74:
to the surface along spreading centers creating new crust. As this new crust is pushed away from the spreading center by the formation of newer crust, it cools, thins, and becomes denser. Subduction begins when this dense crust converges with a less dense crust. The force of gravity helps drive the subducting slab into the mantle. As the relatively cool subducting slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it is heated, causing hydrous minerals to break down. This releases water into the hotter asthenosphere, which leads to partial melting of the asthenosphere and volcanism. Both dehydration and partial melting occur along the 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) isotherm, generally at depths of 65 to 130 km (40 to 81 mi).
31:
338:) form as sediment is scraped from the subducting lithosphere and emplaced against the overriding lithosphere. These sediments include igneous crust, turbidite sediments, and pelagic sediments. Imbricate thrust faulting along a basal decollement surface occurs in accretionary wedges as forces continue to compress and fault these newly added sediments. The continued faulting of the accretionary wedge leads to overall thickening of the wedge. Seafloor topography plays some role in accretion, especially emplacement of igneous crust.
1828:
347:
155:
lithosphere reaches the subduction zone, subduction processes are altered, since continental lithosphere is more buoyant and resists subduction beneath other continental lithosphere. A small portion of the continental crust may be subducted until the slab breaks, allowing the oceanic lithosphere to continue subducting, hot asthenosphere to rise and fill the void, and the continental lithosphere to rebound. Evidence of this continental rebound includes
2716:
2737:
1817:
2726:
1474:
253:, though the magma composition of back-arc basins is generally more varied and contains a higher water content than mid-ocean ridge magmas. Back-arc basins are often characterized by thin, hot lithosphere. Opening of back-arc basins may arise from movement of hot asthenosphere into lithosphere, causing extension.
185:
groups. During subduction, oceanic lithosphere is heated and metamorphosed, causing breakdown of these hydrous minerals, which releases water into the asthenosphere. The release of water into the asthenosphere leads to partial melting. Partial melting allows the rise of more buoyant, hot material and
122:
In collisions between two oceanic plates, the cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere sinks beneath the warmer, less dense oceanic lithosphere. As the slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it releases water from dehydration of hydrous minerals in the oceanic crust. This water reduces the melting temperature
113:
Subduction zones are areas where one lithospheric plate slides beneath another at a convergent boundary due to lithospheric density differences. These plates dip at an average of 45° but can vary. Subduction zones are often marked by an abundance of earthquakes, the result of internal deformation of
73:
Plate tectonics is driven by convection cells in the mantle. Convection cells are the result of heat generated by the radioactive decay of elements in the mantle escaping to the surface and the return of cool materials from the surface to the mantle. These convection cells bring hot mantle material
154:
Some lithospheric plates consist of both continental and oceanic crust. Subduction initiates as oceanic lithosphere slides beneath continental crust. As the oceanic lithosphere subducts to greater depths, the attached continental crust is pulled closer to the subduction zone. Once the continental
267:
Oceanic trenches are narrow topographic lows that mark convergent boundaries or subduction zones. Oceanic trenches average 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) wide and can be several thousand kilometers long. Oceanic trenches form as a result of bending of the subducting slab. Depth of oceanic
85:. In some instances, initial convergence with another plate will destroy oceanic lithosphere, leading to convergence of two continental plates. Neither continental plate will subduct. It is likely that the plate may break along the boundary of continental and oceanic crust.
114:
the plate, convergence with the opposing plate, and bending at the oceanic trench. Earthquakes have been detected to a depth of 670 km (416 mi). The relatively cold and dense subducting plates are pulled into the mantle and help drive mantle convection.
139:
forms on the continental crust as deep-sea sediments and oceanic crust are scraped from the oceanic plate. Volcanic arcs form on continental lithosphere as the result of partial melting due to dehydration of the hydrous minerals of the subducting slab.
293:
Both compressional and extensional forces act along convergent boundaries. On the inner walls of trenches, compressional faulting or reverse faulting occurs due to the relative motion of the two plates. Reverse faulting scrapes off
70:. Convergent boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries vary depending on crust types.
268:
trenches seems to be controlled by age of the oceanic lithosphere being subducted. Sediment fill in oceanic trenches varies and generally depends on abundance of sediment input from surrounding areas. An oceanic trench, the
220:
member of each series is typically most abundant, and the transition from basaltic volcanism of the deep
Pacific basin to andesitic volcanism in the surrounding volcanic arcs has been called the andesite line.
795:
320:, which caused 16,000 deaths and did US$ 360 billion in damage, was caused by a magnitude 9 megathrust earthquake along the convergent boundary of the Eurasian plate and Pacific Plate.
1419:
200:
is most characteristic of oceanic volcanic arcs, though this is also found in continental volcanic arcs above rapid subduction (>7 cm/year). This series is relatively low in
163:
continental â continental convergence zone, and seismic tomography has mapped detached slabs beneath the
Tethyan suture zone (the Alps â Zagros â Himalaya mountain belt).
2456:
2446:
1505:
159:, which form at depths of 90 to 125 km (56 to 78 mi), that are exposed at the surface. Seismic records have been used to map the torn slabs beneath the
123:
of rocks in the asthenosphere and causes partial melting. Partial melt will travel up through the asthenosphere, eventually, reach the surface, and form volcanic
1201:
Tatsumi, Yoshiyuki; Otofuji, Yo-Ichiro; Matsuda, Takaaki; Nohda, Susumu (1989-09-10). "Opening of the Sea of Japan back-arc basin by asthenospheric injection".
713:
316:
was triggered by a megathrust earthquake along the convergent boundary of the Indian plate and Burma microplate and killed over 200,000 people. The 2011
775:
135:
When oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere collide, the dense oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the less dense continental lithosphere. An
290:, generally dips 45° and marks the subducting plate. Earthquakes will occur to a depth of 670 km (416 mi) along the Wadati-Benioff margin.
186:
can lead to volcanism at the surface and emplacement of plutons in the subsurface. These processes which generate magma are not entirely understood.
2362:
1081:
313:
189:
Where these magmas reach the surface they create volcanic arcs. Volcanic arcs can form as island arc chains or as arcs on continental crust. Three
1777:
1545:
916:
Mumladze, Tea; Forte, Adam M.; Cowgill, Eric S.; Trexler, Charles C.; Niemi, Nathan A.; Burak Yıkılmaz, M.; Kellogg, Louise H. (March 2015).
1295:
2009:
1899:
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506:
2604:
2031:
1919:
542:
621:(2004-10-01). "The temporal evolution of plate driving forces: Importance of "slab suction" versus "slab pull" during the Cenozoic".
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156:
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2312:
2719:
1491:
30:
566:
Tackley, Paul J. (2000-06-16). "Mantle
Convection and Plate Tectonics: Toward an Integrated Physical and Chemical Theory".
208:, which is moderately enriched in potassium and incompatible elements, is characteristic of continental volcanic arcs. The
305:
A megathrust earthquake can produce sudden vertical displacement of a large area of ocean floor. This in turn generates a
1767:
1420:"UNM continental-scale helium study probes the deep structure of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayan plate collision"
1827:
618:
58:. These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to volcanism, earthquakes,
302:. Tensional or normal faulting occurs on the outer wall of the trench, likely due to bending of the downgoing slab.
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2004:
1994:
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1984:
1879:
1514:
515: â Overthrusting of oceanic lithosphere onto continental lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary
427:
299:
246:
209:
149:
67:
959:"Subduction history of the Tethyan region derived from seismic tomography and tectonic reconstructions"
1142:
Taylor, Brian; Martinez, Fernando (March 2002). "Mantle wedge control on back-arc crustal accretion".
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and high heat flow, often being home to seafloor spreading centers. These spreading centers are like
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2561:
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1954:
1914:
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series, which is extremely high in potassium, is rare but sometimes is found in volcanic arcs. The
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Some of the deadliest natural disasters have occurred due to convergent boundary processes. The
272:, is the deepest point of the ocean at a depth of approximately 11,000 m (36,089 ft).
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829:
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705:
676:"Dehydration and partial melting in subduction zones: Constraints from U-series disequilibria"
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Earthquakes are common along convergent boundaries. A region of high earthquake activity, the
78:
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1999:
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646:
638:
583:
454:
401:
375:
212:(highly enriched in potassium) is sometimes present in the deeper continental interior. The
1375:
Sharman, George F.; Karig, Daniel E. (1975-03-01). "Subduction and
Accretion in Trenches".
1244:
Oliver, J.; Sykes, L.; Isacks, B. (1969-06-01). "Seismology and the new global tectonics".
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2094:
1944:
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1804:
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1695:
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250:
236:
47:
851:"Buoyancy-driven, rapid exhumation of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphosed continental crust"
54:. The subduction zone can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the
1816:
1388:
1337:
1319:"Erosion and exhumation in accretionary orogens: Experimental and geological approaches"
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1214:
1155:
974:
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691:
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1969:
1859:
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346:
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269:
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230:
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2157:
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1959:
1836:
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1550:
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1265:
1222:
893:
850:
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469:
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82:
943:
17:
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1949:
1889:
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1187:
364:
242:
172:
587:
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and leads to the formation of an accretionary wedge. Reverse faulting can lead to
2686:
2418:
2347:
2212:
2152:
2119:
2109:
2104:
1989:
1924:
1884:
1874:
1849:
1732:
1705:
1685:
1645:
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435:
431:
408:
387:
63:
855:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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2129:
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1974:
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1024:
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439:
281:
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98:
51:
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1002:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 604â612.
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791:
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552:
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2423:
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2021:
2016:
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1522:
875:
512:
368:
201:
178:
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902:
603:
50:
collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as
1473:
745:. Klepeis, Keith A., Vine, F. J. (3rd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
2671:
2393:
2252:
2144:
2134:
2079:
1555:
1345:
983:
958:
774:
Widiyantoro, Sri; Hilst, Rob D. Van Der; Grand, Stephen P. (1997-12-01).
700:
651:
642:
217:
160:
1483:
350:
Map of Earth's principal plates (convergent boundaries shown as blue or
2540:
2530:
1700:
1670:
306:
104:
89:
reveals pieces of lithosphere that have broken off during convergence.
59:
2247:
1660:
458:
1163:
1446:"Hot springs reveal where continental plates collide beneath Tibet"
2609:
2428:
2207:
2162:
918:"Subducted, detached, and torn slabs beneath the Greater Caucasus"
776:"Global seismic tomography: A snapshot of convection in the earth"
416:
351:
345:
194:
29:
2041:
674:
Bourdon, Bernard; Turner, Simon; Dosseto, Anthony (2003-06-01).
182:
1487:
816:
Condie, Kent C. (2016-01-01). "Crustal and Mantle
Evolution".
27:
Region of active deformation between colliding tectonic plates
1317:
Konstantinovskaia, Elena; Malavieille, Jacques (2005-02-01).
193:
of volcanic rocks are found in association with arcs. The
177:
The oceanic crust contains hydrated minerals such as the
1397:
10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<377:SAAIT>2.0.CO;2
957:
Hafkenscheid, E.; Wortel, M. J. R.; Spakman, W. (2006).
849:
Ernst, W. G.; Maruyama, S.; Wallis, S. (1997-09-02).
2549:
2523:
2485:
2437:
2376:
2271:
2143:
2040:
1835:
1521:
2457:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
1288:"Questions and Answers on Megathrust Earthquakes"
2447:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
1000:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
537:(2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
1499:
1055:
8:
1025:"The off-crust origin of granite batholiths"
998:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
680:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
623:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
34:Simplified diagram of a convergent boundary
1506:
1492:
1484:
1294:. Government of Canada. 19 October 2018.
1116:
1040:
982:
933:
892:
874:
699:
650:
533:Wicander, Reed; Monroe, James S. (2016).
77:Some lithospheric plates consist of both
1111:. Encyclopedia of Earth Science: 22â24.
509: â Movements of Earth's lithosphere
314:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
46:) is an area on Earth where two or more
525:
392:Subduction of the northern part of the
1778:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
1444:Stanford University (March 14, 2022).
818:Earth as an Evolving Planetary System
144:Continental â continental convergence
7:
2725:
1326:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1298:from the original on 27 October 2020
820:. Academic Press. pp. 147â199.
736:
734:
732:
730:
157:ultrahigh pressure metamorphic rocks
1078:Dictionary of New Zealand Biography
507:List of tectonic plate interactions
2605:National Oceanographic Data Center
2032:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
1920:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
826:10.1016/b978-0-12-803689-1.00006-7
25:
2452:Global Sea Level Observing System
334:Accretionary wedges (also called
131:Continental â oceanic convergence
2735:
2724:
2715:
2714:
1910:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
1826:
1815:
1472:
1084:from the original on 24 May 2010
1023:Castro, Antonio (January 2014).
442:subduction/transform boundaries.
2640:Ocean thermal energy conversion
2363:VineâMatthewsâMorley hypothesis
1070:"Marshall, Patrick 1869 - 1950"
1068:Watters, W. A. (7 April 2006).
963:Journal of Geophysical Research
798:from the original on 2018-12-06
716:from the original on 2019-12-31
1418:Carr, Steve (March 31, 2022).
318:tsunami off the coast of Japan
241:Back-arc basins form behind a
1:
588:10.1126/science.288.5473.2002
118:Oceanic â oceanic convergence
1900:El NiñoâSouthern Oscillation
1870:CraikâLeibovich vortex force
1626:Luke's variational principle
1266:10.1016/0040-1951(69)90024-9
1223:10.1016/0040-1951(89)90283-7
619:LithgowâBertelloni, Carolina
167:Volcanism and volcanic arcs
2784:
1965:Ocean dynamical thermostat
1813:
374:The collision between the
359:The collision between the
327:
279:
260:
234:
228:
170:
147:
102:
96:
2710:
2500:Ocean acoustic tomography
2313:MohoroviÄiÄ discontinuity
1905:General circulation model
1541:BenjaminâFeir instability
1056:Philpotts & Ague 2009
1042:10.1016/j.gsf.2013.06.006
935:10.1016/j.grj.2014.09.004
2630:Ocean surface topography
2005:Thermohaline circulation
1995:Subsurface ocean current
1935:Hydrothermal circulation
1768:Waveâcurrent interaction
1546:Boussinesq approximation
1292:Natural Resources Canada
1118:10.1007/0-387-30845-8_12
1103:White, A. J. R. (1989).
276:Earthquakes and tsunamis
245:and are associated with
2667:Sea surface temperature
2650:Outline of oceanography
1845:Atmospheric circulation
1783:shallow water equations
1773:Waves and shallow water
1666:Significant wave height
876:10.1073/pnas.94.18.9532
502:List of tectonic plates
198:tholeiitic magma series
2662:Sea surface microlayer
2027:Wind generated current
434:, forming the complex
355:
300:megathrust earthquakes
35:
2495:Deep scattering layer
2477:World Geodetic System
1985:Princeton Ocean Model
1865:CoriolisâStokes force
1515:Physical oceanography
1481:at Wikimedia Commons
349:
247:extensional tectonics
210:alkaline magma series
150:Continental collision
33:
2515:Underwater acoustics
2075:Perigean spring tide
1940:Langmuir circulation
1651:Rossby-gravity waves
1346:10.1029/2004GC000794
1029:Geoscience Frontiers
984:10.1029/2005JB003791
701:10.1029/2002JB001839
643:10.1029/2004JB002991
617:Conrad, Clinton P.;
485:North American Plate
413:South American Plate
400:that is forming the
398:North American Plate
367:that is forming the
206:calc-alkaline series
204:. The more oxidized
44:destructive boundary
18:Destructive boundary
2677:Science On a Sphere
2283:Convergent boundary
1955:Modular Ocean Model
1915:Geostrophic current
1631:Mild-slope equation
1389:1975GSAB...86..377K
1338:2005GGG.....6.2006K
1258:1969Tectp...7..527O
1215:1989Tectp.166..317T
1156:2002Natur.416..417M
975:2006JGRB..111.8401H
867:1997PNAS...94.9532E
741:P., Kearey (2009).
692:2003JGRB..108.2291B
635:2004JGRB..10910407C
580:2000Sci...288.2002T
574:(5473): 2002â2007.
336:accretionary prisms
288:Wadati-Benioff zone
109:WadatiâBenioff zone
83:oceanic lithosphere
56:WadatiâBenioff zone
48:lithospheric plates
40:convergent boundary
2333:Seafloor spreading
2323:Outer trench swell
2288:Divergent boundary
2188:Continental margin
2173:Carbonate platform
2070:Lunitidal interval
481:Juan de Fuca Plate
479:Subduction of the
464:Subduction of the
422:Subduction of the
407:Subduction of the
356:
330:Accretionary wedge
324:Accretionary wedge
195:chemically reduced
137:accretionary wedge
87:Seismic tomography
36:
2750:
2749:
2742:Oceans portal
2702:World Ocean Atlas
2692:Underwater glider
2635:Ocean temperature
2298:Hydrothermal vent
2263:Submarine volcano
2198:Continental shelf
2178:Coastal geography
2168:Bathymetric chart
2050:Amphidromic point
1738:Wave nonlinearity
1596:Infragravity wave
1477:Media related to
1150:(6879): 417â420.
1074:Marshall, Patrick
861:(18): 9532â9537.
445:Collision of the
62:, destruction of
42:(also known as a
16:(Redirected from
2775:
2740:
2739:
2728:
2727:
2718:
2717:
2657:Pelagic sediment
2595:Marine pollution
2389:Deep ocean water
2258:Submarine canyon
2193:Continental rise
2085:Rule of twelfths
2000:Sverdrup balance
1930:Humboldt Current
1855:Boundary current
1830:
1819:
1636:Radiation stress
1606:Iribarren number
1581:Equatorial waves
1536:Ballantine scale
1531:Airy wave theory
1508:
1501:
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1308:
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1252:(5â6): 527â541.
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743:Global tectonics
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721:
703:
671:
665:
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654:
614:
608:
607:
563:
557:
556:
530:
455:Pontic Mountains
428:Australian Plate
402:Aleutian Islands
382:that formed the
376:Australian Plate
257:Oceanic trenches
251:mid-ocean ridges
93:Subduction zones
21:
2783:
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2778:
2777:
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2773:
2772:
2763:Plate tectonics
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2734:
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2519:
2481:
2462:Sea-level curve
2433:
2372:
2358:Transform fault
2308:Mid-ocean ridge
2274:
2267:
2233:Oceanic plateau
2139:
2125:Tidal resonance
2095:Theory of tides
2036:
1945:Longshore drift
1895:Ekman transport
1831:
1825:
1824:
1823:
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1820:
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1763:Wave turbulence
1696:Trochoidal wave
1621:Longshore drift
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1242:
1238:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1164:10.1038/416417a
1141:
1140:
1136:
1129:
1105:"Andesite line"
1102:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1085:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1010:
997:
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992:
956:
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951:
915:
914:
910:
848:
847:
843:
836:
815:
814:
810:
801:
799:
773:
772:
768:
753:
740:
739:
728:
719:
717:
673:
672:
668:
629:(B10): B10407.
616:
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611:
565:
564:
560:
545:
532:
531:
527:
522:
498:
344:
332:
326:
284:
278:
265:
259:
239:
237:Back-arc region
233:
227:
225:Back-arc basins
175:
169:
152:
146:
133:
120:
111:
101:
95:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2781:
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2732:
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2699:
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2682:Stratification
2679:
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2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2574:
2572:Color of water
2569:
2567:Benthic lander
2564:
2559:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2525:
2521:
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2518:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2474:
2472:Sea level rise
2469:
2467:Sea level drop
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2443:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
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2396:
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2360:
2355:
2350:
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2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2303:Marine geology
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2279:
2277:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2243:Passive margin
2240:
2238:Oceanic trench
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2046:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1970:Ocean dynamics
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1860:Coriolis force
1857:
1852:
1847:
1841:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1807:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1681:Stokes problem
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1616:Kinematic wave
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1527:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1511:
1510:
1503:
1496:
1488:
1469:
1468:External links
1466:
1463:
1462:
1436:
1410:
1383:(3): 377â389.
1367:
1309:
1279:
1246:Tectonophysics
1236:
1209:(4): 317â329.
1203:Tectonophysics
1193:
1134:
1127:
1095:
1060:
1058:, p. 375.
1048:
1015:
1008:
990:
969:(B8): B08401.
949:
908:
841:
834:
808:
766:
751:
726:
666:
609:
558:
544:978-1133108696
543:
524:
523:
521:
518:
517:
516:
510:
504:
497:
494:
493:
492:
477:
474:Mariana Trench
462:
447:Eurasian Plate
443:
420:
405:
390:
372:
361:Eurasian Plate
343:
340:
325:
322:
296:ocean sediment
277:
274:
270:Mariana Trench
263:Oceanic trench
258:
255:
231:Back-arc basin
229:Main article:
226:
223:
168:
165:
145:
142:
132:
129:
119:
116:
97:Main article:
94:
91:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
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3:
2:
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2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2590:Marine energy
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2557:Acidification
2555:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2510:SOFAR channel
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
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2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2318:Oceanic crust
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2293:Fracture zone
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2228:Oceanic basin
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2158:Abyssal plain
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:
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2146:
2142:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
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2108:
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2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2065:Internal tide
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1960:Ocean current
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
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1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
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1886:
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1873:
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1848:
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1818:
1806:
1803:
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1798:
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1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
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1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1758:Wave shoaling
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
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1719:
1718:Ursell number
1716:
1714:
1711:
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1704:
1703:
1702:
1699:
1697:
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1692:
1689:
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1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1601:Internal wave
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1551:Breaking wave
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1520:
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1509:
1504:
1502:
1497:
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1490:
1489:
1486:
1482:
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1475:
1467:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1437:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1332:(2): Q02006.
1331:
1327:
1320:
1313:
1310:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1138:
1135:
1130:
1128:0-442-20623-2
1124:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1096:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1016:
1011:
1009:9780521880060
1005:
1001:
994:
991:
985:
980:
976:
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968:
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953:
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931:
927:
923:
919:
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886:
882:
877:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
842:
837:
835:9780128036891
831:
827:
823:
819:
812:
809:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
770:
767:
762:
758:
754:
752:9781405107778
748:
744:
737:
735:
733:
731:
727:
715:
711:
707:
702:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
670:
667:
662:
658:
653:
652:2027.42/95131
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
613:
610:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
562:
559:
554:
550:
546:
540:
536:
529:
526:
519:
514:
511:
508:
505:
503:
500:
499:
495:
490:
489:Cascade Range
486:
482:
478:
475:
471:
470:Mariana Plate
467:
466:Pacific Plate
463:
460:
456:
452:
451:African Plate
448:
444:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
424:Pacific Plate
421:
418:
414:
410:
406:
403:
399:
395:
394:Pacific Plate
391:
389:
385:
384:Southern Alps
381:
380:Pacific Plate
377:
373:
370:
366:
362:
358:
357:
353:
348:
341:
339:
337:
331:
323:
321:
319:
315:
310:
308:
303:
301:
297:
291:
289:
283:
275:
273:
271:
264:
256:
254:
252:
248:
244:
238:
232:
224:
222:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
196:
192:
187:
184:
180:
174:
166:
164:
162:
158:
151:
143:
141:
138:
130:
128:
126:
117:
115:
110:
106:
100:
92:
90:
88:
84:
80:
75:
71:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
32:
19:
2697:Water column
2645:Oceanography
2620:Observations
2615:Explorations
2585:Marginal sea
2578:
2536:OSTM/Jason-2
2368:Volcanic arc
2343:Slab suction
2282:
2060:Head of tide
1950:Loop Current
1890:Ekman spiral
1676:Stokes drift
1586:Gravity wave
1561:Cnoidal wave
1471:
1453:. Retrieved
1450:ScienceDaily
1449:
1439:
1427:. Retrieved
1424:UNM Newsroom
1423:
1413:
1380:
1377:GSA Bulletin
1376:
1370:
1329:
1325:
1312:
1302:23 September
1300:. Retrieved
1291:
1282:
1249:
1245:
1239:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1147:
1143:
1137:
1108:
1098:
1086:. Retrieved
1077:
1073:
1063:
1051:
1035:(1): 63â75.
1032:
1028:
1018:
999:
993:
966:
962:
952:
925:
921:
911:
858:
854:
844:
817:
811:
800:. Retrieved
783:
779:
769:
742:
718:. Retrieved
686:(B6): 2291.
683:
679:
669:
626:
622:
612:
571:
567:
561:
534:
528:
487:to form the
483:beneath the
468:beneath the
426:beneath the
415:to form the
411:beneath the
365:Indian Plate
333:
311:
304:
292:
285:
266:
243:volcanic arc
240:
191:magma series
188:
176:
173:Volcanic arc
153:
134:
121:
112:
76:
72:
43:
39:
37:
2768:Lithosphere
2687:Thermocline
2404:Mesopelagic
2377:Ocean zones
2348:Slab window
2213:Hydrography
2153:Abyssal fan
2120:Tidal range
2110:Tidal power
2105:Tidal force
1990:Rip current
1925:Gulf Stream
1885:Ekman layer
1875:Downwelling
1850:Baroclinity
1837:Circulation
1733:Wave height
1723:Wave action
1706:megatsunami
1686:Stokes wave
1646:Rossby wave
1611:Kelvin wave
1591:Green's law
1088:26 November
472:formed the
453:formed the
436:New Zealand
432:Tonga Plate
409:Nazca Plate
396:and the NW
388:New Zealand
125:island arcs
79:continental
68:deformation
64:lithosphere
2757:Categories
2625:Reanalysis
2524:Satellites
2505:Sofar bomb
2353:Subduction
2328:Ridge push
2223:Ocean bank
2203:Contourite
2130:Tide gauge
2115:Tidal race
2100:Tidal bore
2090:Slack tide
2055:Earth tide
1975:Ocean gyre
1795:Wind setup
1790:Wind fetch
1753:Wave setup
1748:Wave radar
1743:Wave power
1641:Rogue wave
1571:Dispersion
1479:Subduction
802:2018-12-06
720:2019-09-01
520:References
440:New Guinea
328:See also:
282:Earthquake
280:See also:
261:See also:
235:See also:
214:shoshonite
171:See also:
148:See also:
103:See also:
99:Subduction
60:orogenesis
52:subduction
2487:Acoustics
2439:Sea level
2338:Slab pull
2275:tectonics
2183:Cold seep
2145:Landforms
2022:Whirlpool
2017:Upwelling
1800:Wind wave
1728:Wave base
1656:Sea state
1576:Edge wave
1566:Cross sea
1405:0016-7606
1362:128854343
1354:1525-2027
1274:0040-1951
1231:0040-1951
1172:1476-4687
1109:Petrology
928:: 36â46.
885:0027-8424
792:1052-5173
780:GSA Today
761:132681514
710:2156-2202
661:2156-2202
596:1095-9203
553:795757302
513:Obduction
369:Himalayas
202:potassium
179:amphibole
2720:Category
2672:Seawater
2399:Littoral
2394:Deep sea
2253:Seamount
2135:Tideline
2080:Rip tide
2010:shutdown
1980:Overflow
1713:Undertow
1556:Clapotis
1296:Archived
1180:11919628
1082:Archived
944:56219404
903:11038569
796:Archived
714:Archived
604:10856206
496:See also
449:and the
378:and the
363:and the
342:Examples
218:andesite
161:Caucasus
2730:Commons
2600:Mooring
2550:Related
2541:Jason-3
2531:Jason-1
2414:Pelagic
2409:Oceanic
2384:Benthic
1701:Tsunami
1671:Soliton
1385:Bibcode
1334:Bibcode
1254:Bibcode
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