158:
first, Huffaker experienced difficulties similar to those of Gause in creating a stable predatorāprey interaction. By using oranges only, the prey species quickly became extinct followed consequently with predator extinction. However, he discovered that by modifying the spatial structure of the habitat, he could manipulate the population dynamics and allow the overall survival rate for both species to increase. He did this by altering the distance between the prey and oranges (their food), establishing barriers to predator movement, and creating corridors for the prey to disperse. These changes resulted in increased habitat patches and in turn provided more areas for the prey to seek temporary protection. When the prey would become extinct locally at one habitat patch, they were able to reestablish by migrating to new patches before being attacked by predators. This habitat spatial structure of patches allowed for coexistence between the predator and prey species and promoted a stable population oscillation model. Although the term metapopulation had not yet been coined, the environmental factors of
485:, synthetic habitat landscapes have been fabricated on a chip by building a collection of bacterial mini-habitats with nano-scale channels providing them with nutrients for habitat renewal, and connecting them by corridors in different topological arrangements, generating a spatial mosaic of patches of opportunity distributed in time. This can be used for landscape experiments by studying the bacteria metapopulations on the chip, for example their
33:
470:
513:. The seasonal duration of wetlands and the migratory range of the species determines which ponds are connected and if they form a metapopulation. The duration of the life history stages of amphibians relative to the duration of the vernal pool before it dries up regulates the ecological development of metapopulations connecting aquatic patches to terrestrial patches.
405:
Huffaker's studies of spatial structure and species interactions are an example of early experimentation in metapopulation dynamics. Since the experiments of
Huffaker and Levins, models have been created which integrate stochastic factors. These models have shown that the combination of environmental
171:
Levins' original model applied to a metapopulation distributed over many patches of suitable habitat with significantly less interaction between patches than within a patch. Population dynamics within a patch were simplified to the point where only presence and absence were considered. Each patch in
162:
and habitat patchiness would later describe the conditions of a metapopulation relating to how groups of spatially separated populations of species interact with one another. Huffaker's experiment is significant because it showed how metapopulations can directly affect the predatorāprey interactions
80:
Although individual populations have finite life-spans, the metapopulation as a whole is often stable because immigrants from one population (which may, for example, be experiencing a population boom) are likely to re-colonize habitat which has been left open by the extinction of another population.
99:
Metapopulation theory was first developed for terrestrial ecosystems, and subsequently applied to the marine realm. In fisheries science, the term "sub-population" is equivalent to the metapopulation science term "local population". Most marine examples are provided by relatively sedentary species
68:
A metapopulation is generally considered to consist of several distinct populations together with areas of suitable habitat which are currently unoccupied. In classical metapopulation theory, each population cycles in relative independence of the other populations and eventually goes extinct as a
36:
Metapopulations are important in fisheries. The local population (1.) serves as a source for hybridization with surrounding subspecies populations (1.a, 1.b, and 1.c).The populations are normally spatially separated and independent but spatial overlap between them during breeding times allows for
157:
In order to study predation and population oscillations, Huffaker used mite species, one being the predator and the other being the prey. He set up a controlled experiment using oranges, which the prey fed on, as the spatially structured habitat in which the predator and prey would interact. At
148:
accurately depicted the oscillations predicted by the Lotka-Volterra equation, with the peaks in prey abundance shifted slightly to the left of the peaks of the predator densities. Huffaker's experiments expanded on those of Gause by examining how both the factors of migration and spatial
104:, with both local recruitment and recruitment from other local populations in the larger metapopulation. Kritzer & Sale have argued against strict application of the metapopulation definitional criteria that extinction risks to local populations must be non-negligible.
143:
over time based on the initial densities of predator and prey. Gause's early experiments to prove the predicted oscillations of this theory failed because the predatorāprey interactions were not influenced by immigration. However, once immigration was introduced, the
96:, emphasised the importance of connectivity between seemingly isolated populations. Although no single population may be able to guarantee the long-term survival of a given species, the combined effect of many populations may be able to do this.
406:
variability (stochasticity) and relatively small migration rates cause indefinite or unpredictable persistence. However, Huffaker's experiment almost guaranteed infinite persistence because of the controlled immigration variable.
139:, which was formulated in the mid-1920s, but no further application had been conducted. The Lotka-Volterra equation suggested that the relationship between predators and their prey would result in population
293:
347:
434:
in a given time interval. The Levins model cannot address this issue. A simple way to extend the Levins' model to incorporate space and stochastic considerations is by using the
392:
1783:
1036:
1927:
766:
Keymer J.E; P.A. Marquet; J.X. Velasco-HernƔndez; S.A. Levin (November 2000). "Extinction
Thresholds and Metapopulation Persistence in Dynamic Landscapes".
1997:
878:
Petranka, J. W. (2007), "Evolution of complex life cycles of amphibians: bridging the gap between metapopulation dynamics and life history evolution",
1534:
461:
nature of extinction and colonisation. Also, in order to apply these models, the extinctions and colonisations of the patches must be asynchronous.
2007:
1735:
457:
purposes, metapopulation models must include (a) the finite nature of metapopulations (how many patches are suitable for habitat), and (b) the
2600:
2012:
1569:
970:
Fahrig, L. 2003. Effects of
Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity. Annual Review of ecology, evolution, and systematics. 34:1, p. 487.
2200:
1617:
1953:
1776:
1029:
1289:
965:
509:. Alternative ecological strategies have evolved. For example, some salamanders forgo metamorphosis and sexually mature as aquatic
2032:
1745:
1612:
1324:
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2417:
2062:
61:
of insect pests in agricultural fields, but the idea has been most broadly applied to species in naturally or artificially
2463:
2017:
1769:
1022:
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435:
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136:
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Levins, R. (1969), "Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity for biological control",
224:
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2110:
2002:
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Bascompte J.; SolƩ R. V. (1996), "Habitat
Fragmentation and Extinction Thresholds in spatially explicit models",
427:
2257:
93:
2638:
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2483:
2453:
1720:
1602:
643:
Huffaker, C.B. (1958), "Experimental
Studies on Predation: Dispersion factors and predatorāprey oscillations",
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events); the smaller the population, the more chances of inbreeding depression and prone to extinction.
62:
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81:
They may also emigrate to a small population and rescue that population from extinction (called the
2941:
2558:
2533:
2397:
2367:
2312:
2225:
2115:
2100:
2047:
1880:
1815:
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58:
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1983:
1948:
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1153:
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458:
2027:
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2427:
2215:
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1206:
1118:
1103:
1088:
1068:
961:
860:
793:
532:
482:
361:
299:
101:
715:
Kareiva, P. (1987), "Habitat
Fragmentation and the Stability of PredatorāPrey Interactions",
397:
At equilibrium, therefore, some fraction of the species's habitat will always be unoccupied.
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2628:
2412:
2275:
2267:
2185:
2067:
2052:
1988:
1968:
1885:
1875:
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1835:
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1607:
1478:
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732:
690:
652:
589:
145:
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2855:
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2407:
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2362:
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2280:
2160:
2140:
2022:
1890:
1796:
1687:
1597:
1539:
1524:
1123:
1049:
450:
effects take place in these configurations predicting more drastic extinction thresholds.
89:
may occur because declining populations leave niche opportunities open to the "rescuers".
933:
891:
836:
728:
2875:
2865:
2860:
2806:
2776:
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2729:
2528:
2352:
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2235:
2125:
1992:
1865:
1672:
1662:
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1181:
1073:
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478:
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54:
756:
Janssen, A. et al. 1997. Metapopulation
Dynamics of a Persisting PredatorāPrey system.
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702:
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Metapopulation models have been used to explain life-history evolution, such as the
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2845:
2766:
2709:
2687:
2538:
2523:
2180:
2150:
2095:
1978:
1943:
1820:
1319:
805:
744:
506:
140:
132:
108:
32:
92:
The development of metapopulation theory, in conjunction with the development of
2900:
2895:
2885:
2831:
2786:
2699:
1830:
1559:
1377:
1339:
1314:
1304:
1269:
1216:
1196:
542:
74:
422:. Metapopulations are particularly useful when discussing species in disturbed
17:
2905:
2870:
2816:
2704:
2677:
2655:
2543:
2120:
2085:
1725:
1677:
1622:
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1415:
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Legendre, P.; Fortin, M.J. (1989), "Spatial pattern and ecological analysis",
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70:
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1344:
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1211:
1201:
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1168:
1113:
845:
657:
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552:
210:, each unoccupied patch can become occupied with a colonization probability
199:
124:
38:
864:
797:
1009:
2692:
2672:
2503:
2432:
1963:
1470:
1382:
1329:
1284:
423:
819:
Keymer J.E.; P. Galajda; C. Muldoon R. & R. Austin (November 2006).
788:
2493:
2300:
2170:
2165:
1792:
1740:
1400:
1045:
694:
510:
431:
50:
65:. In Levins' own words, it consists of "a population of populations".
736:
949:
53:
which interact at some level. The term metapopulation was coined by
987:
779:
179:
be the fraction of patches occupied at a given time. During a time
49:
consists of a group of spatially separated populations of the same
468:
31:
941:
152:
2582:
1765:
1018:
438:. Simple modifications to this model can also incorporate for
974:
Levin S.A. (1974), "Dispersion and
Population Interactions",
214:. Accordingly, the time rate of change of occupied patches,
153:
Huffaker's experiments on predatorāprey interactions (1958)
465:
Microhabitat patches (MHPs) and bacterial metapopulations
27:
Group of separated yet interacting ecological populations
2578:
821:"Bacterial metapopulations in nanofabricated landscapes"
626:
Foundations of
Ecology: Classic papers with commentaries
194:
of the patches are unoccupied. Assuming a constant rate
418:, whereas the fundamental metapopulation processes are
115:
was an important contributor to metapopulation theory.
414:
One major drawback of the Levins model is that it is
364:
315:
227:
183:, each occupied patch can become unoccupied with an
2616:
2441:
2341:
2266:
2139:
2076:
1936:
1804:
1706:
1585:
1512:
1469:
1391:
1358:
1255:
1167:
1061:
386:
341:
298:This equation is mathematically equivalent to the
287:
149:heterogeneity lead to predatorāprey oscillations.
582:Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America
73:(fluctuations in population size due to random
638:
636:
634:
608:Kritzer, J. P. & Sale, P. F. (eds) (2006)
288:{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=cN(1-N)-eN.\,}
2594:
1777:
1030:
8:
575:
573:
628:. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
604:
602:
163:and in turn influence population dynamics.
2601:
2587:
2579:
1998:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
1784:
1770:
1762:
1037:
1023:
1015:
624:Real, Leslie A. and Brown, James H. 1991.
854:
844:
787:
684:
656:
410:Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs)
383:
363:
338:
328:
314:
284:
228:
226:
1896:Predatorāprey (LotkaāVolterra) equations
1535:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
620:
618:
1928:Random generalized LotkaāVolterra model
569:
1736:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
430:, i.e., how likely they are to become
172:his model is either populated or not.
7:
1751:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
342:{\displaystyle K=1-{\frac {e}{c}}\,}
2201:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1954:Ecological effects of biodiversity
25:
1290:Generalist and specialist species
473:E. coli metapopulation on a chip.
401:Stochasticity and metapopulations
2013:Occupancyāabundance relationship
1010:Helsinki-science: Metapopulation
206:occupied patches, during a time
2033:Relative abundance distribution
1746:Plant defense against herbivory
1613:Competitive exclusion principle
1325:Mesopredator release hypothesis
960:Oxford University Press. 1999.
57:in 1969 to describe a model of
1618:Consumerāresource interactions
428:viability of their populations
269:
257:
190:. Additionally, 1 ā
1:
2464:Biological data visualization
2291:Environmental niche modelling
2018:Population viability analysis
548:Population viability analysis
1949:Density-dependent inhibition
202:generation from each of the
2418:Liebig's law of the minimum
2253:Resource selection function
1144:Metabolic theory of ecology
612:, Academic Press, New York.
302:, with a carrying capacity
135:in the 1930s, based on the
123:The first experiments with
69:consequence of demographic
2958:
2318:Niche apportionment models
2038:Relative species abundance
1242:Primary nutritional groups
1139:List of feeding behaviours
119:Predation and oscillations
2567:
2499:Ecosystem based fisheries
2111:Interspecific competition
2003:Minimum viable population
1861:Maximum sustainable yield
1846:Intraspecific competition
1841:Effective population size
1721:Anti-predator adaptations
1232:Photosynthetic efficiency
922:Journal of Animal Ecology
900:10.1007/s10682-006-9149-1
2489:Ecological stoichiometry
2454:Alternative stable state
538:LotkaāVolterra equations
387:{\displaystyle r=c-e.\,}
41:between the populations.
2333:Ontogenetic niche shift
2196:Ideal free distribution
2106:Ecological facilitation
1856:Malthusian growth model
1826:Consumer-resource model
1683:Paradox of the plankton
1648:Energy systems language
1368:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1335:Optimal foraging theory
1310:Heterotrophic nutrition
976:The American Naturalist
846:10.1073/pnas.0607971103
768:The American Naturalist
658:10.3733/hilg.v27n14p343
503:amphibian metamorphosis
137:LotkaāVolterra equation
2479:Ecological forecasting
2423:Marginal value theorem
2221:Landscape epidemiology
2156:Cross-boundary subsidy
2091:Biological interaction
1441:Microbial intelligence
1129:Green world hypothesis
958:Metapopulation Ecology
610:Marine metapopulations
493:Life history evolution
474:
388:
343:
289:
185:extinction probability
113:University of Helsinki
42:
2484:Ecological humanities
2383:Ecological energetics
2328:Niche differentiation
2191:Habitat fragmentation
1959:Ecological extinction
1906:Small population size
1658:Feed conversion ratio
1638:Ecological succession
1570:San Francisco Estuary
1484:Ecological efficiency
1426:Microbial cooperation
594:10.1093/besa/15.3.237
558:Spatial heterogeneity
523:Competition (biology)
472:
448:habitat fragmentation
444:percolation threshold
389:
344:
290:
160:spatial heterogeneity
129:spatial heterogeneity
35:
2509:Evolutionary ecology
2474:Ecological footprint
2469:Ecological economics
2393:Ecological threshold
2388:Ecological indicator
2258:Sourceāsink dynamics
2211:Land change modeling
2206:Insular biogeography
2058:Species distribution
1797:Modelling ecosystems
1456:Microbial metabolism
1295:Intraguild predation
1084:Biogeochemical cycle
1050:Modelling ecosystems
880:Evolutionary Ecology
528:Conservation biology
499:ecological stability
487:evolutionary ecology
455:conservation biology
362:
313:
225:
94:sourceāsink dynamics
2617:Domains and methods
2559:Theoretical ecology
2534:Natural environment
2398:Ecosystem diversity
2368:Ecological collapse
2358:Bateman's principle
2313:Limiting similarity
2226:Landscape limnology
2048:Species homogeneity
1886:Population modeling
1881:Population dynamics
1698:Trophic state index
934:1996JAnEc..65..465B
892:2007EvEco..21..751P
837:2006PNAS..10317290K
729:1987Natur.326..388K
100:occupying discrete
63:fragmented habitats
59:population dynamics
2932:Population ecology
2663:Meta-communication
2570:Outline of ecology
2519:Industrial ecology
2514:Functional ecology
2378:Ecological deficit
2323:Niche construction
2286:Ecosystem engineer
2063:Speciesāarea curve
1984:Introduced species
1799:: Other components
1731:Deimatic behaviour
1633:Ecological network
1565:North Pacific Gyre
1550:hydrothermal vents
1489:Ecological pyramid
1436:Microbial food web
1247:Primary production
1192:Foundation species
695:10.1007/BF00048036
475:
384:
339:
285:
131:were conducted by
107:Finnish biologist
102:patches of habitat
43:
2937:Landscape ecology
2919:
2918:
2797:Meta-organization
2792:Meta-optimization
2576:
2575:
2459:Balance of nature
2216:Landscape ecology
2101:Community ecology
2043:Species diversity
1979:Indicator species
1974:Gradient analysis
1851:Logistic function
1759:
1758:
1716:Animal coloration
1693:Trophic mutualism
1431:Microbial ecology
1222:Photoheterotrophs
1207:Myco-heterotrophy
1119:Ecosystem ecology
1104:Carrying capacity
1069:Abiotic component
831:(46): 17290ā295.
723:(6111): 388ā390,
533:Landscape ecology
483:landscape ecology
336:
246:
146:population cycles
16:(Redirected from
2949:
2812:Metaepistemology
2629:Metabibliography
2603:
2596:
2589:
2580:
2276:Ecological niche
2248:selection theory
2068:Umbrella species
2053:Species richness
1989:Invasive species
1969:Flagship species
1876:Population cycle
1871:Overexploitation
1836:Ecological yield
1786:
1779:
1772:
1763:
1668:Mesotrophic soil
1608:Climax community
1540:Marine food webs
1479:Biomagnification
1280:Chemoorganotroph
1134:Keystone species
1094:Biotic component
1039:
1032:
1025:
1016:
999:
953:
912:
911:
875:
869:
868:
858:
848:
816:
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809:
791:
763:
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754:
748:
747:
737:10.1038/326388a0
712:
706:
705:
688:
668:
662:
661:
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651:(343): 343ā383,
640:
629:
622:
613:
606:
597:
596:
577:
393:
391:
390:
385:
352:and growth rate
348:
346:
345:
340:
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329:
294:
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247:
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167:The Levins model
21:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2881:Meta-regulation
2856:Metaprogramming
2837:Metametaphysics
2757:Metamathematics
2612:
2607:
2577:
2572:
2563:
2549:Systems ecology
2437:
2408:Extinction debt
2373:Ecological debt
2363:Bioluminescence
2344:
2337:
2306:marine habitats
2281:Ecological trap
2262:
2142:
2135:
2078:
2072:
2028:Rapoport's rule
2023:Priority effect
1964:Endemic species
1932:
1891:Population size
1807:
1800:
1790:
1760:
1755:
1708:
1702:
1688:Trophic cascade
1598:Bioaccumulation
1581:
1508:
1465:
1387:
1354:
1251:
1163:
1124:Ecosystem model
1057:
1043:
1006:
973:
919:
916:
915:
877:
876:
872:
818:
817:
813:
774:(5): 478ā4945.
765:
764:
760:
755:
751:
714:
713:
709:
686:10.1.1.330.8940
670:
669:
665:
642:
641:
632:
623:
616:
607:
600:
579:
578:
571:
566:
519:
495:
467:
436:contact process
412:
403:
360:
359:
311:
310:
238:
230:
223:
222:
169:
155:
121:
28:
23:
22:
18:Metapopulations
15:
12:
11:
5:
2955:
2953:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2924:
2923:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2876:Meta-reference
2873:
2868:
2866:Metapsychology
2863:
2861:Metapsychiatry
2858:
2853:
2851:Metapopulation
2848:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2807:Metaphilosophy
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2777:Metamotivation
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2742:
2740:Metapragmatics
2732:
2730:Meta-knowledge
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2685:
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2675:
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2659:
2658:
2653:
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2411:
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1373:Decomposition
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673:Plant Ecology
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460:
459:probabilistic
456:
451:
449:
445:
442:. At a given
441:
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421:
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416:deterministic
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87:rescue effect
84:
83:rescue effect
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72:
71:stochasticity
66:
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60:
56:
52:
48:
40:
34:
30:
19:
2850:
2846:Metapolitics
2767:Metamodeling
2710:Metagenomics
2688:Meta-emotion
2639:Semantic Web
2539:Regime shift
2524:Macroecology
2245:
2241:
2230:
2181:Edge effects
2151:Biogeography
2096:Commensalism
1944:Biodiversity
1821:Allee effect
1560:kelp forests
1513:Example webs
1378:Detritivores
1217:Organotrophs
1197:Kinetotrophs
1149:Productivity
982:(960): 207,
979:
975:
957:
942:10.2307/5781
925:
921:
883:
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873:
828:
824:
814:
789:10533/172124
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141:oscillations
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109:Ilkka Hanski
106:
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82:
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67:
46:
44:
29:
2901:Metatheorem
2896:Meta-system
2886:Metascience
2832:Metaphysics
2787:Meta-object
2720:Metahistory
2700:Metafiction
2176:Disturbance
2079:interaction
1901:Recruitment
1831:Depensation
1623:Copiotrophs
1494:Energy flow
1416:Lithotrophy
1360:Decomposers
1340:Planktivore
1315:Insectivore
1305:Heterotroph
1270:Bacterivore
1237:Phototrophs
1187:Chemotrophs
1159:Restoration
1109:Competition
956:Hanski, I.
543:Oscillation
133:G. F. Gause
75:demographic
2942:Population
2926:Categories
2906:Metatheory
2871:Metapuzzle
2817:Metaethics
2705:Metagaming
2678:Metadesign
2656:Metamemory
2544:Sexecology
2121:Parasitism
2086:Antibiosis
1921:Resistance
1916:Resilience
1806:Population
1726:Camouflage
1678:Oligotroph
1593:Ascendency
1555:intertidal
1545:cold seeps
1499:Food chain
1300:Herbivores
1275:Carnivores
1202:Mixotrophs
1177:Autotrophs
1056:components
679:(2): 107,
564:References
477:Combining
426:, and the
420:stochastic
85:). Such a
2911:Metaverse
2822:Metalogic
2762:Metamedia
2725:Metahumor
2634:Metaclass
2449:Allometry
2403:Emergence
2131:Symbiosis
2116:Mutualism
1911:Stability
1816:Abundance
1628:Dominance
1586:Processes
1575:tide pool
1471:Food webs
1345:Predation
1330:Omnivores
1257:Consumers
1212:Mycotroph
1169:Producers
1114:Ecosystem
1079:Behaviour
681:CiteSeerX
645:Hilgardia
553:Predation
505:in small
375:−
326:−
306:given by
273:−
264:−
200:propagule
125:predation
39:gene flow
2693:Metamood
2673:Metadata
2504:Endolith
2433:Xerosere
2345:networks
2161:Ecocline
1707:Defense,
1383:Detritus
1285:Foraging
1154:Resource
996:83630608
908:38832436
865:17090676
798:29587508
703:17101938
517:See also
511:neotenes
424:habitats
2494:Ecopath
2301:Habitat
2171:Ecotype
2166:Ecotone
2143:ecology
2141:Spatial
2077:Species
1937:Species
1808:ecology
1793:Ecology
1741:Mimicry
1709:counter
1653:f-ratio
1401:Archaea
1089:Biomass
1062:General
1054:Trophic
1046:Ecology
930:Bibcode
888:Bibcode
856:1635019
833:Bibcode
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745:4335135
725:Bibcode
432:extinct
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992:S2CID
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481:with
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216:dN/dt
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