428:. Neutral theory has very different assumptions than the metapopulation models described above. It predicts that the abundance and distribution of species can be predicted entirely through random processes, without considering the traits of individual species. As extinction debt arises in models under such different assumptions, it is robust to different kinds of models. Models derived from neutral theory have successfully predicted extinction times for a number of bird species, but perform poorly at both very small and very large spatial scales.
403:
even be more common than other species, are more likely to become extinct than rarer, less competitive, better dispersing species. This has been one of the more controversial components of the model, as there is little evidence for this trade-off in many ecosystems, and in many empirical studies dominant competitors were least likely species to become extinct. A later modification of the model showed that these trade-off assumptions may be relaxed, but need to exist partially, in order for the theory to work.
2162:
2574:
746:
517:
condition of habitat in the intact habitat, and, assuming this represents equilibrium, use it to predict the number of species in the cleared habitat. If this prediction is lower than the actual number of species in the cleared habitat, then the difference represents extinction debt. This method requires many of the same assumptions as methods comparing the past and present.
2584:
356:
Extinction debts incurred due to human actions have shorter timescales. Local extinction of birds from rainforest fragmentation occurs over years or decades, while plants in fragmented grasslands show debts lasting 50â100 years. Tree species in fragmented temperate forests have debts lasting 200
416:
agriculture in forests, and could also occur due to decreased growth of species from pollutants. Predicted patterns of extinction debt differ between models, though. For instance, habitat destruction resembling slash-and-burn agriculture is thought to affect rare species rather than poor colonizers.
490:
Most studies of extinction debt compare species numbers with habitat patterns from the past and habitat patterns in the present. If the present populations of species are more closely related to past habitat patterns than present, extinction debt is a likely explanation. The magnitude of extinction
447:
Extinction debt is difficult to detect and measure. Processes that drive extinction debt are inherently slow and highly variable (noisy), and it is difficult to locate or count the very small populations of near-extinct species. Because of these issues, most measures of extinction debt have a great
411:
Further theoretical work has shown that extinction debt can occur under many different circumstances, driven by different mechanisms and under different model assumptions. The original model predicted extinction debt as a result of habitat destruction in a system of small, isolated habitats such as
402:
ability and colonization ability. That is, a species that competes well against other species, and is more likely to become dominant in an area, is less likely to colonize new habitats due to evolutionary trade-offs. One of the implications of this assumption is that better competitors, which may
516:
If data on past species numbers or habitat are not available, species debt can also be estimated by comparing two different habitats: one which is mostly intact, and another which has had areas cleared and is smaller and more fragmented. One can then measure the relationship of species with the
494:
If one has information on species populations from the past in addition to the present, the magnitude of extinction debt can be estimated. One can use the relationship between species and habitat from the past to predict the number of species expected in the present. The difference between this
76:
Extinction debt may be local or global, but most examples are local as these are easier to observe and model. It is most likely to be found in long-lived species and species with very specific habitat requirements (specialists). Extinction debt has important implications for conservation, as it
1833:
Triantis, K. A.; Borges, P. A. V.; Ladle, R. J.; Hortal, J.; Cardoso, P.; Gaspar, C.; Dinis, F.; Mendonça, E.; Silveira, L. M. A.; Gabriel, R.; Melo, C.; Santos, A. M. C.; Amorim, I. R.; Ribeiro, S. R. P.; Serrano, A. R. M.; Quartau, J. A.; Whittaker, R. J. (2010). "Extinction debt on oceanic
439:, that is, just below the population level or habitat occupancy levels required sustain their population, will have long-term extinction debts. Finally, extinction debts are predicted to last longer in landscapes with a few large patches of habitat, rather than many small ones.
507:
based models, extinction debts measured in this way may not conform with metapopulation models' predictions. The relationship between habitat and species number can also be represented by much more complex models that simulate the behavior of many species independently.
848:
Kuussaari, M.; Bommarco, R.; Heikkinen, R. K.; Helm, A.; Krauss, J.; Lindborg, R.; Ăckinger, E.; PĂ€rtel, M.; Pino, J.; RodĂ , F.; Stefanescu, C.; Teder, T.; Zobel, M.; Steffan-Dewenter, I. (2009). "Extinction debt: a challenge for biodiversity conservation".
705:
Economic analyses have shown that including extinction in management decision-making process changes decision outcomes, as the decision to destroy habitat changes conservation value in the future as well as the present. It is estimated that in
482:, researchers have measured the rate at which bird species disappear after forest is cut down. As even short-term extinction debts can take years to decades to reach equilibrium, though, such studies take many years and good data are rare.
394:
used this model to predict that species would persist long after they no longer had sufficient habitat to support them. When used to estimate extinction debts of tropical tree species, the model predicted debts lasting 50â400 years.
697:
The extinction debt concept may require revision of the value of land for species conservation, as the number of species currently present in a habitat may not be a good measure of the habitat's ability to support species (see
628:, 80â90% has yet to occur, based on modeling based on species-area relationships. Local extinctions of approximately 6 species are expected in each 2500 km region by 2050 due to past deforestation. Birds in the
434:
have also shown that extinction debt will last longer if it occurs in response to large habitat impacts (as the system will move farther from equilibrium), and if species are long-lived. Also, species just below their
77:
implies that species may become extinct due to past habitat destruction, even if continued impacts cease, and that current reserves may not be sufficient to maintain the species that occupy them. Interventions such as
477:
Extinction debts that reach equilibrium in relatively short time scales (years to decades) can be observed via measuring the change in species numbers in the time following an impact on habitat. For instance, in the
570:
that did not experience deforestation, showed that long-lived and slow-growing species were more common than equilibrium models would predict, indicating that their presence was due to lingering extinction debt.
1452:
McCarthy, M. A.; Lindenmayer, D. B.; Drechsler, M. (1997). "Deudas de
Extincion y Riesgos Enfrentados por un Numero Abundante de Especies" [Extinction Debts and Risks Faced by Abundant Species].
498:
This method requires the assumption that in the past species and their habitat were in equilibrium, which is often unknown. Also, a common relationship used to equate habitat and species number is the
1416:
Vellend, M.; Verheyen, K.; Jacquemyn, H.; Kolb, A.; Van
Calster, H.; Peterken, G.; Hermy, M. (2006). "Extinction Debt of Forest Plants Persists for More Than a Century Following Habitat Fragmentation".
530:
Studies of
European grasslands show evidence of extinction debt through both comparisons with the past and between present-day systems with different levels of human impacts. The species diversity of
464:
living on moss habitats demonstrated that extinction debt occurs after habitat destruction. In these experiments, it took 6â12 months for species to die out following the destruction of habitat.
211:
to other patches. However, as other patches have been destroyed or rendered inaccessible due to fragmentation, this "insurance" effect is reduced and the species may ultimately become extinct.
702:) in the future. As extinction debt may last longest near extinction thresholds, it may be hardest to detect the threat of extinction for species that conservation could benefit the most.
65:
may survive for many years even after reproduction of new trees has become impossible, and thus they may be committed to extinction. Technically, extinction debt generally refers to the
550:, where similar impacts have occurred, show no evidence of extinction debt. This may be due to differences in the scale of measurement or the level of specialization of grass species.
1091:
Korn, D.; Belka, Z.; Fröhlich, S.; RĂŒcklin, M. & Wendt, J. (Jan 2007). "The youngest
African clymeniids (Ammonoidea, Late Devonian) â failed survivors of the Hangenberg Event".
148:
for a condemned prisoner's last walk to the execution chamber. "Dead clade walking" has since appeared in other scientists' writings about the aftermaths of mass extinctions.
302:– typically 2–10 million years' duration) following a mass extinction than in the stages preceding the mass extinction. His analysis focused on marine
240:
species. In New
Zealand, the local extinction of several species of pollinating birds in 1870 has caused a long-term reduction in the reproduction of the shrub species
456:
Due to the logistical and ethical difficulties of inciting extinction debt, there are few studies of extinction debt in controlled experiments. However, experiments
1196:
1036:
602:â islands off the western coast of Estonia. Butterfly species distributions on these islands are better explained by the habitat in the past than current habitats.
3367:
2620:
2501:
1251:
Anderson, S. H.; Kelly, D.; Ladley, J. J.; Molloy, S.; Terry, J. (2011). "Cascading
Effects of Bird Functional Extinction Reduce Pollination and Plant Density".
412:
islands. Later models showed that extinction debt could occur in systems where habitat destruction occurs in small areas within a large area of habitat, as in
3511:
386:
or islands but interact via immigration between the patches. In this model, species persist via a balance between random local extinctions in patches and
3581:
2558:
1517:
Etienne, R.; Nagelkerke, C. (2002). "Non-equilibria in Small
Metapopulations: Comparing the Deterministic Levins Model with its Stochastic Counterpart".
353:
3â4.5 million years ago. While bryozoan populations dropped severely at this time, extinction of these species took another 1â2 million years.
2335:
1806:
Sang, A.; Teder, T.; Helm, A.; PĂ€rtel, M. (2010). "Indirect evidence for an extinction debt of grassland butterflies half century after habitat loss".
457:
2383:
3118:
2345:
686:
in order to prevent extinction, as occurred in the slowing of extinction in Amazon forest birds above. In another example, it has been found that
2330:
884:
Jackson, S. T.; Sax, D. F. (2010). "Balancing biodiversity in a changing environment: extinction debt, immigration credit and species turnover".
314:
Post-extinction physical environments differed from pre-extinction environments in ways which were disadvantageous to the "dead clades walking".
3591:
3319:
2485:
625:
425:
2443:
2325:
546:
that have lost area since the 1930s, 17â70% of species are estimated to be committed to extinction. However, studies of similar grasslands in
3596:
2036:
1722:
Adriaens, D.; Honnay, O.; Hermy, M. (2006). "No evidence of a plant extinction debt in highly fragmented calcareous grasslands in
Belgium".
3153:
2083:
1922:
Cowlishaw, G. (1999). "Predicting the
Pattern of Decline of African Primate Diversity: an Extinction Debt from Historical Deforestation".
3784:
2516:
2265:
3201:
3537:
3360:
2613:
2438:
1656:"Twenty years of understorey bird extinctions from Amazonian rain forest fragments: consistent trends and landscape-mediated dynamics"
1871:
Wearn, O. R.; Reuman, D. C.; Ewers, R. M. (2012). "Extinction Debt and
Windows of Conservation Opportunity in the Brazilian Amazon".
2873:
2403:
579:
2008:
Leroux, A. D.; Martin, V. L.; Goeschl, T. (2009). "Optimal conservation, extinction debt, and the augmented quasi-option valueâ".
2537:
2506:
1981:
Carroll, C.; Noss, R. F.; Paquet, P. C.; Schumaker, N. H. (2004). "Extinction Debt of Protected Areas in Developing Landscapes".
682:
may not be sufficient to protect species from extinction. However, the long time scales of extinction debt may allow for habitat
636:
forest into smaller fragments. The extinction rate slowed, however, as forest regrew in the spaces in between habitat fragments.
176:
1779:
Berglund, H.; Jonsson, B. G. (2005). "Verifying an Extinction Debt among Lichens and Fungi in Northern Swedish Boreal Forests".
694:
are likely to become extinct, but this finding allows the modification of reserve networks to better support their populations.
647:. That is, they are expected to have 30% of their forest primate species to become extinct in the future due to loss of forest
87:
is the corollary to extinction debt. It refers to the number of species likely to migrate to an area after an event such as the
3616:
3329:
3196:
2908:
2315:
2212:
279:
108:
246:, which requires these birds to produce seeds. However, as the plant is slow-growing and long-lived, its populations persist.
3874:
2192:
1924:
4001:
3646:
1354:
Gonzalez, A. (2000). "Community relaxation in fragmented landscapes: the relation between species richness, area and age".
4047:
3601:
3353:
2606:
2542:
3479:
2373:
616:
on these islands are believed to be committed to extinction, with many islands likely to lose more than 90% of species.
421:, or random fluctuation in populations, show extinction debt occurring over different time scales than classic models.
3836:
2727:
2458:
1687:
Helm, A.; Hanski, I.; Partel, M. (2005). "Slow response of plant species richness to habitat loss and fragmentation".
1117:"Popular phrases like âLazarus taxonâ, âElvis taxonâ, and âdead clade walkingâ were first coined for gastropods ...":
730:
4187:
3901:
3621:
2825:
2722:
2106:
199:. These cause extinction debt by reducing the ability of species to persist via immigration to new habitats. Under
4082:
3694:
3586:
3444:
3429:
3424:
2815:
2448:
612:, more than 95% of native forests have been destroyed in the past 600 years. As a result, more than half of
320:
that developed after recoveries from mass extinctions may have been less favorable for the "dead clades walking".
3841:
1749:
Cousins, S. A. O.; Vanhoenacker, D. (2011). "Detection of extinction debt depends on scale and specialisation".
1495:
1384:
Lindborg, R.; Eriksson, O. (2004). "Historical Landscape Connectivity Affects Present Plant Species Diversity".
4072:
4067:
4037:
3304:
3186:
2480:
2472:
2368:
2320:
2076:
3916:
3779:
3689:
3557:
3439:
3409:
3266:
3231:
2951:
2918:
2893:
2418:
140:
922:
Tilman, D.; May, R. M.; Lehman, C. L.; Nowak, M. A. (1994). "Habitat destruction and the extinction debt".
329:
The time to "payoff" of extinction debt can be very long. Islands that lost habitat at the end of the last
4062:
4006:
3941:
3804:
3739:
3674:
3334:
3236:
3024:
2732:
2712:
2285:
2237:
1843:
725:
387:
242:
2587:
4172:
3966:
3911:
3774:
3759:
3542:
3499:
3489:
3484:
3241:
3221:
3077:
3067:
3009:
3004:
2840:
2692:
2363:
2242:
2131:
2121:
678:
or other environmental impacts, many species are still likely to become extinct. Protection of existing
633:
566:
that occurred between 1775 and 1900. Detailed modeling of species behavior, based on similar forests in
399:
192:
88:
2408:
306:
since they constitute the most abundant group of fossils and are therefore the least likely to produce
398:
One of the assumptions underlying the original extinction debt model was a trade-off between species'
4092:
4057:
4052:
3976:
3971:
3926:
3824:
3794:
3789:
3641:
3504:
3494:
3039:
2878:
2667:
2511:
2280:
2270:
2227:
1880:
1573:
1526:
1260:
1205:
1045:
981:
931:
789:
671:
578:
show an extinction debt in fragments of ancient forest. However, species of lichens that are habitat
436:
208:
152:
112:
2598:
1848:
4182:
4142:
4117:
3981:
3951:
3896:
3809:
3699:
3684:
3631:
3464:
3399:
3281:
3211:
2742:
2577:
2340:
2222:
2217:
2207:
2126:
2069:
970:"Biogeographic kinetics: estimation of relaxation times for avifaunas of southwest pacific islands"
683:
675:
237:
196:
172:
78:
57:
Extinction debt occurs because of time delays between impacts on a species, such as destruction of
3345:
1192:"Colloquium Paper: Species invasions and extinction: the future of native biodiversity on islands"
4153:
4102:
4097:
3906:
3869:
3567:
3532:
3389:
3314:
3216:
3148:
3138:
3072:
3019:
2830:
2775:
2737:
2662:
2044:
1904:
1284:
1172:
947:
629:
500:
431:
418:
333:
10,000 years ago still appear to be losing species as a result. It has been shown that some
299:
295:
156:
3611:
1954:
Baldi, A.; Voros, J. (2006). "Extinction debt of Hungarian reserves: A historical perspective".
4042:
4011:
3799:
3626:
3434:
3299:
3276:
3133:
3014:
2790:
2702:
2687:
2672:
2652:
2547:
2433:
2423:
2176:
2136:
1896:
1704:
1601:
1542:
1499:
1482:
1434:
1333:
1276:
1233:
1073:
1009:
901:
866:
817:
699:
479:
383:
342:
204:
168:
670:
The existence of extinction debt in many different ecosystems has important implications for
491:
debt (i.e., number of species likely to become extinct) can not be estimated by this method.
249:
Jablonski recognized at least four patterns in the fossil record following mass extinctions:
4177:
3996:
3859:
3851:
3769:
3651:
3636:
3572:
3552:
3469:
3459:
3454:
3419:
3251:
3191:
3062:
2863:
2805:
2717:
2677:
2552:
2300:
2275:
2232:
2202:
2151:
2146:
2017:
1990:
1963:
1933:
1888:
1853:
1815:
1788:
1758:
1731:
1696:
1667:
1631:
1591:
1581:
1534:
1491:
1462:
1426:
1393:
1363:
1323:
1315:
1268:
1223:
1213:
1164:
1128:
1100:
1063:
1053:
999:
989:
939:
893:
858:
807:
797:
226:
1152:
538:
appears to be a remnant of more connected landscapes present 50 to 100 years ago. In
4132:
3961:
3956:
3946:
3879:
3864:
3744:
3724:
3606:
3474:
3380:
3271:
3181:
3123:
3108:
2707:
2633:
2197:
691:
559:
379:
375:
371:
135:
266:
patterns disturbed by the extinction event but soon continuing on the previous trajectory
1884:
1577:
1530:
1264:
1209:
1049:
985:
935:
793:
424:
Most recently, extinction debts have been estimated through the use models derived from
260:â â a group dwindling to extinction or relegation to precarious, minor ecological niches
4112:
3936:
3889:
3819:
3814:
3709:
3576:
3449:
3256:
3246:
3226:
3103:
3029:
2994:
2933:
2810:
2765:
2657:
2413:
2388:
1596:
1561:
1480:
Banks, J. E. (1997). "Do Imperfect Trade-Offs Affect the Extinction Debt Phenomenon?".
1328:
1303:
1228:
1191:
750:
504:
413:
307:
230:
160:
69:
in an area likely to become extinct, rather than the prospects of any one species, but
1068:
1031:
1004:
969:
643:
are estimated to have, on average, a local extinction debt of 30% for forest-dwelling
632:
continued to become extinct locally for 12 years following logging that broke up
134:
when referring to the species affected. The phrase "dead clade walking" was coined by
4166:
4137:
3113:
3087:
3044:
3034:
2989:
2976:
2956:
2848:
2682:
2637:
2290:
2141:
2116:
1994:
1937:
1857:
1792:
1700:
1672:
1655:
1635:
1466:
1367:
1288:
812:
777:
687:
563:
346:
120:
503:, but as the species-area curve arises from very different mechanisms than those in
4122:
4107:
3764:
3734:
3679:
3562:
3527:
3404:
2903:
2532:
2111:
1908:
951:
659:
291:
145:
116:
104:
70:
200:
17:
1819:
1762:
1735:
370:
Tilman et al. demonstrated that extinction debt could occur using a mathematical
3414:
3143:
2961:
2923:
2898:
2888:
2853:
2800:
2780:
2393:
2378:
2161:
609:
591:
2021:
1967:
1132:
974:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
897:
862:
278:
an increase in diversity and species richness, as in the mammals following the
225:
so that its population slowly declines. Extinction debts may also be caused by
4127:
3704:
3669:
3309:
3261:
3206:
3176:
3082:
2999:
2943:
2820:
2770:
2092:
1622:
Hanski, I.; Ovaskainen, O. (2002). "Extinction Debt at Extinction Threshold".
1104:
707:
613:
531:
222:
218:
188:
39:
1503:
1119:
NĂŒtzel, A. (September 2005). "Recovery of gastropods in the Early Triassic".
310:. Jablonski suggested that two possible explanations deserved further study:
4032:
3986:
3714:
3158:
3128:
2928:
2883:
2858:
2795:
2785:
2760:
2752:
2697:
2398:
1892:
1586:
1272:
1218:
994:
350:
317:
214:
1900:
1708:
1605:
1562:"Neutral theory as a predictor of avifaunal extinctions after habitat loss"
1546:
1538:
1438:
1337:
1319:
1280:
1237:
1077:
1058:
1013:
905:
870:
821:
802:
710:, ongoing extinction debt may cost between $ 88 million and $ 467 million.
123:
used the term "relaxation time" to describe a similar phenomenon in 1972.
4087:
4016:
3547:
3054:
2966:
2913:
2868:
2453:
2428:
679:
644:
595:
303:
662:
than are thought to be able to be supported by current nature reserves.
4077:
3884:
3754:
3749:
3376:
3324:
2984:
2629:
1176:
655:
648:
575:
567:
547:
543:
461:
338:
334:
330:
167:
will cause the earth to continue to warm for centuries even if no more
164:
58:
43:
31:
943:
640:
606:
535:
1430:
1397:
1304:"Environmental change drove macroevolution in cupuladriid bryozoans"
1168:
61:, and the species' ultimate disappearance. For instance, long-lived
337:, a type of microscopic marine organism, became extinct due to the
539:
495:
estimate and the actual number of species is the extinction debt.
62:
778:"Lessons from the past: Evolutionary impacts of mass extinctions"
599:
3349:
2602:
2065:
651:. The time scale for these extinctions has not been estimated.
720:
2061:
382:
are multiple populations of a species that live in separate
1496:
10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[1597:DITOAT]2.0.CO;2
562:, Belgium, show evidence of extinction debt remaining from
2037:"'Elementary' Season 2, Episode 15: 'Dead Clade Walking'"
187:
Extinction debt is caused by many of the same drivers as
1308:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1153:"Habitat Destruction and the Extinction Debt Revisited"
272:
large-scale patterns continuing with little disruption
217:
may also cause extinction debt by reducing a species'
27:
Future extinction of species due to events in the past
191:. The most well-known drivers of extinction debt are
345:. This event cut off the flow of nutrients from the
4025:
3925:
3850:
3723:
3660:
3520:
3388:
3290:
3169:
3096:
3053:
2975:
2942:
2839:
2751:
2645:
2525:
2494:
2471:
2356:
2308:
2299:
2251:
2185:
2169:
2099:
290:Jablonski found that the extinction rate of marine
73:it refers to any occurrence of delayed extinction.
1032:"Survival without recovery after mass extinctions"
236:Extinction debt may also occur due to the loss of
2010:Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
1654:Stouffer, P. C.; Strong, C.; Naka, L. N. (2009).
658:currently has approximately nine more species of
654:Based on historical species-area relationships,
590:Extinction debt has been found among species of
203:conditions, a species may become extinct in one
1774:
1772:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1566:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1379:
1377:
1349:
1347:
1197:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1025:
1023:
843:
841:
839:
837:
835:
833:
831:
782:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
771:
769:
767:
765:
2502:International Union for Conservation of Nature
1411:
1409:
1407:
674:. It implies that in the absence of further
3361:
2614:
2077:
1617:
1615:
963:
961:
8:
1949:
1947:
1146:
1144:
1142:
917:
915:
126:Extinction debt is also known by the terms
3582:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3368:
3354:
3346:
2621:
2607:
2599:
2559:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
2305:
2084:
2070:
2062:
144:, a film whose title is based on American
1847:
1671:
1595:
1585:
1327:
1227:
1217:
1067:
1057:
1003:
993:
811:
801:
3480:Predatorâprey (LotkaâVolterra) equations
3119:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
512:Comparing impacted and pristine habitats
3512:Random generalized LotkaâVolterra model
761:
207:yet continue to survive because it can
155:, extinction debt is analogous to the "
46:due to events in the past. The phrases
3320:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
103:was first used in 1994 in a paper by
7:
3335:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
2583:
580:generalists, rather than specialists
3785:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2517:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
2266:Extinction risk from climate change
138:as early as 2001 as a reference to
3538:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1190:Sax, D. F.; Gaines, S. D. (2008).
25:
2874:Generalist and specialist species
1560:Halley, J. M.; Iwasa, Y. (2011).
886:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
851:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3597:Occupancyâabundance relationship
2582:
2573:
2572:
2538:Decline in amphibian populations
2507:IUCN Species Survival Commission
2160:
1995:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00083.x
1938:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98433.x
1858:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06203.x
1793:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00550.x
1701:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00841.x
1673:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00497.x
1636:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00342.x
1467:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95381.x
1368:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2000.00171.x
744:
366:Origins in metapopulation models
294:was significantly higher in the
3617:Relative abundance distribution
3330:Plant defense against herbivory
3197:Competitive exclusion principle
2909:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2213:Human impact on the environment
1302:O'Dea, A.; Jackson, J. (2009).
280:end-Cretaceous extinction event
3202:Consumerâresource interactions
2193:Climate variability and change
1519:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1151:Loehle, C.; Li, B. L. (1996).
690:in very small reserves in the
486:Comparing the past and present
1:
4048:Biological data visualization
3875:Environmental niche modelling
3602:Population viability analysis
2543:Decline in insect populations
2486:IUCN Red List extinct species
275:(4) unbridled diversification
253:(1) survival without recovery
81:may reverse extinction debt.
3533:Density-dependent inhibition
1820:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.03.015
1763:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.11.009
1736:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.06.006
666:Applications to conservation
594:living in the grasslands on
263:(2) continuity with setbacks
171:are emitted. Similarly, the
4002:Liebig's law of the minimum
3837:Resource selection function
2728:Metabolic theory of ecology
1660:Diversity and Distributions
626:deforestation in the Amazon
574:In Sweden, some species of
407:Development in other models
89:restoration of an ecosystem
4204:
3902:Niche apportionment models
3622:Relative species abundance
2826:Primary nutritional groups
2723:List of feeding behaviours
2107:Background extinction rate
2022:10.1016/j.jeem.2008.10.002
1968:10.1016/j.baae.2005.09.005
1133:10.1016/j.crpv.2005.02.007
898:10.1016/j.tree.2009.10.001
863:10.1016/j.tree.2009.04.011
4151:
4083:Ecosystem based fisheries
3695:Interspecific competition
3587:Minimum viable population
3445:Maximum sustainable yield
3430:Intraspecific competition
3425:Effective population size
3305:Anti-predator adaptations
2816:Photosynthetic efficiency
2568:
2429:End-Jurassic or Tithonian
2158:
1956:Basic and Applied Ecology
1105:10.1080/00241160410002054
776:Jablonski, David (2001).
298:(major subdivision of an
132:survival without recovery
52:survival without recovery
4073:Ecological stoichiometry
4038:Alternative stable state
2481:Lists of extinct species
624:Of extinction from past
417:Models that incorporate
390:of new patches. Tilman
175:may continue long after
3917:Ontogenetic niche shift
3780:Ideal free distribution
3690:Ecological facilitation
3440:Malthusian growth model
3410:Consumer-resource model
3267:Paradox of the plankton
3232:Energy systems language
2952:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2919:Optimal foraging theory
2894:Heterotrophic nutrition
1893:10.1126/science.1219013
1808:Biological Conservation
1751:Biological Conservation
1724:Biological Conservation
1587:10.1073/pnas.1011217108
1273:10.1126/science.1199092
1219:10.1073/pnas.0802290105
1157:Ecological Applications
995:10.1073/pnas.69.11.3199
361:Theoretical development
269:(3) unbroken continuity
153:threats to biodiversity
54:express the same idea.
4063:Ecological forecasting
4007:Marginal value theorem
3805:Landscape epidemiology
3740:Cross-boundary subsidy
3675:Biological interaction
3025:Microbial intelligence
2713:Green world hypothesis
2286:Latent extinction risk
1539:10.1006/jtbi.2002.3135
1320:10.1098/rspb.2009.0844
1121:Comptes Rendus Palevol
1059:10.1073/pnas.102163299
803:10.1073/pnas.101092598
605:On the islands of the
243:Rhabdothamnus solandri
4068:Ecological humanities
3967:Ecological energetics
3912:Niche differentiation
3775:Habitat fragmentation
3543:Ecological extinction
3490:Small population size
3242:Feed conversion ratio
3222:Ecological succession
3154:San Francisco Estuary
3068:Ecological efficiency
3010:Microbial cooperation
2243:Paradox of enrichment
2132:Functional extinction
2122:Ecological extinction
1030:Jablonski, D (2002).
473:Long-term observation
468:Observational methods
452:Experimental evidence
448:deal of uncertainty.
193:habitat fragmentation
4093:Evolutionary ecology
4058:Ecological footprint
4053:Ecological economics
3977:Ecological threshold
3972:Ecological indicator
3842:Sourceâsink dynamics
3795:Land change modeling
3790:Insular biogeography
3642:Species distribution
3381:Modelling ecosystems
3040:Microbial metabolism
2879:Intraguild predation
2668:Biogeochemical cycle
2634:Modelling ecosystems
2512:Extinction Rebellion
2454:PlioceneâPleistocene
2336:CretaceousâPaleogene
2281:Hypothetical species
2271:Extinction threshold
2228:Overabundant species
1983:Conservation Biology
1925:Conservation Biology
1781:Conservation Biology
1624:Conservation Biology
1455:Conservation Biology
1204:(Suppl 1): 11490â7.
968:Diamond, JM (1972).
437:extinction threshold
163:, which states that
4143:Theoretical ecology
4118:Natural environment
3982:Ecosystem diversity
3952:Ecological collapse
3942:Bateman's principle
3897:Limiting similarity
3810:Landscape limnology
3632:Species homogeneity
3470:Population modeling
3465:Population dynamics
3282:Trophic state index
2439:Cenomanian-Turonian
2384:CambrianâOrdovician
2316:OrdovicianâSilurian
2223:Mutational meltdown
2208:Habitat destruction
2127:Extinct in the wild
1885:2012Sci...337..228W
1578:2011PNAS..108.2316H
1531:2002JThBi.219..463E
1265:2011Sci...331.1068A
1259:(6020): 1068â1071.
1210:2008PNAS..10511490S
1050:2002PNAS...99.8139J
986:1972PNAS...69.3199D
936:1994Natur.371...65T
794:2001PNAS...98.5393J
676:habitat destruction
432:Mathematical models
197:habitat destruction
79:habitat restoration
4154:Outline of ecology
4103:Industrial ecology
4098:Functional ecology
3962:Ecological deficit
3907:Niche construction
3870:Ecosystem engineer
3647:Speciesâarea curve
3568:Introduced species
3383:: Other components
3315:Deimatic behaviour
3217:Ecological network
3149:North Pacific Gyre
3134:hydrothermal vents
3073:Ecological pyramid
3020:Microbial food web
2831:Primary production
2776:Foundation species
2047:on 2 February 2014
751:Ecology portal
731:Dead Clade Walking
719:An episode of the
714:In popular culture
630:Amazon rain forest
501:species-area curve
286:Rate of extinction
258:dead clade walking
221:or increasing its
173:current extinction
157:climate commitment
151:In discussions of
128:dead clade walking
85:Immigration credit
48:dead clade walking
18:Dead clade walking
4188:Landscape ecology
4160:
4159:
4043:Balance of nature
3800:Landscape ecology
3685:Community ecology
3627:Species diversity
3563:Indicator species
3558:Gradient analysis
3435:Logistic function
3343:
3342:
3300:Animal coloration
3277:Trophic mutualism
3015:Microbial ecology
2806:Photoheterotrophs
2791:Myco-heterotrophy
2703:Ecosystem ecology
2688:Carrying capacity
2653:Abiotic component
2596:
2595:
2548:Extinction symbol
2467:
2466:
2331:TriassicâJurassic
2301:Extinction events
2177:Extinction vortex
2137:Genetic pollution
2041:Atlanta Blackstar
1314:(1673): 3629â34.
1044:(12): 8139â8144.
788:(10): 5393â5398.
700:carrying capacity
480:Amazon rainforest
343:Isthmus of Panama
179:on species halt.
169:greenhouse gasses
67:number of species
16:(Redirected from
4195:
3860:Ecological niche
3832:selection theory
3652:Umbrella species
3637:Species richness
3573:Invasive species
3553:Flagship species
3460:Population cycle
3455:Overexploitation
3420:Ecological yield
3370:
3363:
3356:
3347:
3252:Mesotrophic soil
3192:Climax community
3124:Marine food webs
3063:Biomagnification
2864:Chemoorganotroph
2718:Keystone species
2678:Biotic component
2623:
2616:
2609:
2600:
2586:
2585:
2576:
2575:
2553:Human extinction
2444:EoceneâOligocene
2326:PermianâTriassic
2306:
2276:Field of Bullets
2233:Overexploitation
2218:Muller's ratchet
2203:Invasive species
2164:
2152:Pseudoextinction
2147:Local extinction
2086:
2079:
2072:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2043:. Archived from
2032:
2026:
2025:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1951:
1942:
1941:
1932:(5): 1183â1193.
1919:
1913:
1912:
1879:(6091): 228â32.
1868:
1862:
1861:
1851:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1776:
1767:
1766:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1651:
1640:
1639:
1619:
1610:
1609:
1599:
1589:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1490:(5): 1597â1601.
1477:
1471:
1470:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1413:
1402:
1401:
1381:
1372:
1371:
1351:
1342:
1341:
1331:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1231:
1221:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1148:
1137:
1136:
1127:(6â7): 501â515.
1115:
1109:
1108:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1071:
1061:
1027:
1018:
1017:
1007:
997:
980:(11): 3199â203.
965:
956:
955:
944:10.1038/371065a0
919:
910:
909:
881:
875:
874:
845:
826:
825:
815:
805:
773:
749:
748:
747:
540:alvar grasslands
227:invasive species
141:Dead Man Walking
21:
4203:
4202:
4198:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4163:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4147:
4133:Systems ecology
4021:
3992:Extinction debt
3957:Ecological debt
3947:Bioluminescence
3928:
3921:
3890:marine habitats
3865:Ecological trap
3846:
3726:
3719:
3662:
3656:
3612:Rapoport's rule
3607:Priority effect
3548:Endemic species
3516:
3475:Population size
3391:
3384:
3374:
3344:
3339:
3292:
3286:
3272:Trophic cascade
3182:Bioaccumulation
3165:
3092:
3049:
2971:
2938:
2835:
2747:
2708:Ecosystem model
2641:
2627:
2597:
2592:
2564:
2521:
2490:
2473:Extinct species
2463:
2419:Carnian Pluvial
2364:Great Oxidation
2352:
2295:
2261:Extinction debt
2253:
2247:
2198:Genetic erosion
2181:
2165:
2156:
2095:
2090:
2060:
2050:
2048:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1953:
1952:
1945:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1849:10.1.1.730.8154
1832:
1831:
1827:
1805:
1804:
1800:
1778:
1777:
1770:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1689:Ecology Letters
1686:
1685:
1681:
1653:
1652:
1643:
1621:
1620:
1613:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1431:10.1890/05-1182
1415:
1414:
1405:
1398:10.1890/04-0367
1383:
1382:
1375:
1356:Ecology Letters
1353:
1352:
1345:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1250:
1249:
1245:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1169:10.2307/2269483
1150:
1149:
1140:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1029:
1028:
1021:
967:
966:
959:
921:
920:
913:
883:
882:
878:
847:
846:
829:
775:
774:
763:
759:
745:
743:
740:
716:
692:Rocky Mountains
668:
622:
588:
560:Flemish Brabant
556:
528:
523:
514:
488:
475:
470:
454:
445:
409:
384:habitat patches
380:Metapopulations
376:metapopulations
372:ecosystem model
368:
363:
357:years or more.
327:
308:sampling errors
288:
185:
136:David Jablonski
113:Clarence Lehman
101:extinction debt
97:
36:extinction debt
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4201:
4199:
4191:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4165:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4113:Microecosystem
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4029:
4027:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4012:Thorson's rule
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3937:Assembly rules
3933:
3931:
3923:
3922:
3920:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3893:
3892:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3856:
3854:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3822:
3820:Patch dynamics
3817:
3815:Metapopulation
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3731:
3729:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3710:Storage effect
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3666:
3664:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3592:Neutral theory
3589:
3584:
3579:
3577:Native species
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3514:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3450:Overpopulation
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3396:
3394:
3386:
3385:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3365:
3358:
3350:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3296:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3257:Nutrient cycle
3254:
3249:
3247:Feeding frenzy
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3227:Energy quality
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3187:Cascade effect
3184:
3179:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3059:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3030:Microbial loop
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2995:Lithoautotroph
2992:
2987:
2981:
2979:
2977:Microorganisms
2973:
2972:
2970:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2948:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2934:Prey switching
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2845:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2811:Photosynthesis
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2766:Chemosynthesis
2763:
2757:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2658:Abiotic stress
2655:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2642:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2618:
2611:
2603:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2590:
2580:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2477:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2449:Middle Miocene
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2414:End-Capitanian
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2312:
2310:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2257:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2081:
2074:
2066:
2059:
2058:
2027:
2000:
1973:
1943:
1914:
1863:
1842:(2): 285â294.
1825:
1798:
1768:
1741:
1714:
1679:
1641:
1611:
1572:(6): 2316â21.
1552:
1509:
1472:
1444:
1403:
1373:
1362:(5): 441â448.
1343:
1294:
1243:
1182:
1163:(3): 784â789.
1138:
1110:
1099:(3): 307â315.
1083:
1019:
957:
911:
876:
857:(10): 564â71.
827:
760:
758:
755:
754:
753:
739:
736:
735:
734:
715:
712:
667:
664:
621:
618:
587:
584:
555:
552:
527:
524:
522:
519:
513:
510:
505:metapopulation
487:
484:
474:
471:
469:
466:
453:
450:
444:
441:
426:neutral theory
414:slash-and-burn
408:
405:
367:
364:
362:
359:
326:
323:
322:
321:
315:
287:
284:
283:
282:
276:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
254:
231:climate change
184:
181:
161:climate change
96:
93:
38:is the future
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4200:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4170:
4168:
4155:
4150:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4138:Urban ecology
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3997:Kleiber's law
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3924:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3853:
3849:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3770:Foster's rule
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3728:
3722:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3659:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3513:
3510:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3371:
3366:
3364:
3359:
3357:
3352:
3351:
3348:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3289:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3168:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3088:Trophic level
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3056:
3052:
3046:
3045:Phage ecology
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3035:Microbial mat
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2990:Bacteriophage
2988:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2974:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2957:Decomposition
2955:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2904:Mesopredators
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2849:Apex predator
2847:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2683:Biotic stress
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2624:
2619:
2617:
2612:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2601:
2589:
2581:
2579:
2571:
2570:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2495:Organizations
2493:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2404:Carboniferous
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2369:End-Ediacaran
2367:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2347:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2321:Late Devonian
2319:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2292:
2291:Living fossil
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2142:Lazarus taxon
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2117:De-extinction
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2075:
2073:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2004:
2001:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1926:
1918:
1915:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1864:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1829:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1802:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1680:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1525:(4): 463â78.
1524:
1520:
1513:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1484:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1186:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1087:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
964:
962:
958:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
918:
916:
912:
907:
903:
899:
895:
892:(3): 153â60.
891:
887:
880:
877:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
844:
842:
840:
838:
836:
834:
832:
828:
823:
819:
814:
809:
804:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
772:
770:
768:
766:
762:
756:
752:
742:
741:
737:
732:
728:
727:
722:
718:
717:
713:
711:
709:
703:
701:
695:
693:
689:
688:grizzly bears
685:
681:
677:
673:
665:
663:
661:
657:
652:
650:
646:
642:
639:Countries in
637:
635:
631:
627:
619:
617:
615:
611:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
585:
583:
581:
577:
572:
569:
565:
564:deforestation
561:
553:
551:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
525:
520:
518:
511:
509:
506:
502:
496:
492:
485:
483:
481:
472:
467:
465:
463:
459:
451:
449:
442:
440:
438:
433:
429:
427:
422:
420:
419:stochasticity
415:
406:
404:
401:
396:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
365:
360:
358:
354:
352:
348:
347:Pacific Ocean
344:
340:
336:
332:
324:
319:
316:
313:
312:
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
292:invertebrates
285:
281:
277:
274:
271:
268:
265:
262:
259:
256:also called â
255:
252:
251:
250:
247:
245:
244:
239:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
210:
206:
205:habitat patch
202:
198:
194:
190:
182:
180:
178:
177:human impacts
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
149:
147:
143:
142:
137:
133:
129:
124:
122:
121:Jared Diamond
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
94:
92:
90:
86:
82:
80:
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4173:Biogeography
4123:Regime shift
4108:Macroecology
3991:
3829:
3825:
3765:Edge effects
3735:Biogeography
3680:Commensalism
3528:Biodiversity
3405:Allee effect
3144:kelp forests
3097:Example webs
2962:Detritivores
2801:Organotrophs
2781:Kinetotrophs
2733:Productivity
2557:
2533:Anthropocene
2374:End-Botomian
2260:
2254:and concepts
2112:Coextinction
2049:. Retrieved
2045:the original
2040:
2030:
2013:
2009:
2003:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1959:
1955:
1929:
1923:
1917:
1876:
1872:
1866:
1839:
1835:
1828:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1784:
1780:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1663:
1659:
1627:
1623:
1569:
1565:
1555:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1425:(3): 542â8.
1422:
1418:
1389:
1385:
1359:
1355:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1256:
1252:
1246:
1201:
1195:
1185:
1160:
1156:
1124:
1120:
1113:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1041:
1035:
977:
973:
930:(6492): 65.
927:
923:
889:
885:
879:
854:
850:
785:
781:
724:
704:
696:
672:conservation
669:
653:
638:
623:
604:
589:
573:
557:
529:
515:
497:
493:
489:
476:
455:
446:
430:
423:
410:
397:
391:
388:colonization
369:
355:
341:rise of the
328:
289:
257:
248:
241:
235:
213:
186:
150:
146:prison slang
139:
131:
127:
125:
117:Martin Nowak
105:David Tilman
100:
98:
84:
83:
75:
71:colloquially
66:
56:
51:
47:
35:
29:
3760:Disturbance
3663:interaction
3485:Recruitment
3415:Depensation
3207:Copiotrophs
3078:Energy flow
3000:Lithotrophy
2944:Decomposers
2924:Planktivore
2899:Insectivore
2889:Heterotroph
2854:Bacterivore
2821:Phototrophs
2771:Chemotrophs
2743:Restoration
2693:Competition
2379:Dresbachian
1989:(4): 1110.
1814:(6): 1405.
1695:(1): 72â7.
1461:: 221â226.
1392:(7): 1840.
729:was named "
684:restoration
620:Vertebrates
610:Archipelago
592:butterflies
558:Forests in
400:competitive
374:of species
201:equilibrium
119:, although
95:Terminology
4183:Extinction
4167:Categories
4128:Sexecology
3705:Parasitism
3670:Antibiosis
3505:Resistance
3500:Resilience
3390:Population
3310:Camouflage
3262:Oligotroph
3177:Ascendency
3139:intertidal
3129:cold seeps
3083:Food chain
2884:Herbivores
2859:Carnivores
2786:Mixotrophs
2761:Autotrophs
2640:components
2459:Quaternary
2093:Extinction
2051:31 January
2035:Moore, A.
1962:(4): 289.
1834:islands".
1787:(2): 338.
1757:(2): 782.
1730:(2): 212.
1630:(3): 666.
757:References
726:Elementary
708:Costa Rica
634:contiguous
614:arthropods
582:, do not.
532:grasslands
526:Grasslands
458:microcosms
325:Time scale
318:Ecosystems
223:death rate
219:birth rate
189:extinction
109:Robert May
40:extinction
4033:Allometry
3987:Emergence
3715:Symbiosis
3700:Mutualism
3495:Stability
3400:Abundance
3212:Dominance
3170:Processes
3159:tide pool
3055:Food webs
2929:Predation
2914:Omnivores
2841:Consumers
2796:Mycotroph
2753:Producers
2698:Ecosystem
2663:Behaviour
2238:Overshoot
2100:Phenomena
2016:: 43â57.
1844:CiteSeerX
1836:Ecography
1666:: 88â97.
1504:0012-9658
1289:206530519
443:Detection
351:Caribbean
335:bryozoans
238:mutualist
215:Pollution
99:The term
4088:Endolith
4017:Xerosere
3929:networks
3745:Ecocline
3291:Defense,
2967:Detritus
2869:Foraging
2738:Resource
2578:Category
2526:See also
2424:Toarcian
2389:Ireviken
2346:Timeline
2341:Holocene
2252:Theories
1901:22798612
1709:16958870
1606:21262797
1547:12425979
1439:16602283
1338:19640882
1281:21292938
1238:18695231
1078:12060760
1014:16592024
906:19879014
871:19665254
822:11344284
738:See also
680:habitats
645:primates
596:Saaremaa
521:Examples
339:volcanic
304:molluscs
209:disperse
4178:Ecology
4078:Ecopath
3885:Habitat
3755:Ecotype
3750:Ecotone
3727:ecology
3725:Spatial
3661:Species
3521:Species
3392:ecology
3377:Ecology
3325:Mimicry
3293:counter
3237:f-ratio
2985:Archaea
2673:Biomass
2646:General
2638:Trophic
2630:Ecology
2588:Commons
2409:Olson's
1909:2321026
1881:Bibcode
1873:Science
1597:3038702
1574:Bibcode
1527:Bibcode
1483:Ecology
1419:Ecology
1386:Ecology
1329:2817302
1261:Bibcode
1253:Science
1229:2556416
1206:Bibcode
1177:2269483
1093:Lethaia
1046:Bibcode
982:Bibcode
952:4308409
932:Bibcode
790:Bibcode
723:series
660:raptors
656:Hungary
649:habitat
586:Insects
576:lichens
568:England
554:Forests
548:Belgium
544:Estonia
462:insects
349:to the
331:ice age
165:inertia
59:habitat
44:species
32:ecology
3109:Rivers
3005:Marine
2434:Aptian
2186:Causes
2170:Models
1907:
1899:
1846:
1707:
1604:
1594:
1545:
1502:
1437:
1336:
1326:
1287:
1279:
1236:
1226:
1175:
1076:
1069:123034
1066:
1012:
1005:389735
1002:
950:
924:Nature
904:
869:
820:
810:
641:Africa
607:Azores
536:Sweden
392:et al.
229:or by
183:Causes
4026:Other
3927:Other
3880:Guild
3852:Niche
3104:Lakes
2394:Mulde
2357:Other
2309:Major
1905:S2CID
1285:S2CID
1173:JSTOR
948:S2CID
813:33224
300:epoch
296:stage
159:" in
63:trees
3114:Soil
2053:2014
1897:PMID
1705:PMID
1602:PMID
1543:PMID
1500:ISSN
1435:PMID
1334:PMID
1277:PMID
1234:PMID
1074:PMID
1037:PNAS
1010:PMID
902:PMID
867:PMID
818:PMID
600:Muhu
598:and
195:and
130:and
115:and
50:and
2399:Lau
2018:doi
1991:doi
1964:doi
1934:doi
1889:doi
1877:337
1854:doi
1816:doi
1812:143
1789:doi
1759:doi
1755:144
1732:doi
1728:133
1697:doi
1668:doi
1632:doi
1592:PMC
1582:doi
1570:108
1535:doi
1523:219
1492:doi
1463:doi
1427:doi
1394:doi
1364:doi
1324:PMC
1316:doi
1312:276
1269:doi
1257:331
1224:PMC
1214:doi
1202:105
1165:doi
1129:doi
1101:doi
1064:PMC
1054:doi
1000:PMC
990:doi
940:doi
928:371
894:doi
859:doi
808:PMC
798:doi
721:CBS
542:in
534:in
460:of
42:of
30:In
4169::
3575:/
3379::
2636::
2632::
2039:.
2014:58
2012:.
1987:18
1985:.
1958:.
1946:^
1930:13
1928:.
1903:.
1895:.
1887:.
1875:.
1852:.
1840:33
1838:.
1810:.
1785:19
1783:.
1771:^
1753:.
1726:.
1703:.
1691:.
1664:15
1662:.
1658:.
1644:^
1628:16
1626:.
1614:^
1600:.
1590:.
1580:.
1568:.
1564:.
1541:.
1533:.
1521:.
1498:.
1488:78
1486:.
1459:11
1457:.
1433:.
1423:87
1421:.
1406:^
1390:85
1388:.
1376:^
1358:.
1346:^
1332:.
1322:.
1310:.
1306:.
1283:.
1275:.
1267:.
1255:.
1232:.
1222:.
1212:.
1200:.
1194:.
1171:.
1159:.
1155:.
1141:^
1123:.
1097:37
1095:.
1072:.
1062:.
1052:.
1042:99
1040:.
1034:.
1022:^
1008:.
998:.
988:.
978:69
976:.
972:.
960:^
946:.
938:.
926:.
914:^
900:.
890:25
888:.
865:.
855:24
853:.
830:^
816:.
806:.
796:.
786:98
784:.
780:.
764:^
733:".
378:.
233:.
111:,
107:,
91:.
34:,
3830:K
3828:/
3826:r
3369:e
3362:t
3355:v
2622:e
2615:t
2608:v
2085:e
2078:t
2071:v
2055:.
2024:.
2020::
1997:.
1993::
1970:.
1966::
1960:7
1940:.
1936::
1911:.
1891::
1883::
1860:.
1856::
1822:.
1818::
1795:.
1791::
1765:.
1761::
1738:.
1734::
1711:.
1699::
1693:9
1676:.
1670::
1638:.
1634::
1608:.
1584::
1576::
1549:.
1537::
1529::
1506:.
1494::
1469:.
1465::
1441:.
1429::
1400:.
1396::
1370:.
1366::
1360:3
1340:.
1318::
1291:.
1271::
1263::
1240:.
1216::
1208::
1179:.
1167::
1161:6
1135:.
1131::
1125:4
1107:.
1103::
1080:.
1056::
1048::
1016:.
992::
984::
954:.
942::
934::
908:.
896::
873:.
861::
824:.
800::
792::
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.