 906:) and a crossbeam (in Latin, 573: 507: 494: 489:, with another example being 462: 387: 287:, past participle passive of 6603:"MANI". Encyclopædia Iranica 6400:Aragon, Ray John De (2006). 6348:Böhmer, Maria (2018-11-08). 5835:"MOSLEM CODE LOOMS IN SUDAN" 4734:Josephus: Essential Writings 3849:Gabriel, Richard A. (2011). 3787:VanderKam, James C. (2012). 3766:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 46. 3673:The Life Of Flavius Josephus 2790:Trial in the Court of Vowels 1997:attempted to crucify himself 1914:American political cartoon, 1518:on a tree or barn door with 1214:providing some semblance of 747:, and among the Greeks, the 237: 218: 206: 194: 182: 169: 153: 141: 129: 117: 28:Crucifixion (disambiguation) 6903:Hanged, drawn and quartered 6471:Cal, Ben (April 13, 2022). 6151:Blair, David (2014-01-31). 5435:(Augsburg Fortress, 1977). 5421:Biblical Archaeology Review 5232:Capital Punishment in Japan 4889:Biblical Archaeology Review 4846:Dialogue with Trypho, a Jew 4591:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 7. 4587:Samuelsson, Gunnar (2013). 4547:Zias, Joseph (2016-01-10). 4273:Conway, Colleen M. (2008). 4201:Mishna, Shabbath 6.10: see 3388:. New York: Paragon House. 3097:"Some Notes on Crucifixion" 3014:Viladesau, Richard (2006). 2860:Westminster John Knox Press 2577:. Collins. 31 December 2011 2061:, where some Catholics are 1687:in Saudi Arabia during the 758:, ix.120–122, Greek writer 730:History and religious texts 115:has two verbs for crucify: 7125: 6378:. IPS News. Archived from 5486:Israel Exploration Journal 5425:Israel Exploration Journal 5413:Israel Exploration Journal 5395:Israel Exploration Journal 5133:Ewing, William A. (1994). 5025:. macmillan. p. 241. 4430:"Archaeology of the Bible" 3897:Waterfield, Robin (2010). 3462:10.1177/014107680609900416 2952: 2363: 2049:, Philippines, Easter 2006 2045:Devotional crucifixion in 1988: 1841: 1771:forces crucifying several 1681:Ali Mohammed Baqir al-Nimr 1570: 1433:were nailed to crosses at 1241: 1047:, its most famous victim. 403:Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) 363: 243: 224: 212: 200: 188: 159: 147: 123: 105: 25: 15: 6615:Friesen, Ilse E. (2006). 5473:– via Google Books. 5457:by Paul L. Maier (1997). 4384:Encyclopædia Britannica. 3745:Aramaic Testament of Levi 3720:A Commentary on Herodotus 3607:Br Soc Turin Shroud Newsl 3511:10.1177/00243639221116217 2731:"Cross or Torture Stake?" 2686:Barclay, William (1998). 2020:Oberammergau Passion Play 1880:(1914–1918), postcard by 1775:villagers in 2000 in the 1605:Additionally, a piece of 1383: 1086:). A modern-day tracing ( 6722:Current judicial methods 6556:. New York. p. 29. 6552:Rest, Friedrich (1982). 6461:(dead link 6 April 2023) 5806:, section 5, article 24" 5535:Peters, Rudolph (2005). 5051:Peters, Rudolph (2006). 4901:Ehrman, Bart D. (2014). 4883:Barbet, 45; Zugibe, 57; 4711:. Simon & Schuster. 4352:10.1177/0142064X05055745 4008:After quoting a poem by 3821:"Quintus Curtius Rufus, 3566:10.1001/jama.255.11.1455 2992:. London. Archived from 2895:"Clement of Alexandria, 2766:10.1163/156853611X589651 2245:: Christian apostle and 2199:His death by crucifixion 2165:The rebel slaves of the 2084:Filipino Catholic Church 1985:As a devotional practice 1857:Sculpture construction: 1736:(CRC) reported that the 1559:when it was occupied by 1129:Lucius Pedanius Secundus 1116:spectacle and an example 980:destruction of Jerusalem 712:as a devotional practice 354:(1547–1606): on left, a 173:usually means "impale". 5463:. Kregel Publications. 5460:In the Fullness of Time 5415:20 (1–2), 1970: 38–59; 5229:Schmidt, Petra (2002). 5164:Clark Worswick (1979). 5021:Kadri, Sadakat (2012). 4955:(2nd ed.). Brill. 4793:Encyclopædia Britannica 4707:Barry, Strauss (2009). 4675:Antiquities of the Jews 4642:Barry, Strauss (2009). 4096:Encyclopædia Britannica 3966:. Penelope.uchicago.edu 3900:Polybius. The Histories 3718:W.W. How and J. Wells, 2968:A Greek–English Lexicon 1865:, United Kingdom (2007) 1844:Crucifixion in the arts 1814:against then-President 1685:anti-government protest 1567:Archaeological evidence 1376:. Known in Japanese as 937:supplicium more maiorum 768:Commentary on Herodotus 651:A theory attributed to 594:(heel bone) with a nail 275:derives from the Latin 6503:Philippine News Agency 6477:Philippine News Agency 5299:Bourke, Roger (2006). 5108:Anthony, Sean (2014). 4953:Encyclopaedia of Islam 4026:Titus Maccius Plautus 3695:encyclopedia Hellinica 3172:. PoweredbyOsteons.org 2899:, book VI, chapter 11" 2065:for a limited time on 2050: 2047:San Fernando, Pampanga 2014:, on the outskirts of 1999:at a public street in 1657: 1507: 1495: 1426: 1415: 1357: 1256: 1202: in) across. The 1039:, the first Christian 783: 724: 595: 319: 295: 289: 283: 277: 267: 230:Epistle to the Hebrews 49: 6554:Our Christian symbols 6327:Amnesty International 6275:Amnesty International 5722:nyccriminallawyer.com 5427:35 (1), 1985: 22–27; 5347:The Crucified Soldier 4778:Fallow, Thomas Macall 4491:Zias, Joseph (1998). 4318:www.perseus.tufts.edu 4161:. Thelatinlibrary.com 4140:. Thelatinlibrary.com 4081:Fallow, Thomas Macall 4064:, book 5, chapter 11" 4046:penelope.uchicago.edu 3946:googleusercontent.com 2959:Liddell, Henry George 2044: 1989:Further information: 1722:Amnesty International 1640: 1571:Further information: 1524:1st Canadian Division 1505: 1425:included crucifixions 1423:Great Genna Martyrdom 1420: 1343: 1242:Further information: 1037:Constantine the Great 777: 719: 589: 542:as distinct from the 491:Clement of Alexandria 310: 106:Further information: 36: 3795:. Eerdmans. p. 3760:Shi, Wenhua (2008). 2915:Dialogue with Trypho 2320:Crucifixion darkness 2295:Volto Santo of Lucca 2281:Eulalia of Barcelona 2255:Saint Andrew's Cross 2237:Cross of Saint Peter 2130:improve this article 2102:Notable crucifixions 2092:Department of Health 1899:, Mexico City (2011) 1827:United Arab Emirates 1790:On 22 January 2014, 1555:civil population of 1431:26 Christian Martyrs 249:Acts of the Apostles 76:crucifixion of Jesus 7109:Crosses by function 6866:Republican marriage 6795:Damnatio ad bestias 6157:The Daily Telegraph 5562:AP (5 March 2013). 5417:Tzaferis, Vassilios 4208:(Mohn Siebeck 2008 4179:Flavius, Josephus. 4062:The War of the Jews 3624:Brenner, B (2005). 3382:Zugibe, Frederick T 3074:Jewish Encyclopedia 2855:The Apostles' Creed 2689:The Apostles' Creed 2627:yourdictionary.com/ 2330:Positional asphyxia 2302:26 Martyrs of Japan 2265:Bishop of Jerusalem 2261:Simeon of Jerusalem 1838:In culture and arts 1823:Ministry of Justice 1080:Alexamenos graffito 841:Alexander the Great 606:the remains of one 570:Alexamenos graffito 486:Epistle of Barnabas 7084:Capital punishment 7038:Wrongful execution 6950:Suffocation in ash 6806:Blowing from a gun 6714:Capital punishment 6303:. 8 September 1997 6215:The New York Times 5873:. 4 November 1991. 5839:chicagotribune.com 5093:[Hiraba]. 5072:[Taslib]. 4885:Vassilios Tzaferis 4762:Barbet, P (1953). 4299:2016-03-04 at the 4203:David W. Chapman, 3691:2011-06-28 at the 2736:2008-03-29 at the 2559:A Latin Dictionary 2051: 1878:Allegory of Poland 1658: 1508: 1427: 1403:Toyotomi Hideyoshi 1391:Tokugawa Shogunate 1358: 831:Alexander Jannaeus 784: 692:pulmonary embolism 596: 521:used to roast the 391: 4 BCE–65 CE 384:Seneca the Younger 320: 57:capital punishment 50: 45:crucified between 7104:Public executions 7089:Execution methods 7066: 7065: 7043:Botched execution 6628:978-0-88920-939-8 6438:on June 23, 2012. 6413:978-0-86534-504-1 6251:. 23 October 2011 5548:978-1-139-44534-4 5470:978-0-8254-3329-0 5379:978-0-330-49062-7 5312:978-0-7022-3564-1 5242:978-90-04-12421-9 5207:978-0-8248-0077-2 5177:978-0-394-50836-8 5150:978-0-8118-0762-3 5032:978-0-09-952327-7 5008:Surah Al-Ma'idah 4912:978-0-06-177818-6 4732:Josephus (1990). 4718:978-1-4391-5839-5 4709:The Spartacus War 4655:978-1-4391-5839-5 4645:The Spartacus War 4628:978-0-8028-3829-2 4598:978-3-16-152508-7 4284:978-0-19-532532-4 4251:978-0-8308-2719-0 4214:978-3-16-149579-3 4159:"Annales 15:60.1" 4015:Letter 101, 12–14 3950:The Latin Library 3910:978-0-19-953470-8 3879:A History of Rome 3862:978-1-59797-766-1 3855:. Potomac Books. 3806:978-0-8028-6679-0 3773:978-3-16-149706-3 3560:(11): 1455–1463. 3499:Linacre Quarterly 3427:978-1-59077-070-2 3395:978-0-913729-75-5 3027:978-0-19-518811-0 2869:978-0-664-25826-9 2832:Adversus Haereses 2816:978-3-16-156001-9 2754:Novum Testamentum 2699:978-0-664-25826-9 2522:Polybius 1.11.5 2480:A Town Like Alice 2273:: the founder of 2253:cross (hence the 2167:Third Servile War 2162: 2161: 2154: 1816:Viktor Yanukovych 1777:Dooplaya District 1757:Oxford University 1587:Roman-Jewish wars 1542:documentary show 964:Third Servile War 927:arbori suspendere 790:, beginning with 680:hypovolemic shock 397:, during Emperor 314:'s 1866 painting 261:derives from the 257:The English term 108:Cross § Name 18:Jesus Christ Pose 7116: 6752:Nitrogen hypoxia 6747:Lethal injection 6707: 6700: 6693: 6684: 6636: 6635: 6612: 6606: 6599: 6593: 6588: 6582: 6581: 6575: 6567: 6549: 6543: 6537: 6531: 6520: 6514: 6513: 6511: 6509: 6494: 6488: 6487: 6485: 6483: 6468: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6457: 6446: 6440: 6439: 6434:. Archived from 6424: 6418: 6417: 6397: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6387: 6372: 6366: 6365: 6345: 6339: 6338: 6336: 6334: 6329:. September 1997 6319: 6313: 6312: 6310: 6308: 6293: 6287: 6286: 6284: 6282: 6277:. September 1997 6267: 6261: 6260: 6258: 6256: 6239: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6229: 6206: 6200: 6199: 6197: 6196: 6181: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6171: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6138: 6115: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6104: 6087: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6071:on 21 April 2011 6070: 6063: 6055: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6044: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6022: 6010: 6001: 6000: 5994: 5992: 5975: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5964: 5953: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5931: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5921: 5906: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5896: 5887:. Archived from 5881: 5875: 5874: 5863: 5857: 5856: 5850: 5842: 5830: 5824: 5823: 5821: 5810: 5798: 5792: 5791: 5789: 5778: 5770: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5760: 5754: 5748:. Archived from 5747: 5739: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5719: 5711: 5705: 5692: 5686: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5664: 5659:. April 23, 2019 5649: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5623: 5617: 5616: 5610: 5602: 5600: 5598: 5587: 5581: 5580: 5578: 5576: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5532: 5526: 5520: 5514: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5481: 5475: 5474: 5454: 5448: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5387: 5381: 5367: 5361: 5360: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5331: 5325: 5324: 5296: 5287: 5286: 5279:Baptist Magazine 5271: 5265: 5264: 5253: 5247: 5246: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5191: 5182: 5181: 5161: 5155: 5154: 5139:. photograph by 5130: 5124: 5123: 5121: 5119: 5105: 5099: 5098: 5087: 5078: 5077: 5066: 5057: 5056: 5048: 5037: 5036: 5018: 5012: 5011: 5000: 4994: 4993: 4991: 4990: 4981:. Archived from 4971: 4965: 4964: 4948: 4917: 4916: 4898: 4892: 4881: 4875: 4868: 4862: 4859:Against Heresies 4855: 4849: 4842: 4833: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4823:on March 6, 2004 4819:. 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Archived from 3101: 3093: 3084: 3083: 3081: 3080: 3065: 3040: 3039: 3011: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3001: 2996:on 19 March 2008 2981: 2975: 2955: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2931: 2925: 2924: 2913:"Justin Martyr, 2909: 2903: 2902: 2891: 2885: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2850:Barclay, William 2846: 2840: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2800: 2794: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2760:(1): 60, 92–98. 2749: 2740: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2683: 2677: 2670: 2659: 2658: 2656: 2655: 2650:. Etymonline.com 2644: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2619: 2613: 2612: 2610: 2608: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2571: 2565: 2554: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2544: 2539:. Etymonline.com 2533: 2527: 2520: 2514: 2511: 2505: 2501: 2495: 2492:LSJ apotumpanizo 2489: 2483: 2472: 2466: 2464: 2454: 2450: 2435: 2426: 2425: 2406:Brill Publishers 2389: 2368: 2366: 2365: 2351: 2286: 2252: 2227:King of the Jews 2157: 2150: 2146: 2143: 2137: 2114: 2106: 1972:Christ Crucified 1967: 1957: 1956: 1430–1440 1954: 1939: 1927: 1908: 1897:Colonia Doctores 1892: 1874: 1863:Barbara Hepworth 1854: 1755:by a student at 1655: 1652: 1388: 1386: 1385: 1201: 1200: 1196: 1072: 1063: 1025:, an act called 972:Roman civil wars 881:, the tyrant of 829:The Jewish king 735:Pre-Roman states 665:Frederick Zugibe 626:Giv'at ha-Mivtar 623: 622: 618: 615: 600:Giv'at ha-Mivtar 578: 575: 516: 512: 509: 499: 496: 467: 464: 429: 392: 389: 344: 335: 298: 292: 286: 280: 270: 246: 245: 240: 227: 226: 221: 215: 214: 209: 203: 202: 197: 191: 190: 185: 172: 162: 161: 156: 150: 149: 144: 134: 126: 125: 120: 92:religious symbol 7124: 7123: 7119: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7114: 7113: 7099:Human positions 7069: 7068: 7067: 7062: 7028:List of methods 7013:Final statement 6964: 6785: 6783: 6776: 6716: 6711: 6662:Wayback Machine 6644: 6639: 6629: 6614: 6613: 6609: 6600: 6596: 6589: 6585: 6568: 6564: 6551: 6550: 6546: 6538: 6534: 6521: 6517: 6507: 6505: 6496: 6495: 6491: 6481: 6479: 6470: 6469: 6465: 6455: 6453: 6448: 6447: 6443: 6426: 6425: 6421: 6414: 6399: 6398: 6394: 6385: 6383: 6374: 6373: 6369: 6362: 6347: 6346: 6342: 6332: 6330: 6321: 6320: 6316: 6306: 6304: 6301:The Irish Times 6295: 6294: 6290: 6280: 6278: 6269: 6268: 6264: 6254: 6252: 6248:The Independent 6241: 6240: 6236: 6227: 6225: 6208: 6207: 6203: 6194: 6192: 6189:The Independent 6183: 6182: 6178: 6169: 6167: 6150: 6149: 6145: 6136: 6134: 6117: 6116: 6112: 6102: 6100: 6099:. 28 March 2010 6089: 6088: 6084: 6074: 6072: 6068: 6061: 6057: 6056: 6052: 6042: 6040: 6035: 6034: 6030: 6020: 6018: 6012: 6011: 6004: 5990: 5988: 5985:The Daily Beast 5977: 5976: 5972: 5962: 5960: 5955: 5954: 5950: 5940: 5938: 5933: 5932: 5928: 5919: 5917: 5908: 5907: 5903: 5894: 5892: 5883: 5882: 5878: 5865: 5864: 5860: 5843: 5832: 5831: 5827: 5819: 5808: 5800: 5799: 5795: 5787: 5781:uni-muenchen.de 5776: 5772: 5771: 5767: 5758: 5756: 5752: 5745: 5741: 5740: 5736: 5728: 5717: 5713: 5712: 5708: 5693: 5689: 5676: 5672: 5662: 5660: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5636: 5634: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5603: 5596: 5594: 5589: 5588: 5584: 5574: 5572: 5561: 5560: 5556: 5549: 5534: 5533: 5529: 5521: 5517: 5509: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5483: 5482: 5478: 5471: 5456: 5455: 5451: 5447:p. 181, note 93 5410: 5406: 5389: 5388: 5384: 5368: 5364: 5344: 5343: 5339: 5333: 5332: 5328: 5313: 5298: 5297: 5290: 5273: 5272: 5268: 5255: 5254: 5250: 5243: 5228: 5227: 5223: 5208: 5193: 5192: 5185: 5178: 5163: 5162: 5158: 5151: 5132: 5131: 5127: 5117: 5115: 5107: 5106: 5102: 5089: 5088: 5081: 5068: 5067: 5060: 5050: 5049: 5040: 5033: 5020: 5019: 5015: 5002: 5001: 4997: 4988: 4986: 4973: 4972: 4968: 4950: 4949: 4920: 4913: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4882: 4878: 4869: 4865: 4856: 4852: 4843: 4836: 4826: 4824: 4810: 4809: 4802: 4776: 4775: 4771: 4761: 4760: 4741: 4731: 4730: 4726: 4719: 4706: 4705: 4701: 4688: 4684: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4656: 4641: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4614: 4613: 4606: 4599: 4586: 4585: 4568: 4558: 4556: 4546: 4545: 4534: 4515: 4511: 4501: 4499: 4497:www.mercaba.org 4490: 4489: 4474: 4456: 4455: 4448: 4439: 4437: 4428: 4427: 4423: 4407: 4403: 4394: 4392: 4383: 4382: 4378: 4369: 4367: 4333: 4332: 4325: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4301:Wayback Machine 4285: 4272: 4271: 4267: 4252: 4238:Licona, Michael 4236: 4235: 4231: 4224: 4220: 4200: 4196: 4186: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4173: 4164: 4162: 4157: 4156: 4152: 4143: 4141: 4136: 4135: 4131: 4109: 4108: 4104: 4079: 4078: 4071: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4040: 4039: 4035: 4028:Miles gloriosus 4025: 4021: 4007: 4003: 3994: 3992: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3969: 3967: 3962: 3961: 3957: 3940: 3939: 3935: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3896: 3895: 3891: 3875: 3874: 3870: 3863: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3834: 3832: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3807: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3774: 3759: 3758: 3754: 3747:4Q541 column 6" 3741: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3726: 3717: 3713: 3703: 3699: 3693:Wayback Machine 3683: 3679: 3671: 3667: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3604: 3603: 3599: 3585: 3584: 3580: 3572: 3549: 3544: 3543: 3536: 3492: 3491: 3487: 3443: 3442: 3435: 3428: 3411: 3410: 3403: 3396: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3331: 3330: 3323: 3314: 3312: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3284: 3282: 3274: 3273: 3269: 3256:(12): 938–941. 3247: 3246: 3235: 3226: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3209: 3208: 3204: 3195: 3193: 3189: 3188: 3184: 3175: 3173: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3154: 3152: 3143: 3142: 3133: 3125: 3121: 3112: 3110: 3106: 3099: 3095: 3094: 3087: 3078: 3076: 3067: 3066: 3043: 3028: 3013: 3012: 3008: 2999: 2997: 2990:Daily Telegraph 2983: 2982: 2978: 2973:Perseus Project 2949: 2945: 2932: 2928: 2911: 2910: 2906: 2893: 2892: 2888: 2881: 2877: 2870: 2848: 2847: 2843: 2828: 2824: 2817: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2785: 2781: 2751: 2750: 2743: 2738:Wayback Machine 2711: 2707: 2700: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2671: 2662: 2653: 2651: 2646: 2645: 2641: 2631: 2629: 2621: 2620: 2616: 2606: 2604: 2603:on May 21, 2013 2595: 2594: 2590: 2580: 2578: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2555: 2551: 2542: 2540: 2535: 2534: 2530: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2502: 2498: 2490: 2486: 2473: 2469: 2462: 2456:Perseus Project 2452: 2439: 2436: 2429: 2391: 2390: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2371: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2311: 2284: 2250: 2215:Judaea province 2158: 2147: 2141: 2138: 2127: 2115: 2104: 2076:San Pedro Cutud 2055:Catholic Church 2032:Hermanos de Luz 1993: 1987: 1980: 1977:Diego Velázquez 1968: 1959: 1955: 1940: 1931: 1928: 1919: 1909: 1900: 1893: 1884: 1875: 1866: 1855: 1846: 1840: 1765: 1763:Other incidents 1730: 1698:punishments in 1663: 1653: 1635: 1575: 1569: 1500: 1474: 1443:Philip of Jesus 1407:sakasaharitsuke 1380: 1374:Kamakura period 1338: 1246: 1240: 1198: 1194: 1193: 1147: 1094: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1075: 1074: 1073: 1065: 1064: 1053: 1051:Society and law 929:—hanging on an 896: 891: 865:royal adoration 786:Some Christian 737: 732: 708: 646: 620: 616: 613: 611: 576: 531: 514: 510: 497: 473:William Barclay 465: 427: 390: 372: 362: 361: 360: 359: 347: 346: 345: 337: 336: 325: 312:Gabriel von Max 305: 110: 104: 55:is a method of 47:the two thieves 31: 24: 21: 12: 11: 5: 7122: 7120: 7112: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7071: 7070: 7064: 7063: 7061: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7009: 7008: 7003: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6972: 6970: 6969:Related topics 6966: 6965: 6963: 6962: 6957: 6955:Upright jerker 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6869: 6868: 6858: 6853: 6851:Disembowelment 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6821:Breaking wheel 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6790: 6788: 6784:Post-classical 6778: 6777: 6775: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6743: 6742: 6732: 6726: 6724: 6718: 6717: 6712: 6710: 6709: 6702: 6695: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6655: 6650: 6643: 6642:External links 6640: 6638: 6637: 6627: 6607: 6594: 6583: 6562: 6544: 6532: 6515: 6489: 6463: 6441: 6432:www.vatican.va 6419: 6412: 6392: 6367: 6360: 6340: 6314: 6288: 6262: 6234: 6201: 6176: 6143: 6110: 6082: 6050: 6028: 6002: 5970: 5948: 5926: 5901: 5876: 5858: 5825: 5793: 5765: 5734: 5706: 5687: 5670: 5644: 5618: 5582: 5554: 5547: 5527: 5515: 5503: 5491: 5476: 5469: 5449: 5429:Hengel, Martin 5404: 5382: 5369:Max Hastings, 5362: 5352:Secret History 5337: 5326: 5311: 5288: 5266: 5261:baptist.org.uk 5248: 5241: 5221: 5206: 5183: 5176: 5156: 5149: 5125: 5100: 5079: 5058: 5038: 5031: 5013: 4995: 4966: 4918: 4911: 4893: 4876: 4872:To the Nations 4863: 4850: 4844:Justin Martyr 4834: 4811:Zias, Joseph. 4800: 4788:Chisholm, Hugh 4769: 4739: 4724: 4717: 4699: 4682: 4661: 4654: 4634: 4627: 4604: 4597: 4566: 4532: 4509: 4472: 4463:Studia Antiqua 4446: 4421: 4401: 4390:Britannica.com 4376: 4346:(4): 379–391. 4323: 4305: 4283: 4265: 4250: 4229: 4218: 4194: 4171: 4150: 4129: 4102: 4091:Chisholm, Hugh 4069: 4051: 4033: 4019: 4001: 3991:. Grtbooks.com 3976: 3955: 3933: 3916: 3909: 3889: 3868: 3861: 3841: 3812: 3805: 3779: 3772: 3752: 3734: 3724: 3711: 3697: 3677: 3665: 3616: 3597: 3578: 3534: 3485: 3456:(4): 185–188. 3433: 3426: 3401: 3394: 3373: 3321: 3292: 3267: 3233: 3202: 3182: 3161: 3131: 3119: 3085: 3041: 3026: 3006: 2976: 2943: 2926: 2904: 2886: 2875: 2868: 2862:. p. 79. 2841: 2822: 2815: 2795: 2779: 2741: 2705: 2698: 2678: 2660: 2639: 2614: 2588: 2566: 2549: 2528: 2515: 2506: 2496: 2484: 2474:Roger Bourke, 2467: 2446:The Jewish War 2427: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2369: 2345: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2338: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2315:Breaking wheel 2310: 2307: 2306: 2305: 2298: 2288: 2278: 2268: 2258: 2240: 2230: 2203:Pontius Pilate 2192: 2182: 2175:Roman republic 2160: 2159: 2118: 2116: 2109: 2103: 2100: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1981: 1969: 1962: 1960: 1941: 1934: 1932: 1929: 1922: 1920: 1910: 1903: 1901: 1894: 1887: 1885: 1882:Sergey Solomko 1876: 1869: 1867: 1856: 1849: 1842:Main article: 1839: 1836: 1792:Dmytro Bulatov 1764: 1761: 1729: 1726: 1662: 1659: 1634: 1631: 1595:Givat HaMivtar 1568: 1565: 1545:Secret History 1499: 1496: 1473: 1470: 1466:Ringer Edwards 1447:Pedro Bautista 1421:The 1622 1366:Sengoku period 1337: 1334: 1329: 1328: 1325: 1302: 1258:The corpus of 1239: 1236: 1146: 1143: 1077: 1076: 1067: 1066: 1058: 1057: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1052: 1049: 992:Esquiline Gate 945:infelix lignum 895: 892: 890: 887: 800:Galatians 3:13 736: 733: 731: 728: 707: 704: 645: 644:Cause of death 642: 638:United Kingdom 634:Cambridgeshire 530: 529:Nail placement 527: 466: 130–202 352:Justus Lipsius 349: 348: 339: 338: 330: 329: 328: 327: 326: 324: 321: 304: 301: 103: 100: 78:is central to 22: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7121: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7007: 7006:Scharfrichter 7004: 7002: 6999: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 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6500: 6493: 6490: 6478: 6474: 6467: 6464: 6451: 6445: 6442: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6423: 6420: 6415: 6409: 6405: 6404: 6396: 6393: 6382:on 2009-12-26 6381: 6377: 6371: 6368: 6363: 6361:9789004353602 6357: 6353: 6352: 6344: 6341: 6328: 6324: 6318: 6315: 6302: 6298: 6292: 6289: 6276: 6272: 6266: 6263: 6250: 6249: 6244: 6238: 6235: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6205: 6202: 6190: 6186: 6180: 6177: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6147: 6144: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6114: 6111: 6098: 6097: 6092: 6086: 6083: 6067: 6060: 6054: 6051: 6038: 6032: 6029: 6016: 6009: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5987: 5986: 5981: 5974: 5971: 5958: 5952: 5949: 5937: 5930: 5927: 5915: 5911: 5905: 5902: 5891:on 2018-10-03 5890: 5886: 5880: 5877: 5872: 5868: 5862: 5859: 5854: 5848: 5840: 5836: 5829: 5826: 5818: 5814: 5807: 5805: 5797: 5794: 5786: 5782: 5775: 5769: 5766: 5755:on 2011-08-26 5751: 5744: 5738: 5735: 5727: 5723: 5716: 5710: 5707: 5703: 5702: 5697: 5691: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5674: 5671: 5658: 5654: 5648: 5645: 5633: 5629: 5622: 5619: 5614: 5608: 5593: 5586: 5583: 5571: 5570: 5565: 5558: 5555: 5550: 5544: 5540: 5539: 5531: 5528: 5525: 5519: 5516: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5501: 5495: 5492: 5487: 5480: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5462: 5461: 5453: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5441:0-8006-1268-X 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5405: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5386: 5383: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5366: 5363: 5358: 5354: 5353: 5348: 5341: 5338: 5330: 5327: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5308: 5304: 5303: 5295: 5293: 5289: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5270: 5267: 5262: 5258: 5252: 5249: 5244: 5238: 5234: 5233: 5225: 5222: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5203: 5199: 5198: 5190: 5188: 5184: 5179: 5173: 5169: 5168: 5160: 5157: 5152: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5137: 5129: 5126: 5113: 5112: 5104: 5101: 5096: 5092: 5086: 5084: 5080: 5075: 5071: 5065: 5063: 5059: 5054: 5047: 5045: 5043: 5039: 5034: 5028: 5024: 5017: 5014: 5009: 5005: 4999: 4996: 4985:on 2018-01-29 4984: 4980: 4976: 4970: 4967: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4927: 4925: 4923: 4919: 4914: 4908: 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2812: 2808: 2807: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2783: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2739: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2723:stick-figures 2719: 2715: 2714:Palatine Hill 2709: 2706: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2690: 2682: 2679: 2675: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2661: 2649: 2643: 2640: 2628: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2602: 2598: 2592: 2589: 2576: 2570: 2567: 2562: 2560: 2553: 2550: 2538: 2532: 2529: 2525: 2519: 2516: 2510: 2507: 2500: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2471: 2468: 2460: 2457: 2448: 2447: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2374: 2360: 2356: 2350: 2347: 2340: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2289: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2193: 2191:of the cross. 2190: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2163: 2156: 2153: 2145: 2135: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2119:This section 2117: 2113: 2108: 2107: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2048: 2043: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2004: 2002: 1998: 1992: 1984: 1978: 1974: 1973: 1966: 1961: 1950: 1946: 1945: 1938: 1933: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1891: 1886: 1883: 1879: 1873: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1853: 1848: 1845: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1821:In 1997, the 1819: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1735: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1660: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1611: 1608: 1603: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1574: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1547: 1546: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1504: 1497: 1494: 1490: 1489:seventh day. 1486: 1481: 1479: 1471: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1412: 1411:mizuharitsuke 1408: 1404: 1400: 1394: 1392: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1342: 1335: 1333: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1283: 1282: 1279: 1278:Sadakat Kadri 1275: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1207: 1205: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1144: 1142: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1126: 1125: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1071: 1062: 1050: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1017: 1011: 1009: 1005: 999: 997: 993: 989: 983: 981: 977: 973: 970:), and other 969: 965: 960: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 933: 932:arbor infelix 928: 924: 923:Ancient Roman 919: 917: 911: 909: 905: 901: 893: 888: 886: 884: 880: 875: 873: 868: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 836: 832: 827: 825: 821: 820:He will judge 817: 812: 808: 805: 801: 797: 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