397:
784:
31:
417:). Since the current in a device connected that way goes as the square of the voltage across the load, it provides poor pullup speed relative to its power consumption when pulled down. A resistor (with the current simply proportional to the voltage) would be better, and a current source (with the current fixed, independent of voltage) better yet. A
787:
An NMOS NAND gate with saturated enhancement-mode load device. The enhancement device can also be used with a more positive gate bias in a non-saturated configuration, which is more power efficient but requires a high gate voltage and a longer transistor. Neither is as power efficient or compact as
1117:
Shown by its mere mention in a large roundup article written by GE engineer Herman Schmid that appeared in the
December, 1972 issue of IEEE Transactions on Manufacturing Technology. Although it cites Maitland’s 1970 article in Electronics, Schmid’s article does not discuss NMOS fabrication in detail
709:
CMOS circuits, which is due only to the transient power draw when the output state is changed and the p- and n-transistors thereby briefly conduct at the same time. However, this is a simplified view, and a more complete picture has to also include the fact that even purely static CMOS circuits have
135:
proposed demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960. Their team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated the device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D’Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the
213:
were faster than (p-channel) MOS transistors then used and were more reliable, but they also consumed much more power, required more area, and demanded a more complicated manufacturing process. MOS ICs were considered interesting but inadequate for supplanting the fast bipolar circuits in anything
343:(see below). Already by 1970, HP was making good enough nMOS ICs and had characterized it enough so that Dave Maitland was able to write an article about nMOS in the December, 1970 issue of Electronics magazine. However, NMOS remained uncommon in the rest of the semiconductor industry until 1973.
604:
process using design elements of the HMOS lines. One final version of the system was released, HMOS-IV. A significant advantage to the HMOS line was that each generation was deliberately designed to allow existing layouts to die-shrink with no major changes. Various techniques were introduced to
571:
HMOS continued to be improved and went through four distinct generations. According to Intel, HMOS II (1979) provided twice the density and four times the speed/power product over other typical contemporary depletion-load NMOS processes. This version was widely licensed by 3rd parties, including
408:
so that it can act as a logic switch. Since suitable resistors were hard to make, the logic gates used saturated loads; that is, to make the one type of transistor act as a load resistor, the transistor had to be turned always on by tying its gate to the power supply (the more negative rail for
61:) logic families that needed more than one different power supply voltage. Although manufacturing these integrated circuits required additional processing steps, improved switching speed and the elimination of the extra power supply made this logic family the preferred choice for many
322:
then started to develop NMOS IC technology to get the promising speed and easy interfacing for its calculator business. Tom
Haswell at HP eventually solved many problems by using purer raw materials (especially aluminum for interconnects) and by adding a bias voltage to make the
762:
transition, resulting in a slower circuit. Depletion-load processes replace this transistor with a depletion-mode NMOS at a constant gate bias, with the gate tied directly to the source. This alternative type of transistor acts as a current source until the output approaches
800:
is also active. This results in high static power consumption. The amount of waste depends on the strength, or physical size, of the pull-up. Both (enhancement-mode) saturated-load and depletion-mode pull-up transistors use greatest power when the output is stable at
256:). This new type of pMOS transistor was 3–5 times as fast (per watt) as the aluminum-gate pMOS transistor, and it needed less area, had much lower leakage and higher reliability. The same year, Faggin also built the first IC using the new transistor type, the
664:, are manufactured using various CMOS processes with a range of different topologies employed. This means that, in order to enhance speed and save die area (transistors and wiring), high speed CMOS designs often employ other elements than just the
595:
The original HMOS process, later referred to as HMOS I, had a channel length of 3 microns, which was reduced to 2 for the HMOS II, and 1.5 for HMOS III. By the time HMOS III was introduced in 1982, Intel had begun a switch to their
688:
circuitry in order to construct the larger building blocks on the chip, such as latches, decoders, multiplexers, and so on, and evolved from the various dynamic methodologies developed for NMOS and PMOS circuits during the 1970s.
271:), which demonstrated a substantially improved performance over its metal-gate counterpart. In less than 10 years, the silicon gate MOS transistor replaced bipolar circuits as the main vehicle for complex digital ICs.
379:
calculators, contributed IC fabrication experience from their 4-kbit ROM project to help improve Intel DRAM’s reliability, operating-voltage, and temperature range. These efforts contributed to the heavily enhanced
1193:
354:
eventually served as a second source for these products and so became one of the first commercial semiconductor vendors to master the NMOS process, thanks to
Hewlett-Packard. A while later, the startup company
471:
Depletion-load NMOS processes were also used by several other manufacturers to produce many incarnations of popular 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit CPUs. Similarly to early PMOS and NMOS CPU designs using
75:
as load transistors allow single voltage operation and achieve greater speed than possible with pure enhancement-load devices. This is partly because the depletion-mode MOSFETs can be a better
644:
In the mid-1980s, faster CMOS variants, using similar HMOS process technology, such as Intel's CHMOS I, II, III, IV, etc. started to supplant n-channel HMOS for applications such as the
105:
process replaced most NMOS designs during the 1980s, some depletion-load NMOS designs are still produced, typically in parallel with newer CMOS counterparts. One example of this is the
79:
approximation than the simpler enhancement-mode transistor can, especially when no extra voltage is available (one of the reasons early PMOS and NMOS chips demanded several voltages).
705:
determines the maximum possible load at the output as well as the speed of the gate (i.e. with other factors constant). This contrasts to the power consumption characteristics of
307:
based) PMOS transistors is much less severe. Fabrication of NMOS transistors therefore has to be many times cleaner than bipolar processing in order to produce working devices.
738:, connects to each gate. In both technologies, each gate contains one NMOS transistor which is permanently turned on and connected to Vdd. When the transistors connecting to
287:
that are the charge carriers in NMOS transistors (a ratio of approximately 2.5), furthermore PMOS circuits do not interface easily with low voltage positive logic such as
487:. These techniques can enhance the area-economy considerably although the effect on the speed is complex. Processors built with depletion-load NMOS circuitry include the
452:
of the load transistors could be adjusted reliably. At Intel, depletion load was introduced in 1974 by
Federico Faggin, an ex-Fairchild engineer and later the founder of
86:
demanded additional manufacturing steps compared to the simpler enhancement-load circuits; this is because depletion-load devices are formed by increasing the amount of
1189:
468:, where the highest performing versions of the chip had access times of less than 100ns, taking MOS memories close to the speed of bipolar RAMs for the first time.
1572:
1019:
846:
831:
522:
A large number of support and peripheral ICs were also implemented using (often static) depletion-load based circuitry. However, there were never any standardized
421:
device with gate tied to the opposite supply rail is a much better load than an enhancement-mode device, acting somewhere between a resistor and a current source.
697:
Compared to static CMOS, all variants of NMOS (and PMOS) are relatively power hungry in steady state. This is because they rely on load transistors working as
540:, although designs with several second source manufacturers often achieved something of a de facto standard component status. One example of this is the NMOS
750:
by default. In standard NMOS, the pull-up is the same kind of transistor as is used for logic switches. As the output voltage approaches a value less than
295:(the 7400-series). However, PMOS transistors are relatively easy to make and were therefore developed first — ionic contamination of the gate oxide from
2446:
1236:
1384:
1352:
Pseudo nMOS means that an enhancement-mode p-channel transistor with grounded gate is used in place of the depletion-mode n-channel transistor. See
548:
and many other contexts for several decades. Modern low power versions are available as CMOS or BiCMOS implementations, similar to the 7400-series.
2087:
1225:"Motorola is redesigning the M6800 microprocessor family by adding depletion loads to increase speed and reduce the 6800 CPU size to 160 mils."
1271:
1024:
962:
2004:
987:
1785:
1565:
1529:
711:
685:
476:
913:
1768:
1664:
1190:
http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/Oral_History/Faggin_Federico/Faggin_Federico_1_2_3.oral_history.2004.102658025.pdf
999:
252:(around 1966–67) for a transistor with lower parasitic capacitances that could be manufactured as part of an IC (and not only as a
1908:
1635:
83:
1501:
847:
http://www.zilog.com/index.php?option=com_product&Itemid=26&mode=showProductDetails&familyId=20&productId=Z84C15
832:
http://www.zilog.com/index.php?option=com_product&Itemid=26&mode=showProductDetails&familyId=20&productId=Z84015
456:. Depletion-load was first employed for a redesign of one of Intel's most important products at the time, a +5V-only 1Kbit NMOS
292:
1956:
1755:
1471:
68:
1558:
1209:
792:
Depletion-load circuits consume less power than enhancement-load circuits at the same speed. In both cases the connection to
248:
in early 1968; it was a refinement (and the first working implementation) of ideas and work by John C. Sarace, Tom Klein and
1495:
581:
1309:
Atwood, G.E.; Dun, H.; Langston, J.; Hazani, E.; So, E.Y.; Sachdev, S.; Fuchs, K. (October 1982). "HMOS III technology".
1987:
1739:
1524:
1377:
425:
385:
805:, so this loss is considerable. Because the strength of a depletion-mode transistor falls off less on the approach to
1791:
1728:
1170:
527:
457:
210:
194:
1459:
813:
faster despite starting slower, i.e. conducting less current at the beginning of the transition and at steady state.
288:
214:
but niche markets, such as low power applications. One of the reasons for the low speed was that MOS transistors had
2451:
1998:
1489:
296:
234:
standard from the mid-1970s to early 2000s) was an important first step in order to reduce this handicap. This new
568:
products, it was soon being used for faster and/or less power hungry versions of the 8085, 8086, and other chips.
2205:
1919:
1762:
1483:
58:
2072:
2214:
1924:
1780:
2610:
2225:
1945:
1744:
1370:
921:
484:
245:
227:
148:
136:
device. However, the NMOS devices were impractical, and only the PMOS type were practical working devices.
2394:
1961:
1826:
1802:
441:
2463:
2415:
2236:
2052:
1967:
1898:
1734:
1477:
1431:
710:
significant leakage in modern tiny geometries, as well as the fact that modern CMOS chips often contain
480:
223:
396:
2537:
2281:
2176:
1950:
1843:
1697:
1658:
1589:
1581:
1318:
1033:
657:
472:
261:
190:
608:
HMOS, HMOS II, HMOS III, and HMOS IV were together used for many different kinds of processors; the
388:
IC. It was formally introduced in
October 1970, and became Intel’s first really successful product.
2257:
2165:
2057:
1893:
1870:
991:
783:
585:
492:
198:
2562:
2422:
2130:
2097:
1913:
1797:
1775:
1507:
1334:
372:
253:
42:
2557:
2478:
2369:
2321:
2150:
2077:
2039:
1277:
1267:
995:
958:
702:
677:
519:, and many others (whether or not the HMOS processors below are included, as special cases).
449:
324:
235:
215:
164:
91:
464:(using more than 6000 transistors). The result of this redesign was the significantly faster
226:
using the manufacturing processes of the time. The introduction of transistors with gates of
2615:
2273:
2220:
2082:
2047:
1686:
1539:
1326:
1096:
1072:
1041:
979:
950:
873:
743:
437:
405:
347:
340:
152:
95:
2550:
2483:
2336:
2067:
1977:
1821:
1197:
649:
545:
544:
design, originally intended as an 8085 peripheral chip, that has been used in Z80 and x86
319:
249:
241:
1020:"Electron and hole mobilities in inversion layers on thermally oxidized silicon surfaces"
980:
1322:
1037:
283:
that are the charge (current) carriers in PMOS transistors have lower mobility than the
2525:
2306:
2296:
2062:
1865:
1465:
1092:
891:
861:
577:
496:
418:
376:
346:
The production-ready NMOS process enabled HP to develop the industry’s first 4-kbit IC
268:
128:
76:
62:
665:
2604:
2587:
2410:
2326:
2145:
1972:
1940:
1158:
to produce the Z80 and other chips before their own production facilities were ready.
1015:
504:
488:
304:
280:
140:
127:, were developed by Frosch and Derick in 1957 at Bell Labs. Following this research,
2468:
2456:
2344:
2311:
2140:
2125:
1708:
1692:
1534:
1393:
1338:
715:
613:
523:
375:). HP’s calculator engineers, who wanted a similar but more robust product for the
144:
50:
17:
632:, and many others, but also for several generations of the same basic design, see
475:
MOSFETs as loads, depletion-load nMOS designs typically employed various types of
30:
432:, which made depletion-mode transistors available for the design of the original
2510:
2252:
2201:
2107:
2092:
1875:
1837:
1454:
895:
684:
CMOS type during the 1960s and 1970s). These methods use significant amounts of
661:
629:
625:
537:
530:
512:
368:
264:
186:
172:
132:
1077:
1060:
954:
310:
Early work on NMOS integrated circuit (IC) technology was presented in a brief
2582:
2572:
2505:
2379:
2349:
2316:
2291:
2286:
2263:
2135:
2115:
1993:
1855:
1832:
1718:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1414:
1409:
1330:
673:
656:
was introduced for high-performance microprocessors as well as for high speed
621:
617:
609:
565:
541:
508:
500:
414:
410:
381:
189:, which entered large-scale manufacturing in the early 1970s. This led to MOS
183:
124:
118:
54:
1353:
942:
2545:
2389:
2384:
2374:
2301:
2181:
2015:
2010:
1935:
1860:
1129:
1045:
633:
445:
433:
364:
171:
also fabricated NMOS devices in the 1960s. The first IBM NMOS product was a
106:
35:
1281:
2567:
2515:
2495:
2473:
2359:
2354:
2242:
2231:
2160:
1930:
1155:
1100:
698:
589:
573:
564:. The first version was introduced in late 1976 and first used for their
351:
300:
284:
219:
1550:
2427:
2364:
2186:
2171:
2025:
1982:
1630:
730:
Depletion-load processes differ from their predecessors in the way the
516:
179:
877:
862:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"
424:
The first depletion-load NMOS circuits were pioneered and made by the
2500:
2191:
2155:
2120:
1680:
1652:
1625:
1600:
1437:
1401:
1185:
1151:
1104:
653:
429:
384:
1-kbit pMOS DRAM, which was the world’s first commercially available
336:
303:
based) NMOS transistors from switching off, while the effect in (the
87:
72:
2577:
2488:
2247:
2020:
1813:
1675:
1670:
782:
597:
453:
395:
356:
315:
29:
1362:
898:(1960). "Silicon-silicon dioxide field induced surface devices".
90:
in the load transistors channel region, in order to adjust their
2520:
1903:
1849:
1750:
1703:
1641:
1425:
914:"1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated"
669:
645:
601:
534:
102:
1554:
1366:
1223:(2). Santa Clara, CA: Microcomputer Associates: 4. August 1976.
311:
168:
1118:
but it does cover PMOS and even CMOS fabrication extensively.
151:
fabricated several NMOS devices with channel lengths between
53:
that uses only a single power supply voltage, unlike earlier
279:
There are a couple of drawbacks associated with PMOS: The
660:. Today, most digital circuits, including the ubiquitous
82:
The inclusion of depletion-mode NMOS transistors in the
123:
The original two types of MOSFET logic gates, PMOS and
556:
Intel's own depletion-load NMOS process was known as
2536:
2436:
2403:
2335:
2272:
2200:
2106:
2038:
1884:
1812:
1717:
1599:
1588:
1517:
1447:
1400:
754:, it gradually switches itself off. This slows the
339:contaminants in the gates until the development of
27:
Form of digital logic family in integrated circuits
1237:"Recollections of Early Chip Development at Intel"
767:, then acts as a resistor. The result is a faster
404:Early MOS logic had one transistor type, which is
605:ensure the systems worked as the layout changed.
1235:Volk, A.M.; Stoll, P.A.; Metrovich, P. (2001).
900:IRE-AIEE Solid State Device Research Conference
299:and other sources can very easily prevent (the
1169:Each bit demands six transistors in a typical
796:is always active, even when the connection to
1566:
1378:
680:of typical slow low-power CMOS circuits (the
8:
1065:IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter
1018:; Leistiko, Otto; Grove, A. S. (May 1965).
1596:
1573:
1559:
1551:
1385:
1371:
1363:
1354:http://eia.udg.es/~forest/VLSI/lect.10.pdf
1508:Current mode logic / Source-coupled logic
1076:
947:Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories
943:"Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device"
652:. A few years later, in the late 1980s,
400:Characteristics of depletion-mode MOSFET
822:
746:transistor determines the output to be
866:Journal of The Electrochemical Society
1262:Scanlon, Leo J.; Moody, C.W. (1981).
1025:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices
988:Springer Science & Business Media
359:announced a 1-kbit pMOS DRAM, called
7:
2005:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
1311:IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits
1264:The 68000 Principles and programming
1095:and others) were in many ways small
982:History of Semiconductor Engineering
363:, developed as a custom product for
1786:Programmable unijunction transistor
726:Evolution from preceding NMOS types
479:(rather than just static gates) or
94:. This is normally performed using
1687:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
1186:http://www.intel4004.com/sgate.htm
25:
1665:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
1061:"Recollections on MOSFET Scaling"
860:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957).
1909:Heterostructure barrier varactor
1636:Chemical field-effect transistor
444:more precise than possible with
413:, or the more positive rail for
367:(an attempt to replace magnetic
1957:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
1472:Direct-coupled transistor logic
562:High density, short channel MOS
335:standard solution to (mainly)
1:
734:voltage source, representing
582:Commodore Semiconductor Group
440:equipment needed to create a
240:transistor was introduced by
1988:Silicon controlled rectifier
1850:Organic light-emitting diode
1740:Diffused junction transistor
1091:These calculators (like the
211:bipolar junction transistors
65:and other logic elements.
1792:Static induction transistor
1729:Bipolar junction transistor
1681:MOS field-effect transistor
1653:Fin field-effect transistor
1502:Transistor–transistor logic
436:in 1975–76. Mostek had the
201:technologies in the 1970s.
2632:
1999:Static induction thyristor
1490:Integrated injection logic
1078:10.1109/N-SSC.2007.4785536
955:10.1142/9789814503464_0076
392:Depletion-mode transistors
222:which led to considerable
163:ÎĽm. Dale L. Critchlow and
116:
2168:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
1920:Hybrid integrated circuit
1763:Light-emitting transistor
1496:Resistor–transistor logic
1484:Gunning transceiver logic
1420:Depletion-load NMOS logic
1331:10.1109/JSSC.1982.1051823
1210:"Motorola Redesigns 6800"
1059:Critchlow, D. L. (2007).
718:with a certain amount of
491:(in later versions), the
237:self-aligned silicon-gate
119:NMOS logic § History
59:metal-oxide semiconductor
2215:Backward-wave oscillator
1925:Light emitting capacitor
1781:Point-contact transistor
1751:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
1244:Intel Technology Journal
779:Static power consumption
584:, who used it for their
2226:Crossed-field amplifier
1745:Field-effect transistor
1046:10.1109/T-ED.1965.15489
922:Computer History Museum
275:NMOS and back-gate bias
246:Fairchild Semiconductor
228:polycrystalline silicon
149:Fairchild Semiconductor
2395:Voltage-regulator tube
1962:MOS integrated circuit
1827:Constant-current diode
1803:Unijunction transistor
1460:Diode–transistor logic
789:
576:who used it for their
401:
224:parasitic capacitances
113:History and background
38:
34:A depletion-load NMOS
2464:Electrolytic detector
2237:Inductive output tube
2053:Low-dropout regulator
1968:Organic semiconductor
1899:Printed circuit board
1735:Darlington transistor
1582:Electronic components
1478:Emitter-coupled logic
1432:Pass transistor logic
786:
526:in NMOS, such as the
448:methods, so that the
399:
84:manufacturing process
49:is a form of digital
33:
2282:Beam deflection tube
1951:Metal-oxide varistor
1844:Light-emitting diode
1698:Thin-film transistor
1659:Floating-gate MOSFET
1217:Microcomputer Digest
817:Notes and references
191:semiconductor memory
143:, Otto Leistiko and
2258:Traveling-wave tube
2058:Switching regulator
1894:Printed electronics
1871:Step recovery diode
1648:Depletion-load NMOS
1323:1982IJSSC..17..810A
1296:HMOS III Technology
1099:, but preceded the
1038:1965ITED...12..248L
640:Further development
586:MOS Technology 8502
373:mainframe computers
327:large enough; this
209:In the late 1960s,
199:ferrite-core memory
47:depletion-load NMOS
43:integrated circuits
18:Depletion-load nMOS
2563:Crystal oscillator
2423:Variable capacitor
2098:Switched capacitor
2040:Voltage regulators
1914:Integrated circuit
1798:Tetrode transistor
1776:Pentode transistor
1769:Organic LET (OLET)
1756:Organic FET (OFET)
1448:Other technologies
1260:See for instance:
1196:2017-01-10 at the
1184:See for instance:
978:Lojek, Bo (2007).
941:KAHNG, D. (1961).
918:The Silicon Engine
790:
678:transmission gates
402:
254:discrete component
193:replacing earlier
39:
2598:
2597:
2558:Ceramic resonator
2370:Mercury-arc valve
2322:Video camera tube
2274:Cathode-ray tubes
2034:
2033:
1642:Complementary MOS
1548:
1547:
1426:Complementary MOS
1298:. ISSCC 82. 1982.
1273:978-0-672-21853-8
1097:desktop computers
964:978-981-02-0209-5
878:10.1149/1.2428650
809:, they may reach
788:a depletion load.
703:quiescent current
450:threshold voltage
297:etching chemicals
230:(that became the
165:Robert H. Dennard
92:threshold voltage
16:(Redirected from
2623:
2452:electrical power
2337:Gas-filled tubes
2221:Cavity magnetron
2048:Linear regulator
1597:
1575:
1568:
1561:
1552:
1540:Four-phase logic
1422:(including HMOS)
1387:
1380:
1373:
1364:
1357:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1292:
1286:
1285:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1241:
1232:
1226:
1224:
1214:
1206:
1200:
1181:
1175:
1166:
1160:
1150:Zilog relied on
1147:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1012:
1006:
1005:
985:
975:
969:
968:
938:
932:
931:
929:
928:
910:
904:
903:
888:
882:
881:
857:
851:
842:
836:
827:
693:Compared to CMOS
650:microcontrollers
546:embedded systems
483:used as dynamic
481:pass transistors
473:enhancement mode
438:ion implantation
406:enhancement mode
341:ion implantation
182:data and 50–100
178:
162:
156:
96:ion implantation
21:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2601:
2600:
2599:
2594:
2532:
2447:audio and video
2432:
2399:
2331:
2268:
2196:
2177:Photomultiplier
2102:
2030:
1978:Quantum circuit
1886:
1880:
1822:Avalanche diode
1808:
1720:
1713:
1602:
1591:
1584:
1579:
1549:
1544:
1513:
1443:
1396:
1391:
1361:
1360:
1350:
1346:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1294:
1293:
1289:
1274:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1212:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1198:Wayback Machine
1182:
1178:
1167:
1163:
1148:
1144:
1135:
1133:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1111:
1090:
1086:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1002:
977:
976:
972:
965:
940:
939:
935:
926:
924:
912:
911:
907:
890:
889:
885:
859:
858:
854:
843:
839:
828:
824:
819:
781:
742:turn off, this
728:
695:
658:analog circuits
642:
572:(among others)
554:
485:clocked latches
394:
320:Hewlett-Packard
277:
250:Robert W. Bower
242:Federico Faggin
207:
176:
160:
154:
121:
115:
63:microprocessors
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2629:
2627:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2611:Logic families
2603:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2542:
2540:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2526:Wollaston wire
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2341:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2307:Selectron tube
2304:
2299:
2297:Magic eye tube
2294:
2289:
2284:
2278:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2261:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2234:
2229:
2223:
2218:
2211:
2209:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2112:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2044:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1991:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1959:
1954:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1922:
1917:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1890:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1866:Schottky diode
1863:
1858:
1853:
1847:
1841:
1835:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1800:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1725:
1723:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1607:
1605:
1594:
1586:
1585:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1570:
1563:
1555:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1514:
1512:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1466:Open collector
1463:
1457:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1412:
1406:
1404:
1402:MOS technology
1398:
1397:
1394:Logic families
1392:
1390:
1389:
1382:
1375:
1367:
1359:
1358:
1344:
1301:
1287:
1272:
1253:
1227:
1201:
1176:
1161:
1142:
1121:
1109:
1107:by many years.
1093:Datapoint 2200
1084:
1051:
1032:(5): 248–254.
1016:Sah, Chih-Tang
1007:
1000:
970:
963:
933:
905:
883:
852:
837:
821:
820:
818:
815:
780:
777:
727:
724:
694:
691:
641:
638:
578:Motorola 68000
553:
550:
524:logic families
497:Signetics 2650
442:doping profile
419:depletion-mode
393:
390:
329:back-gate bias
325:gate threshold
281:electron holes
276:
273:
258:Fairchild 3708
206:
203:
114:
111:
77:current source
69:Depletion-mode
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2628:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2589:
2588:mercury relay
2586:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2539:
2535:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2411:Potentiometer
2409:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2327:Williams tube
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2271:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2146:Fleming valve
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1973:Photodetector
1971:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1941:Memtransistor
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1883:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:Semiconductor
1587:
1583:
1576:
1571:
1569:
1564:
1562:
1557:
1556:
1553:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1374:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1356:
1355:
1348:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1302:
1297:
1291:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1266:. H.W. Sams.
1265:
1257:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1231:
1228:
1222:
1218:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1143:
1131:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1085:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1011:
1008:
1003:
1001:9783540342588
997:
993:
989:
984:
983:
974:
971:
966:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
937:
934:
923:
919:
915:
909:
906:
901:
897:
893:
887:
884:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
856:
853:
849:
848:
841:
838:
834:
833:
826:
823:
816:
814:
812:
808:
804:
799:
795:
785:
778:
776:
774:
770:
766:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
725:
723:
721:
717:
713:
708:
704:
700:
692:
690:
687:
683:
679:
675:
672:
671:
667:
666:complementary
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
639:
637:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
606:
603:
599:
593:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
569:
567:
563:
559:
551:
549:
547:
543:
539:
536:
532:
529:
525:
520:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
477:dynamic logic
474:
469:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
428:manufacturer
427:
422:
420:
416:
412:
407:
398:
391:
389:
387:
383:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
353:
349:
344:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
321:
317:
313:
308:
306:
305:electron-hole
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
274:
272:
270:
266:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
238:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
212:
204:
202:
200:
196:
192:
188:
185:
181:
174:
170:
166:
158:
150:
146:
142:
141:Chih-Tang Sah
137:
134:
130:
126:
120:
112:
110:
108:
104:
101:Although the
99:
97:
93:
89:
85:
80:
78:
74:
70:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
37:
32:
19:
2345:Cold cathode
2312:Storage tube
2202:Vacuum tubes
2151:Neutron tube
2126:Beam tetrode
2108:Vacuum tubes
1693:Power MOSFET
1647:
1535:Domino logic
1438:Bipolar–CMOS
1419:
1351:
1347:
1317:(5): 810–5.
1314:
1310:
1304:
1295:
1290:
1263:
1256:
1247:
1243:
1230:
1220:
1216:
1204:
1183:
1179:
1168:
1164:
1149:
1145:
1134:. Retrieved
1132:. Hp9825.com
1124:
1116:
1112:
1087:
1071:(1): 19–22.
1068:
1064:
1054:
1029:
1023:
1010:
981:
973:
946:
936:
925:. Retrieved
917:
908:
899:
886:
869:
865:
855:
844:
840:
829:
825:
810:
806:
802:
797:
793:
791:
775:transition.
772:
768:
764:
759:
755:
751:
747:
739:
735:
731:
729:
719:
716:domino logic
706:
701:, where the
696:
681:
668:
648:and certain
643:
607:
594:
570:
561:
557:
555:
521:
470:
465:
461:
423:
403:
360:
345:
332:
328:
309:
278:
257:
236:
231:
208:
205:Silicon gate
138:
122:
109:and Z84C15.
100:
81:
67:
51:logic family
46:
40:
2511:Transformer
2253:Sutton tube
2093:Charge pump
1946:Memory cell
1876:Zener diode
1838:Laser diode
1721:transistors
1603:transistors
1455:Diode logic
1130:"Prologues"
990:. pp.
949:: 583–596.
722:circuitry.
720:pseudo nMOS
662:7400 series
646:Intel 80386
600:process, a
588:die-shrunk
538:4000 series
531:7400 series
460:called the
377:9800 series
369:core memory
331:remained a
265:multiplexer
187:access time
173:memory chip
2605:Categories
2583:reed relay
2573:Parametron
2506:Thermistor
2484:resettable
2443:Connector
2404:Adjustable
2380:Nixie tube
2350:Crossatron
2317:Trochotron
2292:Iconoscope
2287:Charactron
2264:X-ray tube
2136:Compactron
2116:Acorn tube
2073:Buck–boost
1994:Solaristor
1856:Photodiode
1833:Gunn diode
1829:(CLD, CRD)
1611:Transistor
1415:NMOS logic
1410:PMOS logic
1171:static RAM
1136:2022-03-15
927:2023-01-16
892:Atalla, M.
872:(9): 547.
634:datasheets
566:static RAM
552:Intel HMOS
415:NMOS logic
411:PMOS logic
382:Intel 1103
145:A.S. Grove
117:See also:
2546:Capacitor
2390:Trigatron
2385:Thyratron
2375:Neon lamp
2302:Monoscope
2182:Phototube
2166:Pentagrid
2131:Barretter
2016:Trancitor
2011:Thyristor
1936:Memristor
1861:PIN diode
1638:(ChemFET)
1510:(CML/SCL)
896:Kahng, D.
699:resistors
446:diffusion
434:Zilog Z80
371:in their
365:Honeywell
318:in 1969.
314:paper at
293:TTL-logic
289:DTL-logic
285:electrons
139:In 1965,
36:NAND gate
2568:Inductor
2538:Reactive
2516:Varistor
2496:Resistor
2474:Antifuse
2360:Ignitron
2355:Dekatron
2243:Klystron
2232:Gyrotron
2161:Nuvistor
2078:Split-pi
1964:(MOS IC)
1931:Memistor
1689:(MuGFET)
1683:(MOSFET)
1655:(FinFET)
1440:(BiCMOS)
1194:Archived
1156:Synertek
1103:and the
1101:Apple II
676:and the
590:MOS 6502
574:Motorola
542:8255 PIO
533:and the
352:Motorola
333:de facto
301:electron
232:de facto
220:aluminum
218:made of
57:(n-type
2616:MOSFETs
2469:Ferrite
2437:Passive
2428:Varicap
2416:digital
2365:Krytron
2187:Tetrode
2172:Pentode
2026:Varicap
2007:(3D IC)
1983:RF CMOS
1887:devices
1661:(FGMOS)
1592:devices
1530:Dynamic
1339:1215664
1319:Bibcode
1282:7802969
1034:Bibcode
744:pull-up
714:and/or
712:dynamic
686:dynamic
528:bipolar
517:NS32016
269:decoder
260:(8-bit
195:bipolar
73:MOSFETs
71:n-type
2501:Switch
2192:Triode
2156:Nonode
2121:Audion
2001:(SITh)
1885:Other
1852:(OLED)
1814:Diodes
1765:(LET)
1747:(FET)
1719:Other
1667:(IGBT)
1644:(CMOS)
1631:BioFET
1626:BiCMOS
1525:Static
1474:(DCTL)
1428:(CMOS)
1337:
1280:
1270:
1152:Mostek
1105:IBM PC
998:
961:
707:static
670:static
654:BiCMOS
580:, and
560:, for
430:Mostek
337:sodium
262:analog
177:
175:with 1
161:
159:and 65
155:
129:Atalla
107:Z84015
88:dopant
2578:Relay
2551:types
2489:eFUSE
2260:(TWT)
2248:Maser
2239:(IOT)
2228:(CFA)
2217:(BWO)
2141:Diode
2088:SEPIC
2068:Boost
2021:TRIAC
1990:(SCR)
1953:(MOV)
1927:(LEC)
1846:(LED)
1805:(UJT)
1794:(SIT)
1788:(PUT)
1731:(BJT)
1700:(TFT)
1676:LDMOS
1671:ISFET
1518:Types
1504:(TTL)
1498:(RTL)
1486:(GTL)
1480:(ECL)
1462:(DTL)
1434:(PTL)
1335:S2CID
1250:(Q1).
1240:(PDF)
1213:(PDF)
674:gates
630:80286
626:80186
598:CHMOS
513:Z8000
466:2102A
454:Zilog
357:Intel
316:ISSCC
267:with
216:gates
133:Kahng
2521:Wire
2479:Fuse
2063:Buck
1916:(IC)
1904:DIAC
1840:(LD)
1709:UMOS
1704:VMOS
1621:PMOS
1616:NMOS
1601:MOS
1492:(IL)
1468:(OC)
1278:OCLC
1268:ISBN
1154:and
996:ISBN
994:–3.
959:ISBN
845:See
830:See
682:only
622:8086
618:8051
614:8048
610:8085
602:CMOS
558:HMOS
535:CMOS
509:8086
505:6809
501:8085
493:6502
489:6800
462:2102
458:SRAM
426:DRAM
386:DRAM
361:1102
291:and
197:and
131:and
125:NMOS
103:CMOS
55:NMOS
2083:Ćuk
1327:doi
1188:or
1073:doi
1042:doi
992:321
951:doi
874:doi
870:104
771:to
758:to
752:Vdd
732:Vdd
348:ROM
312:IBM
244:at
169:IBM
167:at
147:at
41:In
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2457:RF
2206:RF
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515:,
511:,
507:,
503:,
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350:.
184:ns
180:kb
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