1231:
1215:
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499:, to show the clonal, vegetative propagation of duckweeds. Daughter fronds (F1) originate from the vegetative node (No), from the mother frond F0 and remain attached to it by the stipule (Sti), which eventually breaks off, thereby releasing a new plant cluster. Daughter fronds may already initiate new fronds (F2) themselves before full maturity. Roots are attached at the prophyllum (P). (c) shows the progressive reduction from a leaf-like body with several veins and unbranched roots to a thallus-like morphology in the Lemnoideae.
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the plants are carried down the channels and do not typically proliferate greatly, as they prefer still waters. However, in some locations, a cyclical pattern exists, driven by weather patterns, in which the plants proliferate greatly during periods of low water movement before they are carried away as rainy periods ensue.
473:
then begin to introduce increased levels of nutrients into the surrounding wetlands and waterways, which can cause a disruption to native ecology. These conditions allow for the invasion of a fast growing species such as duckweed to establish themselves, spread, and displace other native species such
353:
conditions. They can be spread by sticking to the feathers of waterfowl and the skin or fur of other amphibious animals, and thus transported inadvertently to new bodies of water. The plants may also be transported by flooding or other moving water. In water bodies with constant currents or overflow,
503:
The duckweeds have long been a taxonomic mystery, and usually have been considered to be their own family, the
Lemnaceae. They primarily reproduce asexually. Flowers, if present at all, are small. Roots are either very much reduced, or absent entirely. They were suspected of being related to the
447:
Despite some of these benefits, because duckweed thrives in high-nutrient wetland environments, the plants can be seen as a nuisance species when conditions favor excessive proliferation in environments that are traditionally low in nutrients or
1104:
The Swiss
Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries, associated with the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, asserts that as well as the food and agricultural values, duckweed also may be used for
2326:"Production of bioethanol from four species of duckweeds (Landoltia punctata, Lemna aequinoctialis, Spirodela polyrrhiza, and Wolffia arrhiza) through optimization of saccharification process and fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae"
1124:
Duckweed also functions as a bioremediator by effectively filtering contaminants such as bacteria, nitrogen, phosphates, and other nutrients from naturally occurring bodies of water, constructed wetlands, and wastewater.
1214:
1109:
to capture toxins and for odor control, and that if a mat of duckweed is maintained during harvesting for removal of the toxins captured thereby, it prevents the development of algae and controls the breeding of
255:), so often are classified as the subfamily Lemnoideae within the family Araceae. Other classifications, particularly those created prior to the end of the twentieth century, place them as a separate family,
2389:
Ziegler, P.; Adelmann, K.; Zimmer, S.; Schmidt, C.; Appenroth, K.-J. (6 May 2014). Keurentjes, J. (ed.). "Relative in vitro growth rates of duckweeds ( L emnaceae) – the most rapidly growing higher plants".
1390:
Biosystematic investigations in the family of duckweeds (Lemnaceae) Vol. 2: The family of
Lemnaceae: a monographic study. – Morphology, karyology, ecology, geographic distribution, nomenclature, descriptions
494:
Duckweeds belong to the order
Alismatales and the family Araceae. (a) is a phylogenetic tree based on ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase large-subunit genes. (b) is a schematic ventral view of
1015:
Research and applications of duckweeds are promoted by two international organizations, The
International Lemna Association and the International Steering Committee on Duckweed Research and Applications.
1947:
Gallego, J.; Gandolfo, M.A.; CĂşneo, N.R.; Zamaloa, M.C. (2014). "Fossil
Araceae from the upper Cretaceous of Patagonia, Argentina, with implications on the origin of free-floating aquatic aroids".
349:
One of the more important factors influencing the distribution of wetland plants, and aquatic plants in particular, is nutrient availability. Duckweeds tend to be associated with fertile, even
514:
Their position within their family has been slightly less clear; however, several twenty-first century studies place them in the position shown below. Although they are in the same family as
1073:. The rapid nature of duckweed has shown that it can double biomass within four and a half days. Duckweed removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and it may have value for
1257:
farms. The plants use nitrogen and phosphorus produced from fish waste as fertilizer, while simultaneously cleaning the water as it grows. The water can then be reused by the
1242:
1049:
Duckweed is being studied by researchers around the world as a possible source of clean energy. In the U.S., in addition to being the subject of study by the DOE, both
985:, Canada, range from single leaves up to about 4 cm (1.6 in) in diameter to rosettes of up to four leaves, some of which were connected to adjacent plants by
324:
in the
Araceae. Evolution of the duckweed inflorescence remains ambiguous due to the considerable evolutionary reduction of these plants from their earlier relatives.
3567:
3157:
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282:) that allow it to float on or just under the water surface. Depending on the species, each plant may have no root or may have one or more simple rootlets.
2539:"Duckweed aquaculture: Potentials, possibilities, and limitations for combined wastewater treatment and animal feed production in developing countries"
3162:
1041:
programs. The results were published in
February 2014. They provide insight into how this plant is adapted to rapid growth and an aquatic lifestyle.
511:
Starting in 1995, studies began to confirm their placement in the
Araceae and since then, most systematists consider them to be part of that family.
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Some initial investigations, into what extent duckweed could be introduced to
European markets, show little consumer objection to the idea.
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1198:
870:
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1625:
2572:"Duckweed genome sequencing has global implications. Pond scum can undo pollution, fight global warming and alleviate world hunger"
1454:
Appenroth, K.J.; Sree, K.S.; Böhm, V.; Hammann, S.; Vetter, W.; Leiterer, M.; Jahreis, G. (2017). "Nutritional value of duckweeds (
1320:"Intergeneric and infrafamilial phylogeny of subfamily Monsteroideae (Araceae) revealed by chloroplast <011>trnL-F sequences"
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3585:
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farmers, and the duckweed, which has a 35-42% protein content, can be harvested as a source of sustainable plant-based
333:
is the smallest known, measuring merely 0.3 mm long. The fruit produced through this occasional reproduction is a
3476:
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3260:
3250:
2624:
1586:
1131:
459:, a mostly oligotrophic environment, when excess chemicals (that include fertilizers) are carried by storm runoff, or
393:. They also provide shade and, although frequently confused with them, can reduce certain light-generated growths of
1555:"Duckweed as human food: The influence of meal context and information on duckweed acceptability of Dutch consumers"
1236:
Myllylampi lake with duckweed "islands" photographed from above. Orusjärvi, Pitkyarantsky District, Karelia, Russia.
78:
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1020:
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To identify different duckweed genomes, a DNA-based molecular identification system was developed based on seven
3647:
1680:
Cabrera, Lidia I.; Salazar, Gerardo A.; Chase, Mark W.; Mayo, Simon J.; Bogner, Josef; Dávila, Patricia (2008).
3209:
3182:
911:
1682:"Phylogenetic relationships of aroids and duckweeds (Araceae) inferred from coding and noncoding plastid DNA"
1318:
Sheh-May Tam; Peter C. Boyce; Tim M. Upson; Denis Barabé; Anne Bruneau; Felix Forest; John S. Parker (2004).
3724:
3515:
2810:
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1253:
A start-up, microTERRA, based in Mexico has attempted to use duckweed to clean the water in privately owned
293:
1027:
announced that the Community Sequencing Program would fund sequencing of the genome of the giant duckweed,
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3167:
2627:. Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries Tools. Australia: Queensland Government. Archived from
1024:
470:
3365:
2538:
3616:
2158:
1892:
Wang, Wenqin; Wu, Yongrui; Yan, Yiheng; Ermakova, Marina; Kerstetter, Randall; Messing, Joachim (2010).
725:
436:
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490:
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1956:
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58:
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The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval
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These plants also may play a role in conservation of water because a cover of duckweed will reduce
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960:
928:
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309:
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1114:. The same publication provides an extensive list of references for many duckweed-related topics.
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1294:
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547:
358:
205:
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have ongoing projects to determine whether duckweed might be a source of cost-effective, clean,
3621:
2598:
2482:
1553:
de Beukelaar, Myrthe F.; Zeinstra, Gertrude G.; Mes, Jurriaan J.; Fischer, Arnout R.H. (2019).
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1813:
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382:
320:, with three flowers that are distinctly either female or male and which are derived from the
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2013:
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1695:
1642:
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394:
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2435:"High starch duckweed biomass production and its highly-efficient conversion to bioethanol"
1033:. This was a priority project for DOE in 2009. The research was intended to facilitate new
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1299:
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1137:
902:
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321:
116:
64:
31:
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of water when compared to the rate of a similarly sized water body with a clear surface.
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1960:
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300:
enclosed at the base of the frond. Occasionally, three tiny "flowers" consisting of two
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2325:
2190:
2154:
genome reveals insights into its neotenous reduction fast growth and aquatic lifestyle"
2149:
1924:
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1808:
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978:
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350:
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2017:
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370:
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224:
129:
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2080:
478:, and over time, result in widespread changes to the ecology of native sawgrass and
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1968:
1571:
1554:
1501:
1487:
1471:
1221:
940:
562:
466:
449:
313:
3352:
1502:"Lemna Gibbous Duckweed, Swollen duckweed, Windbags, Duckweed PFAF Plant Database"
3670:
3481:
3467:
2722:
2109:"International Steering Committee on Duckweed Research and Applications (ISCDRA)"
1798:
3598:
3399:
3332:
3240:
3192:
3187:
3172:
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1111:
1098:
894:
878:
806:
669:
456:
279:
239:. They float on or just beneath the surface of still or slow-moving bodies of
195:
3323:
2468:
2433:
Guo, Ling; Fang, Yang; Jin, Yanling; He, Kaize; Zhao, Hai (1 November 2023).
2411:
2357:
1914:
1754:
439:
identified duckweed as a top candidate for Martian food production projects.
3373:
3225:
3141:
3042:
2867:
2826:
2772:
1852:
1093:
because they grow rapidly, absorbing excess mineral nutrients, particularly
1038:
936:
920:
916:
758:
691:
657:
651:
378:
362:
181:
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2419:
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2199:
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1933:
1871:
1817:
1709:
1594:
1479:
1345:
1101:. For these reasons, they are touted as water purifiers of untapped value.
2625:"Bioremediation of aquaculture waste and degraded waterways using finfish"
1745:
1724:
686:
sizes have a ten-fold range (150~1,500 MB), potentially representing
3655:
3461:
3317:
3125:
3090:
3015:
3005:
2948:
2679:
1336:
1319:
1094:
413:
390:
297:
244:
1700:
1681:
1443:. Vol. 3: Limnological botany. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
17:
3032:
3026:
2975:
2857:
2834:
2180:
2064:
1977:
1284:
1089:
removal, if cropped, and the duckweeds are important in the process of
1086:
1062:
1034:
982:
974:
866:
823:
675:
613:
527:
479:
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425:
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329:
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289:
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252:
188:
149:
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48:
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994:
990:
986:
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898:
687:
683:
516:
421:
305:
3559:
3533:
3294:
2324:
Faizal, Ahmad; Sembada, Anca Awal; Priharto, Neil (1 January 2021).
2055:
2032:
1620:(13th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. p. 415.
428:, so sometimes it is cited as a significant potential food source.
3629:
3378:
3052:
2995:
2985:
2938:
924:
782:
663:
646:
489:
397:
275:
174:
90:
2754:
3020:
2990:
2508:"Duckweed wastewater treatment and reuse for fodder (West Bank)"
708:, contains plants with the largest genome size (1,500 MB).
432:
409:
386:
366:
341:
is produced in a bag containing air that facilitates flotation.
338:
267:
3298:
2799:
2303:"Duckweed a possible solution to energy needs, researchers say"
2108:
1723:
Wang, Wenqin; Kerstetter, Randall A.; Michael, Todd P. (2011).
973:
has been reported from the Paleocene of eastern Russia and the
3000:
1065:
because it grows rapidly, produces five to six times as much
408:
Duckweed is consumed in some parts of Southeast Asia, namely
2795:
2696:"W.P. Armstrong's exposition on and macrophotography of the
1768:
Wang, Wenqin; Messing, Joachim; Badger, Jonathan H. (2011).
278:" structure only a few cells thick, often with air pockets (
381:. The plants are used as shelter by pond species, such as
262:
These plants have a simple structure, lacking an obvious
2651:"3 Eco-Innovators Tackling Pollution and Climate Change"
1411:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 79.
520:, another aquatic plant, they are not closely related.
420:. In addition, it is also cultivated as a vegetable in
270:. The greater part of each plant is a small organized "
2219:: A biofuels, bioremediation, and carbon cycling crop"
1392:. Zürich: Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich.
897:
with affinities to the Lemnoideae first appear in the
885:
marker for species-level identification of duckweeds.
698:
has the smallest genome size (150 MB, similar to
2031:
Stockey, R.A.; Hoffman, G.L.; Rothwell, G.W. (1997).
1069:
as corn per unit of area, and does not contribute to
981:. Unusually complete specimens from the Paleocene of
504:
Araceae as long ago as 1876, but until the advent of
2599:"Practical duckweed: Application areas and sponsors"
2123:"Duckweed genome sequencing has global implications"
3451:
3307:
3218:
3150:
3066:
2957:
2833:
369:. The tiny plants provide cover for the vulnerable
251:, they arose from within the arum or aroid family (
1360:
1001:pollen. Occurrences of lemnoid seeds described as
935:Fossils of floating leaves with rootlets from the
1528:"Dr. Wastewater's duckweed application page"
424:. It produces more protein per square meter than
2004:– A fossil link between Araceae and Lemnaceae".
3158:Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels
2757:on 3 January 2007 – via delta-intkey.com.
2747:Watson, L. & Dallwitz, M.J. (3 May 2006) .
1840:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1774:(duckweeds) chloroplast genomes from total DNA"
909:) as evidenced by floating leaves described as
1831:Hollingsworth, P.M.; et al. (July 2009).
1641:Finkl, Charles; Makowski, Christopher (2017).
1616:Cunningham, William; Cunningham, Mary (2015).
455:One example of this problem occurs within the
2811:
8:
1644:Coastal Wetlands: Alteration and remediation
1409:Wetland Ecology: Principles and conservation
2095:"The International Lemna Association (ILA)"
1647:. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 16.
1248:Duckweed-covered pond near ChodzieĹĽ, Poland
68:: The latter are less than 2 mm long.
3295:
2818:
2804:
2796:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1220:Duckweed-covered water edged with several
720:are more closely related than the others.
56:Close-up of two different duckweed types:
47:
38:
3163:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage
2458:
2439:Environmental Technology & Innovation
2365:
2189:
2179:
2054:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1976:
1923:
1913:
1861:
1851:
1807:
1797:
1744:
1699:
1570:
1335:
893:Extinct free-floating aquatic plants and
508:, testing this hypothesis was difficult.
1725:"Evolution of Genome Size in Duckweeds (
1081:Filtration of contaminants and nutrients
969:. In addition to western North America,
2037:: Resolving the phylogeny of Lemnaceae"
1618:Environmental Science: A global concern
1310:
1127:
2623:Knibb, Wayne (July 2001 – June 2004).
2278:"Duckweed quacks volumes of potential"
1363:The Biology of Aquatic Vascular Plants
2305:. Pressofatlanticcity.com. 3 May 2010
2255:"Researchers Find Fuel in Odd Places"
1949:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
1770:"High-Throughput sequencing of three
989:, and a few of which bear remains of
312:occurs. Some view this "flower" as a
7:
3635:FA9E1FA5-F013-3C13-C3F8-1A765E559F6B
3609:7d775d14-315e-412d-97f1-e50b69774a46
3231:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
2787:(research lab site). SpirodelaBase.
2330:Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences
1061:. Duckweed is a good candidate as a
947:, that were originally described as
2706:. Natural History. San Marcos, CA:
2215:"Genome sequencing of the duckweed
798:
774:
750:
743:
728:position of the taxon, followed by
587:
540:
533:
523:
3648:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000517-2
2127:E! Science News (Esciencenews.com)
963:in 1885, have been redescribed as
871:Consortium for the Barcode of Life
25:
2765:"Duckweed growth inhibition test"
1359:Sculthorpe, Cyril Duncan (1985).
704:), while the most derived genus,
565:(skunk cabbages and golden club)
327:The flower of the duckweed genus
3279:
3278:
1591:The caves of Mars (highmars.org)
1241:
1229:
1213:
1197:
1181:
1165:
1149:
1130:
482:habitats within the Everglades.
345:Duckweed in natural environments
77:
1898:, a family of aquatic monocots"
1833:"A DNA barcode for land plants"
1055:North Carolina State University
357:Duckweed is an important, high-
2148:Wang, W.; et al. (2014).
1969:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2014.08.017
1572:10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.06.005
1472:10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.08.116
1439:Hutchinson, G. Evelyn (1975).
611:most of the rest of the family
1:
1045:Potential clean energy source
740:, which is the most derived.
2537:Iqbal, Sascha (March 1999).
2487:American Energy Independence
2018:10.1016/0304-3770(94)00442-O
1799:10.1371/journal.pone.0024670
223:is a subfamily of flowering
3261:Issues relating to biofuels
3251:Energy return on investment
1559:Food Quality and Preference
1367:. Koeltz Scientific Books.
1280:Hyperaccumulators table – 3
27:Subfamily of aquatic plants
3751:
2350:10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.10.002
2042:American Journal of Botany
1687:American Journal of Botany
1324:American Journal of Botany
881:was chosen as a universal
285:Reproduction is mostly by
30:For the Chinese film, see
29:
3274:
3236:Energy content of biofuel
2460:10.1016/j.eti.2023.103296
2213:Michael, Todd P. (2008).
1075:climate change mitigation
1021:U.S. Department of Energy
1011:Research and applications
1007:have also been reported.
923:, and the lemnoid pollen
869:-markers proposed by the
820:
803:
796:
779:
772:
755:
748:
694:. The ancestral genus of
608:
592:
585:
560:
545:
538:
531:
211:
204:
170:
165:
74:Scientific classification
72:
55:
46:
41:
3210:Thermal depolymerization
3183:Industrial biotechnology
2680:"The charms of duckweed"
2035:Limnobiophyllum scutatum
1915:10.1186/1471-2229-10-205
912:Aquaephyllum auriculatum
3735:Phytoremediation plants
3730:Alismatales subfamilies
3668:Watson & Dallwitz:
3178:Fischer–Tropsch process
3168:Biomass heating systems
2700:and allies (duckweeds)"
2483:"Carbon Neutral Energy"
1853:10.1073/pnas.0905845106
1441:A Treatise on Limnology
1403:Keddy, Paul A. (2010).
1388:Landolt, Elias (1986).
1085:The plants can provide
308:are produced, by which
296:), which occurs from a
294:vegetative reproduction
1894:"DNA barcoding of the
1025:Joint Genome Institute
500:
471:agricultural pollution
463:, into its waterways.
404:Use as human food crop
3617:Paleobiology Database
2767:. List of Standards.
2159:Nature Communications
1587:"Flat crops for Mars"
493:
437:Caves of Mars Project
2276:Sims, Bryan (n.d.).
2033:"The fossil monocot
1997:KvaÄŤek, Z. (1995). "
1337:10.3732/ajb.91.3.490
1107:wastewater treatment
701:Arabidopsis thaliana
365:and many species of
59:Spirodela polyrrhiza
3266:Sustainable biofuel
2775:on 27 January 2013.
2451:2023EnvTI..3203296G
2342:2021SJBS...28..294F
2282:Biomassmagazine.com
2217:Spirodela polyrhiza
2172:2014NatCo...5.3311W
2152:Spirodela polyrhiza
2111:(official website).
2097:(official website).
1961:2014RPaPa.211...78G
1846:(31): 12794–12797.
1790:2011PLoSO...624670W
1746:10.1155/2011/570319
1701:10.3732/ajb.0800073
1206:Spirodela polyrhiza
1030:Spirodela polyrhiza
961:John William Dawson
506:molecular phylogeny
389:, and fish such as
377:of many fishes and
310:sexual reproduction
2789:Rutgers University
2631:on 20 October 2007
2576:Rutgers University
2226:Rutgers University
2181:10.1038/ncomms4311
1534:on 27 October 2009
1526:Landesman, Louis.
1458:) as human food".
1295:Smallest organisms
1051:Rutgers University
1019:In July 2008, the
901:record during the
649:of duckweeds are:
548:Gymnostachydoideae
501:
3707:
3706:
3426:Open Tree of Life
3301:Taxon identifiers
3292:
3291:
3205:Sabatier reaction
2655:Columbia Magazine
2574:(Press release).
2404:10.1111/plb.12184
2235:on 3 October 2011
1902:BMC Plant Biology
1733:Journal of Botany
1418:978-0-521-73967-2
1374:978-3-87429-257-3
862:
861:
853:
852:
844:
843:
835:
834:
642:
641:
633:
632:
624:
623:
574:
573:
218:
217:
16:(Redirected from
3742:
3700:
3699:
3687:
3686:
3674:
3673:
3664:
3663:
3651:
3650:
3638:
3637:
3625:
3624:
3612:
3611:
3602:
3601:
3599:NBNSYS0000160287
3589:
3588:
3576:
3575:
3563:
3562:
3550:
3549:
3537:
3536:
3524:
3523:
3511:
3510:
3498:
3497:
3485:
3484:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3444:
3443:
3434:
3433:
3421:
3420:
3408:
3407:
3395:
3394:
3382:
3381:
3369:
3368:
3356:
3355:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3296:
3282:
3281:
3126:Pongamia pinnata
2820:
2813:
2806:
2797:
2792:
2776:
2771:. Archived from
2758:
2753:. Archived from
2743:
2734:
2731:delta-intkey.com
2718:
2716:
2714:
2692:Armstrong, Wayne
2687:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2543:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2514:. Archived from
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2462:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2369:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2234:
2228:. Archived from
2223:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2193:
2183:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2058:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2003:
1994:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1927:
1917:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1865:
1855:
1837:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1801:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1748:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1703:
1694:(9): 1153–1165.
1677:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1593:. Archived from
1583:
1577:
1576:
1574:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1530:. Archived from
1523:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1366:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1339:
1315:
1290:Phytoremediation
1245:
1233:
1217:
1201:
1185:
1169:
1153:
1134:
1059:renewable energy
799:
775:
751:
744:
588:
541:
534:
524:
443:Invasive species
395:photoautotrophic
361:food source for
247:. Also known as
82:
81:
51:
39:
21:
3750:
3749:
3745:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3695:
3690:
3682:
3677:
3669:
3667:
3659:
3654:
3646:
3641:
3633:
3628:
3620:
3615:
3607:
3605:
3597:
3592:
3584:
3579:
3571:
3566:
3558:
3553:
3545:
3540:
3532:
3527:
3519:
3514:
3506:
3501:
3493:
3488:
3480:
3475:
3466:
3465:
3460:
3447:
3439:
3437:
3429:
3424:
3416:
3411:
3403:
3398:
3390:
3385:
3377:
3372:
3364:
3359:
3351:
3346:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3303:
3293:
3288:
3270:
3246:Energy forestry
3214:
3146:
3108:Jatropha curcas
3069:
3062:
2970:Camelina sativa
2960:
2953:
2829:
2824:
2779:
2763:
2746:
2739:
2721:
2712:
2710:
2708:Palomar College
2690:
2678:Cross, John W.
2677:
2674:
2669:
2659:
2657:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2634:
2632:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2607:
2605:
2597:Cross, John W.
2596:
2595:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2555:
2553:
2541:
2536:
2535:
2531:
2521:
2519:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2491:
2489:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2308:
2306:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2286:
2284:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2260:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2221:
2212:
2211:
2207:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2132:
2130:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2056:10.2307/2446009
2030:
2029:
2025:
2001:
1999:Limnobiophyllum
1996:
1995:
1986:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1876:
1874:
1835:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1739:(570319): 1–9.
1722:
1721:
1717:
1679:
1678:
1669:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1600:
1598:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1537:
1535:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1510:
1508:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1402:
1401:
1397:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1317:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1300:Wolffia globosa
1271:
1249:
1246:
1237:
1234:
1225:
1218:
1209:
1202:
1193:
1186:
1177:
1170:
1161:
1154:
1145:
1138:Common duckweed
1135:
1083:
1047:
1013:
971:Limnobiophyllum
966:Limnobiophyllum
903:Late Cretaceous
891:
863:
854:
845:
836:
712:has shown that
643:
634:
625:
575:
488:
445:
406:
347:
76:
65:Wolffia globosa
35:
32:Duckweed (film)
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3748:
3746:
3738:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3725:Aquatic plants
3722:
3712:
3711:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3688:
3684:wfo-7000000695
3675:
3665:
3652:
3639:
3626:
3613:
3603:
3590:
3577:
3564:
3551:
3538:
3525:
3512:
3499:
3486:
3473:
3457:
3455:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3435:
3422:
3409:
3396:
3383:
3370:
3357:
3344:
3329:
3313:
3311:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3122:
3111:
3104:
3099:
3097:Chinese tallow
3094:
3087:
3082:
3074:
3072:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2965:
2963:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2951:
2946:
2944:Water hyacinth
2941:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2924:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2912:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2815:
2808:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2777:
2760:
2759:
2744:
2736:
2735:
2719:
2688:
2673:
2672:External links
2670:
2668:
2667:
2642:
2615:
2589:
2563:
2529:
2518:on 8 June 2011
2499:
2474:
2425:
2381:
2336:(1): 294–301.
2316:
2294:
2268:
2246:
2205:
2140:
2114:
2100:
2086:
2049:(3): 355–368.
2023:
2006:Aquatic Botany
1984:
1939:
1884:
1823:
1760:
1715:
1667:
1653:
1633:
1626:
1608:
1597:on 1 July 2007
1578:
1545:
1518:
1493:
1460:Food Chemistry
1446:
1431:
1417:
1395:
1380:
1373:
1351:
1330:(3): 490–498.
1309:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1270:
1267:
1251:
1250:
1247:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1228:
1226:
1219:
1212:
1210:
1203:
1196:
1194:
1187:
1180:
1178:
1174:Lemna trisulca
1171:
1164:
1162:
1155:
1148:
1146:
1136:
1129:
1091:bioremediation
1082:
1079:
1071:global warming
1046:
1043:
1012:
1009:
979:Czech Republic
890:
887:
860:
859:
856:
855:
851:
850:
847:
846:
842:
841:
838:
837:
833:
832:
829:
828:
819:
816:
815:
812:
811:
802:
797:
795:
792:
791:
788:
787:
778:
773:
771:
768:
767:
764:
763:
754:
749:
747:
742:
710:DNA sequencing
640:
639:
636:
635:
631:
630:
627:
626:
622:
621:
618:
617:
607:
604:
603:
600:
599:
591:
586:
584:
581:
580:
577:
576:
572:
571:
568:
567:
559:
556:
555:
552:
551:
544:
539:
537:
532:
530:
522:
487:
484:
461:surface runoff
444:
441:
405:
402:
346:
343:
225:aquatic plants
216:
215:
209:
208:
202:
201:
200:
199:
192:
185:
178:
168:
167:
163:
162:
157:
153:
152:
147:
143:
142:
137:
133:
132:
127:
120:
119:
114:
107:
106:
101:
94:
93:
88:
84:
83:
70:
69:
53:
52:
44:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3747:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3698:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3666:
3662:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3478:
3474:
3469:
3463:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3450:
3442:
3436:
3432:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3334:
3330:
3325:
3319:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3285:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3256:Food vs. fuel
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3217:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3065:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2903:
2899:
2898:vegetable oil
2896:
2895:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2821:
2816:
2814:
2809:
2807:
2802:
2801:
2798:
2790:
2786:
2784:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2761:
2756:
2752:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2738:
2737:
2732:
2728:
2726:
2720:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2699:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2630:
2626:
2619:
2616:
2604:
2600:
2593:
2590:
2578:. 8 July 2008
2577:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2551:
2547:
2546:SANDEC Report
2540:
2533:
2530:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2503:
2500:
2488:
2484:
2478:
2475:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2398:(s1): 33–41.
2397:
2393:
2392:Plant Biology
2385:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2317:
2304:
2298:
2295:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2269:
2256:
2250:
2247:
2231:
2227:
2220:
2218:
2209:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2153:
2144:
2141:
2129:. 8 July 2008
2128:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2096:
2090:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2027:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1897:
1888:
1885:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1834:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1784:(9): e24670.
1783:
1779:
1775:
1773:
1764:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1728:
1719:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1656:
1654:9783319561783
1650:
1646:
1645:
1637:
1634:
1629:
1627:9781259255724
1623:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1579:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1546:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1519:
1507:
1503:
1497:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
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1017:
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1000:
999:Pandaniidites
997:that contain
996:
992:
988:
984:
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976:
972:
968:
967:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
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929:Pandaniidites
926:
922:
918:
914:
913:
908:
907:Maastrichtian
904:
900:
896:
889:Fossil record
888:
886:
884:
883:DNA barcoding
880:
876:
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868:
858:
857:
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839:
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827:
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319:
318:inflorescence
316:, or reduced
315:
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299:
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288:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
260:
258:
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246:
242:
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234:
233:water lentils
230:
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104:Tracheophytes
102:
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85:
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33:
19:
3452:
3308:
3124:
3118:
3114:
3106:
3101:
3089:
3085:Big bluestem
3077:
3070:energy crops
3025:
2968:
2782:
2773:the original
2769:lemnatec.com
2768:
2755:the original
2749:
2741:derived from
2740:
2730:
2724:
2711:. Retrieved
2704:Wayne's Word
2703:
2697:
2683:
2658:. Retrieved
2654:
2645:
2633:. Retrieved
2629:the original
2618:
2606:. Retrieved
2602:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2566:
2554:. Retrieved
2549:
2545:
2532:
2520:. Retrieved
2516:the original
2511:
2502:
2490:. Retrieved
2486:
2477:
2442:
2438:
2428:
2395:
2391:
2384:
2333:
2329:
2319:
2307:. Retrieved
2297:
2285:. Retrieved
2281:
2271:
2259:. Retrieved
2249:
2237:. Retrieved
2230:the original
2216:
2208:
2163:
2157:
2151:
2143:
2131:. Retrieved
2126:
2117:
2103:
2089:
2046:
2040:
2034:
2026:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1905:
1901:
1895:
1887:
1875:. Retrieved
1843:
1839:
1826:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1763:
1736:
1732:
1726:
1718:
1691:
1685:
1658:. Retrieved
1643:
1636:
1617:
1611:
1599:. Retrieved
1595:the original
1590:
1581:
1565:(1): 76–86.
1562:
1558:
1548:
1536:. Retrieved
1532:the original
1521:
1509:. Retrieved
1505:
1496:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1449:
1440:
1434:
1422:. Retrieved
1408:
1398:
1389:
1383:
1362:
1354:
1327:
1323:
1313:
1252:
1222:bald cypress
1204:
1188:
1172:
1156:
1123:
1116:
1103:
1084:
1048:
1028:
1018:
1014:
1004:Lemnospermum
1002:
998:
970:
964:
956:
952:
948:
941:Saskatchewan
939:of southern
934:
927:
910:
892:
874:
864:
822:
821:
805:
804:
781:
780:
757:
756:
737:
733:
729:
721:
717:
713:
705:
699:
695:
681:
674:
668:
662:
656:
650:
644:
610:
609:
597:(duckweeds)
594:
593:
563:Orontioideae
561:
546:
515:
513:
510:
502:
496:
467:Urban runoff
465:
454:
450:oligotrophic
446:
430:
407:
356:
348:
328:
326:
314:pseudanthium
284:
261:
256:
248:
237:water lenses
236:
232:
228:
220:
219:
212:
194:
187:
180:
173:
159:
123:
110:
97:
63:
57:
36:
3400:iNaturalist
3333:Wikispecies
3241:Energy crop
3188:Pellet fuel
3173:Biorefinery
3137:Switchgrass
2981:Coconut oil
2959:Energy from
2893:Cooking oil
2878:Biogasoline
2853:Babassu oil
2660:24 November
2608:13 November
2522:13 November
2492:13 November
2309:13 November
2287:13 November
2261:13 November
2133:13 November
2002:(Krassilov)
1978:11336/36506
1466:: 266–273.
1405:"Fertility"
1259:aquaculture
1255:aquaculture
1190:Lemna gibba
1158:Lemna minor
1119:evaporation
877:non-coding
241:fresh water
227:, known as
156:Subfamily:
140:Alismatales
117:Angiosperms
42:Lemnoideae
3720:Lemnoideae
3714:Categories
3560:30000517-2
3339:Lemnoideae
3309:Lemnoideae
3151:Technology
3132:Salicornia
3115:Miscanthus
3038:Sugar beet
2910:cellulosic
2883:Bioliquids
2863:Biobutanol
2713:16 October
2635:6 February
2556:31 January
2445:: 103296.
2257:. Ncsu.edu
1908:(1): 205.
1772:Lemnoideae
1601:11 January
1538:31 January
1306:References
1112:mosquitoes
1099:phosphates
807:Wolffiella
734:Wolffiella
724:is at the
714:Wolffiella
692:octaploids
670:Wolffiella
595:Lemnoideae
457:Everglades
379:amphibians
280:aerenchyma
221:Lemnoideae
213:Lemnaceae
196:Wolffiella
160:Lemnoideae
3508:Lemnaceae
3468:Q14293890
3453:Lemnaceae
3226:Agflation
3119:giganteus
3048:Sunflower
3043:Sugarcane
2961:foodstock
2868:Biodiesel
2827:Bioenergy
2785:genomics"
2783:Spirodela
2725:Lemnaceae
2698:Lemnaceae
2684:mobot.org
2603:Mobot.org
2469:2352-1864
2412:1435-8603
2358:1319-562X
2012:: 49–61.
1955:: 78–86.
1896:Lemnaceae
1755:2090-0120
1727:Lemnaceae
1660:1 January
1511:4 January
1456:Lemnaceae
1039:bioenergy
953:Spirodela
937:Paleocene
921:Argentina
917:Patagonia
875:atpF-atpH
759:Spirodela
722:Spirodela
696:Spirodela
682:Duckweed
658:Landoltia
652:Spirodela
497:Spirodela
391:bluegills
383:bullfrogs
363:waterfowl
351:eutrophic
257:Lemnaceae
229:duckweeds
182:Spirodela
87:Kingdom:
3671:lemnacea
3661:42000344
3656:Tropicos
3462:Wikidata
3438:VASCAN:
3318:Wikidata
3284:Category
3219:Concepts
3102:Duckweed
3091:Camelina
3068:Non-food
3016:Rapeseed
3006:Palm oil
2949:Wood gas
2922:Methanol
2915:mixtures
2835:Biofuels
2694:(n.d.).
2582:10 March
2420:24803032
2376:33424309
2200:24548928
2166:: 3311.
2081:20957240
2073:21708589
1934:20846439
1877:2 August
1872:19666622
1818:21931804
1778:PLOS ONE
1710:21632433
1506:pfaf.org
1480:27664634
1346:21653404
1269:See also
1095:nitrogen
688:diploids
486:Taxonomy
476:sawgrass
426:soybeans
414:Thailand
375:tadpoles
337:, and a
298:meristem
245:wetlands
206:Synonyms
146:Family:
130:Monocots
18:Duckweed
3431:1085578
3324:Q161429
3033:Soybean
3027:Sorghum
2976:Cassava
2905:Ethanol
2888:Biomass
2858:Bagasse
2843:Alcohol
2512:Idrc.ca
2447:Bibcode
2367:7785427
2338:Bibcode
2191:3948053
2168:Bibcode
2065:2446009
1957:Bibcode
1925:2956554
1863:2722355
1809:3170387
1786:Bibcode
1488:6617534
1285:Neuston
1263:protein
1144:, Spain
1142:Galicia
1087:nitrate
1063:biofuel
1035:biomass
995:anthers
991:flowers
987:stolons
983:Alberta
977:of the
975:Miocene
957:scutata
867:plastid
824:Wolffia
738:Wolffia
718:Wolffia
706:Wolffia
676:Wolffia
614:Araceae
528:Araceae
418:Myanmar
359:protein
335:utricle
330:Wolffia
302:stamens
290:budding
287:asexual
272:thallus
253:Araceae
249:bayroot
189:Wolffia
166:Genera
150:Araceae
136:Order:
91:Plantae
3697:715971
3606:NZOR:
3573:114847
3418:284551
3405:502646
3366:482266
3353:234046
3079:Arundo
3011:Potato
2927:Stover
2873:Biogas
2467:
2418:
2410:
2374:
2364:
2356:
2198:
2188:
2079:
2071:
2063:
1932:
1922:
1870:
1860:
1816:
1806:
1753:
1708:
1651:
1624:
1486:
1478:
1415:
1371:
1344:
1275:Azolla
1067:starch
1023:(DOE)
945:Canada
899:fossil
895:pollen
879:spacer
873:. The
736:, and
684:genome
673:, and
647:genera
517:Pistia
480:slough
422:Israel
416:, and
322:spadix
306:pistil
304:and a
274:" or "
268:leaves
3692:WoRMS
3630:Plazi
3622:53867
3586:42587
3568:IRMNG
3521:10488
3503:FoAO2
3495:10488
3482:54636
3379:1LEMS
3198:stove
3053:Wheat
2996:Maize
2986:Grape
2939:Straw
2848:Algae
2542:(PDF)
2239:7 May
2233:(PDF)
2222:(PDF)
2150:"The
2077:S2CID
2061:JSTOR
1836:(PDF)
1484:S2CID
1424:7 May
1224:trees
993:with
949:Lemna
925:genus
915:from
783:Lemna
730:Lemna
726:basal
664:Lemna
398:algae
387:newts
276:frond
235:, or
175:Lemna
124:Clade
111:Clade
98:Clade
3643:POWO
3581:ITIS
3555:IPNI
3542:GRIN
3534:6723
3529:GBIF
3477:APNI
3413:NCBI
3392:2259
3387:GRIN
3374:EPPO
3361:BOLD
3348:APNI
3193:mill
3142:Wood
3021:Rice
2991:Hemp
2932:corn
2715:2022
2662:2021
2637:2012
2610:2011
2584:2022
2558:2012
2552:(99)
2524:2011
2494:2011
2465:ISSN
2416:PMID
2408:ISSN
2372:PMID
2354:ISSN
2311:2011
2289:2011
2263:2011
2241:2012
2196:PMID
2135:2011
2069:PMID
1930:PMID
1879:2012
1868:PMID
1814:PMID
1751:ISSN
1737:2011
1706:PMID
1662:2021
1649:ISBN
1622:ISBN
1603:2022
1540:2012
1513:2023
1476:PMID
1426:2012
1413:ISBN
1369:ISBN
1342:PMID
1097:and
1053:and
1037:and
716:and
645:The
469:and
433:NASA
410:Laos
385:and
373:and
367:fish
339:seed
264:stem
243:and
62:and
3679:WFO
3594:NBN
3547:633
3516:FoC
3490:FNA
3441:353
3058:Yam
3001:Oat
2455:doi
2400:doi
2362:PMC
2346:doi
2186:PMC
2176:doi
2051:doi
2014:doi
1973:hdl
1965:doi
1953:211
1920:PMC
1910:doi
1858:PMC
1848:doi
1844:106
1804:PMC
1794:doi
1741:doi
1696:doi
1567:doi
1468:doi
1464:217
1332:doi
1140:in
959:by
690:to
474:as
435:'s
371:fry
266:or
3716::
3694::
3681::
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3645::
3632::
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3596::
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3570::
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3505::
3492::
3479::
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3428::
3415::
3402::
3389::
3376::
3363::
3350::
3335::
3320::
3117:Ă—
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
