180:
451:
341:. The Deliberative Council of Ministers was Dorgon's main policymaking body during his regency. Soon after moving to Beijing, he gave the Council control over both military and civil affairs, and expanded its membership to all lieutenant-generals and deputy lieutenant-generals in the Manchu and Mongol Banners, as well as to all Mongols and Manchus who held posts of Grand Secretary or Board president. Far from limiting Dorgon's power, the Council served as his tool to denounce and arraign other princes who challenged his authority. In May 1644, for instance, he had Hong Taiji's son
303:
389:) were also appointed to the Council at that time. In 1656, the emperor issued an edict abolishing the automatic appointment to the Council of Manchu and Mongol Grand Secretaries, yet by the end of his reign in 1661, the Council still counted more than fifty members. During the Shunzhi reign, the Council was often convened to investigate important officials who had been accused of corruption or malfeasance.
245:) and assisted the princes in discussing policy. Franz Michael, however, claims that they were mere "technical advisors", a point of view supported by Silas Wu. In 1623, "eight high officials" were also made deliberative officials, but their functions were chiefly censorial and their primary role was to let Nurhaci know of conspiracies among the princes.
294:) each, who were put in charge of managing the Eight Manchu Banners. By limiting Council membership to Manchu military leaders from outside the imperial clan, Hung Taiji enhanced his personal power at the expense of the other princes. Nonetheless the Council remained a bastion of "collective aristocratic rule" within the Qing government.
479:
military matters, but he also worked to undermine its power. To bypass the
Council, he created smaller parallel bodies which he found more reliable and less entrenched. Slowly, he transferred deliberative powers to these more trusted ministers. Around 1730, these informal institutions crystallized into the
356:
directly on important matters of state. After Dorgon's supporters had been purged from the court (by March 1651), his former co-regent
Jirgalang made a number of special appointments to the Council to foster loyalty among the Manchu elite. Between 1651 and 1653, he added thirty new members who lacked
478:
against one another. Many Manchu nobles who had sided with the
Yongzheng Emperor's rivals during the succession struggle were still members of the Deliberative Council. To avoid alienating these grandees, the Yongzheng Emperor still made new appointments to the Council and consulted it on various
408:
reverted many of the bureaucratic reforms of the Oboi faction after 1669, but continued to rely on the
Deliberative Council as a body of Manchu counselors whom he consulted on a wide variety of military and civil matters, especially those that were too sensitive or complex to handle through the
494:(1736–1796), the titles of "deliberative minister" and "deliberative prince" became mainly honorific. Manchu Grand Secretaries held such titles until 1792, when the Council was formally abolished by the Qianlong Emperor. The title was revived in the second half of the nineteenth century for
396:
led by Oboi, who took care of state affairs during the minority of the Kangxi
Emperor (r. 1661–1722). Under the Oboi regency (1661–1669), the Deliberative Council became "the most prominent Manchu institution." While keeping their own seats on the Council, the regents limited membership to
401:, whose independence the Shunzhi Emperor had compromised by subjugating it to the Board of Rites. By 1662, the Deliberative Council had been reduced to 31 members, chiefly senior Manchu leaders who had significant experience in both military affairs and civil government.
417:
had been suppressed and peace reestablished, he decided that the lieutenant-generals of the
Banners would no longer be automatic members. After that, the Deliberative Council became more oriented toward civil administration. Nonetheless during the
179:
1698:
1762:
212:) control over one banner each and ordered them to meet to deliberate major policies, especially military matters. Nurhaci's eight sons were known collectively as the "princes who deliberate on government" (
232:), all Manchu, that Nurhaci put in charge of administrative and judicial tasks in 1615 or 1616. Robert Oxnam claims that this group was then referred to as "high officials who deliberate on government" (
1596:
268:
origin of the
Deliberative Council, which then became Hong Taiji's main policymaking structure and was consulted on foreign and military matters. In 1637, one year after he had declared himself
2357:
2318:
163:
After serving as the most influential policymaking body of the dynasty for more than a century, the
Deliberative Council was displaced and then made obsolete by the more ethnically mixed
1691:
2362:
397:
lieutenant-generals of the Manchu and Mongol
Banners and to Manchu and Mongol presidents of the Six Ministries. They also decided to grant membership to the president of the
2198:
256:, became a strong ruler who laid the institutional foundation of the Qing dynasty. In 1627 he placed the Eight Banners under the command of eight "high officials" (Ma.:
171:(r. 1722–1735) created in the late 1720s to circumvent the influence of the deliberative princes and ministers. The Deliberative Council was formally abolished in 1792.
2037:
483:. Unlike the Deliberative Council, whose membership was almost exclusively Manchu, the Grand Council counted many Chinese among its ranks. This more ethnically mixed
1777:
442:. During his reign, the Council met on imperial request and transmitted the result of its deliberations to the emperor, who usually followed the Council's advice.
1393:
2182:
2153:
1228:
1854:
2642:
2637:
1842:
1827:
208:
1529:
2627:
2565:
1904:
276:, Hong Taiji officially excluded imperial princes from the Council. Instead, the Council was manned by eight lieutenant-generals (later called
2596:
1837:
1194:
1172:
1151:
1106:
1074:
1053:
1031:
194:
has called the origin of the
Council "a complicated and often confusing process." The Council originated in informal institutions created by
1454:
2066:
1817:
1730:
1469:
1735:
1639:
349:
behavior and made Hooge's enemies testify against him in front of the Council. He used the same method to purge Hooge for good in 1648.
2282:
1651:
1524:
1348:
352:
After Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650, the Shunzhi Emperor started his personal rule: he ordered the members of the Council to
2571:
2412:
2287:
1644:
1221:
1130:
202:
among his sons. In 1601, Nurhaci had organized Manchu society into four "Banners" that were doubled in number in 1615 to become the
490:
After the stabilization of the Grand Council in the 1730s, the influence of the Deliberative Council quickly declined. During the
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2499:
1742:
1429:
1315:
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1949:
1717:
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73:
35:
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81:
43:
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164:
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official positions in the Banners or the metropolitan bureaucracy. Two of the new appointees were Chinese Bannermen
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2022:
495:
113:
1484:
1271:
2586:
2305:
2234:
2027:
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1353:
398:
2507:
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2061:
2032:
1782:
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1569:
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264:), who were also told to assist the princes in policy deliberations. Silas Wu identifies this reform as the
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2372:
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1296:
353:
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1439:
1343:
2558:
2417:
2044:
2006:
1894:
1874:
1792:
1591:
1574:
1408:
1086:
The Origin of Manchu Rule in China: Frontier and Bureaucracy as Interacting Forces in the Chinese Empire
365:寗完我 (d. 1665), two of only three Chinese who were ever appointed to the Council. All four of the future
132:(1559–1626) in the 1610s and early 1620s, the Council was formally established by his son and successor
996:, p. 308, note 61 (Manchu Grand secretaries, 1792), and p. 312, note 116 (abolition by Qianlong).
2489:
2456:
2422:
2367:
2247:
2229:
1939:
1869:
1676:
1459:
186:, seen here in imperial regalia, formally established the Council of Deliberative Ministers in 1627.
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2392:
2332:
2264:
1944:
1797:
1752:
1499:
1378:
1358:
1266:
141:
2427:
2138:
2133:
1959:
1899:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1703:
1549:
1368:
362:
1164:
Communication and Imperial Control in China: Evolution of the Palace Memorial System, 1693–1735
2437:
2432:
2407:
2352:
2347:
2270:
2218:
2123:
1954:
1859:
1757:
1656:
1619:
1544:
1474:
1444:
1398:
1190:
1187:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China
1168:
1147:
1126:
1102:
1070:
1049:
1027:
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455:
414:
168:
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1725:
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institution served as the chief source of advice on military matters for Hong Taiji and the
121:
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2552:
2402:
2387:
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1629:
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1303:
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423:
322:
145:
99:
386:
309:
used the Deliberative Council as his main policymaking tool from 1661 to 1669 during his
1125:, Cambridge, Mass., and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
228:
Another precursor to the Council was a group of "five high officials" and "ten judges" (
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2342:
2108:
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1519:
1509:
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149:
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1934:
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484:
203:
137:
17:
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1929:
1911:
1767:
1237:
1094:
431:
393:
358:
334:
310:
273:
253:
199:
191:
125:
2537:
2258:
1979:
1974:
487:
served as the empire's main policymaking body for the rest of the Qing dynasty.
450:
2205:
2049:
1999:
1969:
1812:
249:
183:
152:(r. 1661–1722) emperors. It was particularly powerful during the regencies of
133:
1994:
1984:
410:
346:
330:
333:. In 1644, under their leadership, the Qing dynasty replaced the collapsed
2479:
2224:
2171:
2113:
1989:
1964:
1024:
Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723–1820
2464:
378:
338:
195:
129:
1206:
1099:
Ruling from Horseback: Manchu Politics in the Oboi Regency, 1661–1669
427:
426:, the Kangxi Emperor often consulted the Council on how to deal with
382:
366:
326:
153:
89:
51:
206:. In 1622, he gave eight of his sons (who were called "princes," or
2188:
1747:
449:
301:
178:
128:(1644–1912). Derived from informal deliberative groups created by
1143:
The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions
462:, a new deliberative body that bypassed the Deliberative Council.
1847:
413:
to sit on the Council, then in 1683, after the rebellion of the
374:
306:
252:(r. 1626–1643), who, instead of following his father's wish for
157:
1210:
302:
409:
regular bureaucracy. The emperor allowed the president of the
160:(1661–1669), who used it to enhance their personal influence.
1189:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1146:, Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press,
1026:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
136:(1592–1643) in 1626 and expanded in 1637. Staffed mainly by
2358:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
498:
and others when Prince Gong was head of the Grand Council.
422:, fought from 1687 to 1697 between the Qing Empire and the
321:
When Hong Taiji died in 1643, he was replaced by the young
1066:
K'ang-Hsi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule, 1661–1684
934:
932:
930:
765:
763:
1122:
China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia
920:, p. 74 (usually followed the council's advice);
841:
839:
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
816:
814:
750:
748:
536:
534:
961:
959:
392:
The Shunzhi Emperor (r. 1643–1661) was succeeded by
2530:
2498:
2455:
2448:
2363:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
2317:
2162:
2094:
2015:
1920:
1716:
1607:
1417:
1324:
1254:
1245:
1101:, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press,
860:, pp. 925, 948, and 985 (for three examples).
563:
561:
1046:A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China
454:To diminish the influence of Manchu nobles, the
1763:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
2183:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
2154:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
1222:
1008:, p. 312, note 116, and p. 350, note 23.
289:
280:
233:
213:
32:Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers
8:
103:
2452:
1251:
1229:
1215:
1207:
1843:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
1692:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
1069:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1005:
993:
981:
950:
938:
583:
517:
2299:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
1167:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1048:, Stanford: Stanford University Press,
924:, p. 18 (rest of the information).
857:
793:
781:
769:
739:
727:
695:
694:, p. 30 (main policymaking body);
675:
659:
639:
615:
513:
506:
905:
525:
521:
66:Assembly of Princes and High Officials
2597:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
1838:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
977:
917:
893:
881:
869:
845:
830:
805:
754:
723:
711:
691:
671:
627:
607:
595:
579:
552:
540:
470:succeeded the Kangxi Emperor after a
438:, and with the Dzungars' enemies the
62:Council of Princes and High Officials
27:Advisory body during the Qing dynasty
7:
1818:Ministry of Posts and Communications
2566:History of Qing (People's Republic)
2643:Deliberative Princes and Ministers
2283:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
1652:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
1645:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
1525:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
1349:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
980:, p. 89 (Manchu membership);
965:
921:
707:
687:
655:
643:
630:, pp. 21 and 30 respectively.
611:
567:
25:
2572:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
2413:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
2288:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
1440:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
953:, p. 48 and p. 307, note 46.
290:
281:
248:Nurhaci was succeeded by his son
2638:Historical legislatures in China
2383:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
1699:Articles of Favourable Treatment
1455:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
1088:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press
984:, p. 267 (open to Chinese).
446:Replacement by the Grand Council
175:Origins and formal establishment
120:), was an advisory body for the
1430:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
1316:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
674:, pp. 30 and 31, note 38;
285:in Chinese) with two deputies (
2628:Government of the Qing dynasty
2084:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
1374:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
1022:Bartlett, Beatrice S. (1991),
298:Central role in the early Qing
94:
85:
77:
56:
47:
39:
1:
2518:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
2293:Islam during the Qing dynasty
2149:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
1833:Provincial military commander
1823:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
1808:Imperial Household Department
1635:Preparative Constitutionalism
1339:Sino-Russian border conflicts
2277:Researches on Manchu Origins
1682:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
1292:Transition from Ming to Qing
1282:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
2177:Changzhou School of Thought
1687:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
1662:Railway Protection Movement
1640:1909 Parliamentary election
1625:British expedition to Tibet
1535:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
1495:Self-Strengthening Movement
1470:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
2659:
2577:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
1465:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
1404:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
1394:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
1364:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
1140:Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998),
1063:Kessler, Lawrence (1976),
104:
2587:Names of the Qing dynasty
2235:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
1565:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
1560:Gongche Shangshu movement
1505:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
1354:Chinese Rites controversy
399:Court of Colonial Affairs
337:and moved its capital to
234:
214:
57:Yìzhèng Wáng Dàchén Huìyì
2508:Great Qing Treasure Note
2328:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
2038:Administrative divisions
1855:Administrative divisions
1783:Flag of the Qing dynasty
1161:Wu, Silas H. L. (1970),
474:that pitted many of the
2104:Chengde Mountain Resort
1905:Three Eastern Provinces
1555:First Sino-Japanese War
1530:Northern Chinese Famine
1389:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
1287:Qing invasion of Joseon
1084:Michael, Franz (1942),
908:, pp. 148 and 159.
784:, p. 300, note 231
198:(1559–1626) to promote
2485:Great Qing Copper Coin
2373:Convention of Tientsin
2306:Annotated Bibliography
2254:Qing official headwear
1297:Battle of Shanhai Pass
896:, pp. 72 and 199.
555:, p. 21, note 17.
463:
420:First Oirat–Manchu War
318:
187:
2559:Draft History of Qing
2418:Treaty of Shimonoseki
2199:performance criticism
1803:Imperial Commissioner
1793:Great Qing Legal Code
1592:Eight-Nation Alliance
1575:Third plague pandemic
1485:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
1409:White Lotus Rebellion
1183:Wakeman, Frederic Jr.
884:, pp. 71 and 74.
614:, p. 11 (1616);
610:, p. 21 (1615);
476:Kangxi Emperor's sons
453:
305:
182:
60:), also known as the
2490:Great Qing Gold Coin
2423:Treaty of Tarbagatai
2368:Convention of Peking
2248:Pentaglot Dictionary
2230:Literary inquisition
1940:Ever Victorious Army
1773:Deliberative Council
1677:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
1630:1905 Batang uprising
1570:Hundred Days' Reform
1460:Small Swords Society
618:, p. 67 (1616).
361:范文程 (1597–1666) and
325:and two co-regents:
70:Deliberative Council
18:Deliberative Council
2543:Anti-Qing sentiment
2393:Treaty of the Bogue
2333:Treaty of Nerchinsk
2265:Complete Tang Poems
1945:Green Standard Army
1828:Provincial governor
1798:Imperial Clan Court
1778:Diplomatic missions
1753:Consultative Bureau
1500:Tongzhi Restoration
1379:Afaqi Khoja revolts
1359:Ten Great Campaigns
1267:Jurchen unification
678:, pp. 850–851.
148:(r. 1643–1661) and
74:traditional Chinese
68:, or simply as the
36:traditional Chinese
2633:Manchu politicians
2428:Treaty of Tientsin
2139:Western Qing tombs
2134:Eastern Qing tombs
1960:Peking Field Force
1704:Manchu Restoration
1597:Declaration of war
1550:Jindandao incident
1369:Lhasa riot of 1750
1042:Hucker, Charles O.
464:
354:memorialize to him
319:
188:
140:dignitaries, this
82:simplified Chinese
44:simplified Chinese
2615:
2614:
2526:
2525:
2438:Treaty of Whampoa
2433:Treaty of Wanghia
2408:Treaty of Nanking
2378:Li–Lobanov Treaty
2353:Chefoo Convention
2348:Burlingame Treaty
2219:Kangxi Dictionary
2124:Old Summer Palace
1955:Firearm Battalion
1758:Cup of Solid Gold
1712:
1711:
1657:Manchurian plague
1620:Late Qing reforms
1611:(1901–1912)
1545:Sikkim expedition
1475:Panthay Rebellion
1445:Taiping Rebellion
1421:(1801–1900)
1399:Sino-Nepalese War
1344:Dzungar–Qing Wars
1330:(1683–1799)
1258:(1616–1683)
1196:978-0-520-04804-1
1174:978-0-674-14801-7
1153:978-0-674-12761-6
1108:978-0-226-64244-4
1076:978-0-226-43203-8
1055:978-0-8047-1193-7
1033:978-0-520-08645-6
808:, pp. 70–71.
468:Yongzheng Emperor
456:Yongzheng Emperor
415:Three Feudatories
223:doro jafaha beise
169:Yongzheng Emperor
16:(Redirected from
2650:
2592:New Qing History
2475:Qianlong Tongbao
2453:
2398:Treaty of Canton
2338:Unequal treaties
2144:Fuling Mausoleum
1743:Advisory Council
1672:Wuchang Uprising
1612:
1515:Tianjin Massacre
1480:Second Opium War
1422:
1384:Sino-Burmese War
1331:
1309:Battle of Penghu
1277:Seven Grievances
1259:
1252:
1231:
1224:
1217:
1208:
1199:
1177:
1156:
1135:
1117:Perdue, Peter C.
1111:
1095:Oxnam, Robert B.
1089:
1079:
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1036:
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997:
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237:
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217:
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156:(1643–1650) and
111:
110:
109:
96:
87:
79:
58:
49:
41:
21:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2607:Willow Palisade
2553:Chuang Guandong
2522:
2494:
2444:
2403:Treaty of Kulja
2388:Treaty of Aigun
2321:
2313:
2212:History of Ming
2164:
2158:
2096:
2090:
2016:Special regions
2011:
1950:Imperial Guards
1916:
1708:
1667:1911 Revolution
1613:
1610:
1603:
1580:Boxer Rebellion
1540:Sino-French War
1490:Amur Annexation
1435:First Opium War
1423:
1420:
1413:
1332:
1329:
1320:
1304:Great Clearance
1260:
1257:
1241:
1235:
1203:
1197:
1181:
1175:
1160:
1154:
1139:
1133:
1115:
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1021:
1017:
1012:
1004:
1000:
992:
988:
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957:
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937:
928:
916:
912:
904:
900:
892:
888:
880:
876:
868:
864:
856:
852:
844:
837:
829:
812:
804:
800:
792:
788:
780:
776:
768:
761:
753:
746:
738:
734:
722:
718:
706:
702:
686:
682:
670:
666:
654:
650:
638:
634:
626:
622:
606:
602:
594:
590:
578:
574:
566:
559:
551:
547:
539:
532:
524:, p. 266;
520:, p. 267;
516:, p. 851;
512:
508:
504:
492:Qianlong period
448:
440:Khalkha Mongols
424:Dzungar Khanate
323:Shunzhi Emperor
300:
177:
107:
105:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2656:
2654:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2620:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2562:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2504:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2470:Kangxi Tongbao
2467:
2461:
2459:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2343:Boxer Protocol
2335:
2330:
2324:
2322:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2273:
2268:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2244:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2215:
2208:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2191:
2186:
2179:
2174:
2168:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2109:Forbidden City
2106:
2100:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2076:
2075:
2074:
2072:General of Ili
2069:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2055:List of ambans
2052:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2030:
2025:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2009:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1926:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1857:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1722:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1648:
1647:
1642:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1616:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1520:Margary Affair
1517:
1512:
1510:Mudan incident
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1450:Nian Rebellion
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1426:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1335:
1333:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1263:
1261:
1256:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1236:
1234:
1233:
1226:
1219:
1211:
1202:
1201:
1195:
1179:
1173:
1158:
1152:
1137:
1131:
1113:
1107:
1091:
1081:
1075:
1060:
1054:
1038:
1032:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1010:
998:
986:
970:
968:, p. 105.
955:
943:
926:
910:
898:
886:
874:
862:
850:
835:
810:
798:
796:, p. 896.
786:
774:
772:, p. 885.
759:
744:
742:, p. 851.
732:
726:, p. 30;
716:
710:, p. 10;
700:
690:, p. 11;
680:
664:
662:, p. 850.
658:, p. 10;
648:
642:, p. 67;
632:
620:
600:
588:
582:, p. 21;
572:
557:
545:
530:
528:, p. 123.
505:
503:
500:
447:
444:
406:Kangxi Emperor
371:Kangxi Emperor
315:Kangxi Emperor
299:
296:
254:collegial rule
239:yìzhèng dàchén
200:collegial rule
176:
173:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2655:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2582:Manchu people
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2548:Canton System
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2513:Hubu Guanpiao
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2316:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2163:Society &
2161:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2129:Summer Palace
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2119:Mukden Palace
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2095:Palaces &
2093:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2008:
2005:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1935:Eight Banners
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1788:Grand Council
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1608:20th century
1606:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1418:19th century
1416:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1302:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1232:
1227:
1225:
1220:
1218:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1205:
1198:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1166:
1165:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1145:
1144:
1138:
1134:
1132:0-674-01684-X
1128:
1124:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1007:
1006:Bartlett 1991
1002:
999:
995:
994:Bartlett 1991
990:
987:
983:
982:Bartlett 1991
979:
974:
971:
967:
962:
960:
956:
952:
951:Bartlett 1991
947:
944:
941:, p. 27.
940:
939:Bartlett 1991
935:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
914:
911:
907:
902:
899:
895:
890:
887:
883:
878:
875:
872:, p. 69.
871:
866:
863:
859:
854:
851:
848:, p. 70.
847:
842:
840:
836:
833:, p. 71.
832:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
811:
807:
802:
799:
795:
790:
787:
783:
778:
775:
771:
766:
764:
760:
757:, p. 43.
756:
751:
749:
745:
741:
736:
733:
730:, p. 11.
729:
725:
720:
717:
714:, p. 30.
713:
709:
704:
701:
697:
693:
689:
684:
681:
677:
673:
668:
665:
661:
657:
652:
649:
646:, p. 11.
645:
641:
636:
633:
629:
624:
621:
617:
613:
609:
604:
601:
598:, p. 21.
597:
592:
589:
586:, p. 25.
585:
584:Bartlett 1991
581:
576:
573:
570:, p. 10.
569:
564:
562:
558:
554:
549:
546:
543:, p. 31.
542:
537:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
518:Bartlett 1991
515:
510:
507:
501:
499:
497:
493:
488:
486:
485:privy council
482:
481:Grand Council
477:
473:
469:
461:
460:Grand Council
457:
452:
445:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
416:
412:
407:
402:
400:
395:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
355:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
316:
312:
308:
304:
297:
295:
288:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
240:
231:
226:
224:
220:
211:
210:
205:
204:Eight Banners
201:
197:
193:
185:
181:
174:
172:
170:
166:
165:Grand Council
161:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
124:of the early
123:
119:
115:
101:
97:
91:
83:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
53:
45:
37:
33:
19:
2602:Treaty ports
2564:
2557:
2531:Other topics
2304:
2297:
2275:
2263:
2246:
2241:Peiwen Yunfu
2239:
2217:
2210:
2181:
1930:Beiyang Army
1912:Zongli Yamen
1772:
1768:Da-Qing Bank
1585:Red Lanterns
1238:Qing dynasty
1204:
1186:
1163:
1142:
1121:
1098:
1085:
1065:
1045:
1023:
1015:Bibliography
1001:
989:
973:
946:
913:
901:
889:
877:
865:
858:Wakeman 1985
853:
801:
794:Wakeman 1985
789:
782:Wakeman 1985
777:
770:Wakeman 1985
740:Wakeman 1985
735:
728:Kessler 1976
719:
703:
696:Wakeman 1985
683:
676:Wakeman 1985
667:
660:Wakeman 1985
651:
640:Michael 1942
635:
623:
616:Michael 1942
603:
591:
575:
548:
514:Wakeman 1985
509:
489:
465:
458:created the
403:
394:four regents
391:
359:Fan Wencheng
351:
335:Ming dynasty
320:
286:
277:
274:Qing dynasty
265:
261:
257:
247:
243:hebe-i amban
242:
238:
229:
227:
222:
219:yìzhèng wáng
218:
207:
192:Robert Oxnam
189:
167:, which the
162:
142:aristocratic
126:Qing dynasty
117:
93:
69:
65:
61:
55:
31:
29:
2538:Aisin Gioro
2500:Paper money
2259:Qing poetry
1980:Wuwei Corps
1975:Shuishiying
1736:Family tree
906:Perdue 2005
526:Rawski 1998
522:Hucker 1985
496:Prince Gong
345:accused of
114:Möllendorff
95:Yìzhèng Chù
2622:Categories
2206:Four Wangs
2097:mausoleums
2050:Golden Urn
2023:Inner Asia
2000:Xiang Army
1970:Hushenying
1895:Liangguang
1875:Liangjiang
1813:Lifan Yuan
1718:Government
978:Oxnam 1975
918:Oxnam 1975
894:Oxnam 1975
882:Oxnam 1975
870:Oxnam 1975
846:Oxnam 1975
831:Oxnam 1975
806:Oxnam 1975
755:Oxnam 1975
724:Oxnam 1975
712:Oxnam 1975
692:Oxnam 1975
672:Oxnam 1975
628:Oxnam 1975
608:Oxnam 1975
596:Oxnam 1975
580:Oxnam 1975
553:Oxnam 1975
541:Oxnam 1975
363:Ning Wanwo
311:co-regency
258:gusai ejen
250:Hong Taiji
241:; Manchu:
221:; Manchu:
190:Historian
184:Hong Taiji
134:Hong Taiji
2028:Manchuria
1995:Huai Army
1985:Yong Ying
1870:Shaan-Gan
1326:High Qing
1272:Later Jin
411:Censorate
347:seditious
331:Jirgalang
287:fu dutong
266:bona fide
118:hebe-i ba
2480:Hongqian
2449:Currency
2319:Treaties
2225:Kaozheng
2172:Booi Aha
2114:Hetu Ala
2067:Timeline
2062:Xinjiang
2033:Mongolia
1990:Chu Army
1965:New Army
1922:Military
1860:Viceroys
1185:(1985),
1119:(2005),
1097:(1975),
1044:(1985),
436:Dzungars
369:for the
313:for the
122:emperors
112:,
2465:Zhiqian
2457:Coinage
2194:Economy
2165:culture
1900:Yun-Gui
1890:Min-Zhe
1885:Sichuan
1880:Huguang
1726:Emperor
1247:History
966:Wu 1970
922:Wu 1970
708:Wu 1970
688:Wu 1970
656:Wu 1970
644:Wu 1970
612:Wu 1970
568:Wu 1970
434:of the
379:Suksaha
367:regents
339:Beijing
272:of the
270:emperor
260:; Ch.:
230:jarguci
196:Nurhaci
146:Shunzhi
130:Nurhaci
106:ᡥᡝᠪᡝ ᡳ
48:议政王大臣会议
40:議政王大臣會議
2079:Taiwan
1255:Early
1240:topics
1193:
1171:
1150:
1129:
1105:
1073:
1052:
1030:
472:crisis
430:, the
428:Galdan
385:, and
383:Ebilun
327:Dorgon
278:dutong
262:dachen
154:Dorgon
150:Kangxi
138:Manchu
102::
100:Manchu
92::
90:pinyin
84::
76::
54::
52:pinyin
46::
38::
2271:Queue
2189:Dibao
2045:Tibet
1865:Zhili
1748:Amban
502:Notes
343:Hooge
209:beile
2007:Navy
1848:Ejen
1731:List
1191:ISBN
1169:ISBN
1148:ISBN
1127:ISBN
1103:ISBN
1071:ISBN
1050:ISBN
1028:ISBN
466:The
432:khan
404:The
387:Soni
375:Oboi
329:and
307:Oboi
235:議政大臣
158:Oboi
64:and
30:The
291:副都統
225:).
215:議政王
86:议政处
78:議政處
2624::
958:^
929:^
838:^
813:^
762:^
747:^
560:^
533:^
381:,
377:,
282:都統
116::
108:ᠪᠠ
98:;
88:;
80:;
50:;
42:;
1230:e
1223:t
1216:v
1200:.
1178:.
1157:.
1136:.
1112:.
1090:.
1080:.
1059:.
1037:.
698:.
373:(
317:.
72:(
34:(
20:)
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