1255:
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1233:, after investigating six areas of ~3 km depth ~300 km off the Australian coast. They found the highly variable microplastic counts to be proportionate to plastic on the surface and the angle of the seafloor slope. By averaging the microplastic mass per cm, they estimated that Earth's seafloor contains ~14 million tons of microplastic – about double the amount they estimated based on data from earlier studies – despite calling both estimates "conservative" as coastal areas are known to contain much more
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size indicates the type of sediment and the environment in which it was created. Larger grains sink faster and can only be pushed by rapid flowing water (high energy environment) whereas small grains sink very slowly and can be suspended by slight water movement, accumulating in conditions where water is not moving so quickly. This means that larger grains of sediment may come together in higher energy conditions and smaller grains in lower energy conditions.
31:
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meters because at further depths the calcium dissolves. Similarly, Siliceous oozes are dominated by the siliceous shells of phytoplankton like diatoms and zooplankton such as radiolarians. Depending on the productivity of these planktonic organisms, the shell material that collects when these organisms die may build up at a rate anywhere from 1 mm to 1 cm every 1000 years.
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Hydrogenous sediments are uncommon. They only occur with changes in oceanic conditions such as temperature and pressure. Rarer still are cosmogenous sediments. Hydrogenous sediments are formed from dissolved chemicals that precipitate from the ocean water, or along the mid-ocean ridges, they can form
700:
grow in ocean waters and create the materials that become oozes on the seabed. Calcareous oozes are predominantly composed of calcium shells found in phytoplankton such as coccolithophores and zooplankton like the foraminiferans. These calcareous oozes are never found deeper than about 4,000 to 5,000
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Another way that sediments are described is through their descriptive classification. These sediments vary in size, anywhere from 1/4096 of a mm to greater than 256 mm. The different types are: boulder, cobble, pebble, granule, sand, silt, and clay, each type becoming finer in grain. The grain
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is the most abundant sediment found on the seafloor. Terrigenous sediments come from the continents. These materials are eroded from continents and transported by wind and water to the ocean. Fluvial sediments are transported from land by rivers and glaciers, such as clay, silt, mud, and glacial
2265:
Muñoz-Royo, Carlos; Peacock, Thomas; Alford, Matthew H.; Smith, Jerome A.; Le Boyer, Arnaud; Kulkarni, Chinmay S.; Lermusiaux, Pierre F. J.; Haley, Patrick J.; Mirabito, Chris; Wang, Dayang; Adams, E. Eric; Ouillon, Raphael; Breugem, Alexander; Decrop, Boudewijn; Lanckriet, Thijs (2021-07-27).
1258:
Schematic of a polymetallic nodule mining operation. From top to bottom, the three zoom-in panels illustrate the surface operation vessel, the midwater sediment plume, and the nodule collector operating on the seabed. The midwater plume comprises two stages: (i) the dynamic plume, in which the
269:. Seafloor spreading creates mid-ocean ridges along the center line of major ocean basins, where the seabed is slightly shallower than the surrounding abyssal plain. From the abyssal plain, the seabed slopes upward toward the continents and becomes, in order from deep to shallow, the
617:
vary in origin, from eroded land materials carried into the ocean by rivers or wind flow, waste and decompositions of sea creatures, and precipitation of chemicals within the sea water itself, including some from outer space. There are four basic types of sediment of the sea floor:
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and spread pollution from heavy metal-laden plumes. Critics have called for moratoria or permanent bans. Opposition campaigns enlisted the support of some industry figures, including firms reliant on the target metals. Individual countries with significant deposits within their
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Biogenous sediment is the next most abundant material on the seafloor. Biogenous sediments are biologically produced by living creatures. Sediments made up of at least 30% biogenous material are called "oozes." There are two types of oozes: Calcareous oozes and
Siliceous oozes.
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regions of the ocean are relatively flat and covered in many layers of sediments. Sediments in these flat areas come from various sources, including but not limited to: land erosion sediments from rivers, chemically precipitated sediments from hydrothermal vents,
968:, and the way sunlight diminishes when these landforms occupy increasing depths. Tidal networks depend on the balance between sedimentary processes and hydrodynamics however, anthropogenic influences can impact the natural system more than any physical driver.
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964:) when it interfaces with the ocean. These shapes are obvious along coastlines, but they occur also in significant ways underwater. The effectiveness of marine habitats is partially defined by these shapes, including the way they interact with and shape
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is a global phenomenon, and because the ocean is the ultimate destination for global waterways, much of the world's plastic ends up in the ocean and some sinks to the seabed. Exploitation of the seabed involves extracting valuable minerals from
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energy cause resuspension of seabed sediments. Biologically, microorganisms living within the seabed sediments change seabed chemistry. Marine organisms create sediments, both within the seabed and in the water above. For example,
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Most of the oceans have a common structure, created by common physical phenomena, mainly from tectonic movement, and sediment from various sources. The structure of the oceans, starting with the continents, begins usually with a
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sediment-laden discharge water rapidly descends and dilutes to a neutral buoyancy depth, and (ii) the subsequent ambient plume that is advected by the ocean current and subject to background turbulence and settling.
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by metallic elements binding onto rocks that have water of more than 300 °C circulating around them. When these elements mix with the cold sea water they precipitate from the cooling water. Known as
1339:, and then depositing extra discharge down the water column. Related technologies include robotic mining machines, as surface ships, and offshore and onshore metal refineries. Wind farms, solar energy,
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was the first country to approve a deep sea mining permit for the
Solwara 1 project, despite three independent reviews highlighting significant gaps and flaws in the environmental impact statement.
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The most common commercial model of deep sea mining proposed involves a caterpillar-track hydraulic collector and a riser lift system bringing the harvested ore to a production support vessel with
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volcanic island ridges are created by volcanic activity, erupting periodically, as the tectonic plates pass over a hotspot. In areas with volcanic activity and in the oceanic trenches there are
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Some children's play songs include elements such as "There's a hole at the bottom of the sea", or "A sailor went to sea... but all that he could see was the bottom of the deep blue sea".
304:), from biological organisms (biogenous), from chemical reactions (hydrogenous), and from space (cosmogenous). Categorized by size, these sediments range from very small particles called
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Each region of the seabed has typical features such as common sediment composition, typical topography, salinity of water layers above it, marine life, magnetic direction of rocks, and
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before it can reach deep ocean water, the energy source for deep benthic ecosystems is often organic matter from higher up in the water column that drifts down to the depths. This
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making up 2.5% of their weight. It is estimated that the global ocean floor holds more than 120 million tons of cobalt, five times the amount found in terrestrial reserves.
1944:
Giovanni Coco, Z. Zhou, B. van Maanen, M. Olabarrieta, R. Tinoco, I. Townend. Morphodynamics of tidal networks: Advances and challenges. Marine
Geology Journal. 1 December 2013.
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444:, the beginning of the seabed, and its main area. The border between the continental slope and the abyssal plain usually has a more gradual descent, and is called the
1108:, the original tectonic activity can be clearly seen as straight line "cracks" or "vents" thousands of kilometers long. These underwater mountain ranges are known as
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629:) describes the sediment from continents eroded by rain, rivers, and glaciers, as well as sediment blown into the ocean by the wind, such as dust and volcanic ash.
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On and under the seabed are archaeological sites of historic interest, such as shipwrecks and sunken towns. This underwater cultural heritage is protected by the
221:
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with special equipment. Hydrothermal vents were discovered in 1977 by researchers using an underwater camera platform. In recent years satellite measurements of
722:, they are composed of layers of different metals like manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper, and they are always found on the surface of the ocean floor.
348:
with silicate or calcium carbonate shells grow in abundance in the upper ocean, and when they die, their shells sink to the seafloor to become seabed sediments.
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1397:. The convention aims at preventing looting and the destruction or loss of historic and cultural information by providing an international legal framework.
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Cosmogenous sediments are the remains of space debris such as comets and asteroids, made up of silicates and various metals that have impacted the Earth.
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Human impacts on the seabed are diverse. Examples of human effects on the seabed include exploration, plastic pollution, and exploitation by mining and
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1237:. These estimates are about one to two times the amount of plastic thought – per Jambeck et al., 2015 – to currently enter the oceans annually.
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and by the biology of the creatures living in the seabed and in the ocean waters above. Physically, seabed sediments often come from the
3023:
1613:
Flood, Roger D.; Piper, D.J.W. (1997). "Preface: Depth Below
Seafloor Conventions". In Flood; Piper; Klaus, A.; Peterson, L.C. (eds.).
285:, is known as the "depth below seafloor". The ecological environment of the seabed and the deepest waters are collectively known, as a
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214:
500:– which includes the oceanic trenches, lies between 6,000 and 11,000 metres (20,000–36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.
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showing many different grain sizes: A) gravel and sand, B) gravel, C) bioturbated mud and sand, and D) laminated clays and silts.
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John J. Gurney, Alfred A. Levinson, and H. Stuart Smith (1991) Marine mining of diamonds off the West Coast of
Southern Africa,
1900:
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and has granted 31 exploration licenses so far: 19 for polymetallic nodules, mostly in the CCZ; 7 for polymetallic sulphides in
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Hydrothermal vent fluids cause chemical reactions that precipitate out minerals that form sediments on the surrounding seafloor.
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2098:
Wefer, Gerold; Billet, David; Hebbeln, Dierk; Jorgensen, Bo Barker; SchlĂĽter, Michael; Weering, Tjeerd C. E. Van (2013-11-11).
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1135:. This marine life receives its energy both from the extreme temperature difference (typically a drop of 150 degrees) and from
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1446: – layer of water in the deep ocean basin, above the ocean floor, that contains significant amounts of suspended sediment
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Seabed
Minerals Authority (SBMA) granted three exploration licenses for cobalt-rich polymetallic nodules within their EEZ.
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As of July 2024, only exploratory licenses have been issued, with no commercial-scale deep sea mining operations yet. The
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2268:"Extent of impact of deep-sea nodule mining midwater plumes is influenced by sediment loading, turbulence and thresholds"
1865:
1588:
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459:, as its name implies, is a mountainous rise through the middle of all the oceans, between the continents. Typically a
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to map water depths throughout the world. Submersible vehicles help researchers study unique seabed ecosystems such as
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1192:
1313:. There is a push for deep sea mining to commence by 2025, when regulations by the ISA are expected to be completed.
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Other seabed environments include hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, and shallow areas. Marine life is abundant in the
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Where the seafloor is actively spreading and sedimentation is relatively light, such as in the northern and eastern
795:
484:
Deep ocean water is divided into layers or zones, each with typical features of salinity, pressure, temperature and
471:– deep valleys, created by the mantle circulation movement from the mid-ocean mountain ridge to the oceanic trench.
414:(blue to purple). Like land terrain, the ocean floor has mountains including volcanoes, ridges, valleys, and plains.
300:. Categorized by where the materials come from or composition, these sediments are classified as either: from land (
4292:
3489:
2206:; Zhang, Jing; Holl, Mark M. Banaszak; Willis, Kathryn; Williams, Alan; Hardesty, Britta D.; Wilcox, Chris (2020).
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3389:
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2854:
2804:"The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) has refused an application by Chatham Rock Phosphate Limited (CRP)"
668:
Satellite image of wind-blown mineral dust over the
Atlantic. Dust may become terrigenous sediment on the seabed.
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3519:
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481:– releasing high pressure and extremely hot water and chemicals into the typically freezing water around it.
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sediment is material that precipitates in the ocean when oceanic conditions change, or material created in
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1217:, and these satellite-derived maps are used extensively in the study and exploration of the ocean floor.
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4001:
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3039:
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602:
535:"mbsf" (meaning "meters below the seafloor") is a common convention used for depths below the seafloor.
1536:
Kump, Lee R.; Kasting, James F.; Crane, Robert G. (2010). "Chapter 7. Circulation of the Solid Earth".
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Phytoplankton grow shells which later sink to the seabed to become biogenous sediments. For example,
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1434: – Mineral concretion on the sea bottom made of concentric layers of iron/manganese hydroxides
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As of 2021, the majority of marine mining used dredging operations at depths of about 200 m, where
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512:
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Seabed topography is flat where layers of sediments cover the tectonic features. For example, the
672:
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3857:
3847:
3812:
3712:
3697:
3594:
2669:
2237:
2044:
1955:
1849:
Haeckel, E. 1891. Plankton-Studien. Jenaische
Zeitschrift fĂĽr Naturwissenschaft 25 / (Neue Folge)
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2020:
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2746:"Google, BMW, Volvo, and Samsung SDI sign up to WWF call for temporary ban on deep-sea mining"
2661:
2305:
2229:
2105:
2099:
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1804:
Tripati, Aradhna, Lab 6-Marine
Sediments, Marine Sediments Reading, E&SSCI15-1, UCLA, 2012
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1282:(CCZ) alone contains over 21 billion metric tons of these nodules, with minerals such as
1234:
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Costa, Corrado; Fanelli, Emanuela; Marini, Simone; Danovaro, Roberto; Aguzzi, Jacopo (2020).
1517:) – Technique for photographing the interface between the seabed and the overlying water
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via deep sea mining, as well as dredging sand from shallow environments for construction and
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4119:
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3913:
3782:
3717:
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3003:
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2415:"Greenpeace responds to Norway's proposal to licence first Arctic areas for deep sea mining"
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1999:
1989:
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1489: – Partitioning of a seabed acoustic image into discrete physical entities or classes
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and the Deep Sea Mining
Campaign claimed that seabed mining has the potential to damage
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10 km with a mean depth of 3,682 m, resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332
1008:
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Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the
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528:
468:
464:
390:
52:
2572:"Global Deep-Sea Biodiversity Research Trends Highlighted by Science Mapping Approach"
1700:
Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 15. The components of marine sediments".
4281:
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4114:
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3817:
3752:
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3484:
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3242:
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2959:– Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the Office of Ocean Exploration.
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1904:
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are the main driver of the critical metals demand that incentivises deep sea mining.
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1034:, or about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth. The oceans cover an area of 3.618
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520:
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332:
190:
152:
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38:
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2491:. Baker, E., and Beaudoin, Y. (Eds.) Vol. 2, Secretariat of the Pacific Community
1926:
Benthos und das redundant Benton: Neologismen in der deutschsprachigen Limnologie
1650:
1483: – Ship or boat designed, modified, or equipped to carry out research at sea
1225:
In 2020 scientists created what may be the first scientific estimate of how much
692:
flour. Aeolian sediments are transported by wind, such as dust and volcanic ash.
4211:
3943:
3872:
3737:
3677:
3644:
3634:
3629:
3514:
3449:
3409:
3399:
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3257:
3230:
3210:
3170:
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1461: – Sub-field of engineering concerned with human-made structures in the sea
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1132:
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485:
419:
93:
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4029:
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3614:
3579:
3499:
3319:
3314:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3165:
2644:
Halfar, Jochen; Fujita, Rodney M. (18 May 2007). "Danger of Deep-Sea Mining".
2428:
2224:
2208:"Microplastic Pollution in Deep-Sea Sediments From the Great Australian Bight"
2207:
2030:
1627:
we follow Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) meters below seafloor (mbsf) convention
1355:
1274:, which are found at depths of 4–6 km (2.5–3.7 mi) primarily on the
1144:
1031:
988:
961:
932:
879:
875:
837:
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497:
395:
98:
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999:. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning
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3963:
3948:
3862:
3707:
3546:
3541:
3324:
3252:
3180:
3100:
3090:
3047:
2657:
2323:
2153:"Hidden Beneath the Ocean's Surface, Nearly 16 Million Tons of Microplastic"
2067:
2065:
1994:
1977:
1829:
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
1201:
1148:
980:
778:
635:
material is the sediment made up of the hard parts of sea creatures, mainly
524:
180:
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2300:
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of deep sea mining is controversial. Environmental advocacy groups such as
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3918:
3777:
3669:
3659:
3604:
3080:
1378:
1267:
1230:
1140:
1116:
996:
992:
918:, such as lakes, rivers, and streams. There is also a redundant synonym,
871:
813:
737:
697:
681:
449:
352:
317:
296:
Most of the seabed throughout the world's oceans is covered in layers of
170:
3008:
2598:
2525:
Kim, Rakhyun E. (August 2017). "Should deep seabed mining be allowed?".
2372:"Deep-sea mining's future still murky as negotiations end on mixed note"
1816:
1050:
496:, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 m (20,000 ft). The
4065:
4055:
3225:
3195:
2555:
2247:
1395:
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
1155:
such as corals, fish, algae, crabs, marine plants and other organisms.
1097:
eroding the seabed and transporting sediments to the deeper ocean, and
1004:
976:
893:
784:
770:
759:
677:
532:
335:. Sea currents transport sediments, especially in shallow waters where
328:
290:
286:
281:. The depth within the seabed itself, such as the depth down through a
78:
2846:
1540:(3rd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 122–148.
1422: – Human habitats located in environments inhospitable for humans
1416: – Fish that live and feed on or near the bottom of seas or lakes
3185:
2991:
2688:"Collapse of PNG deep-sea mining venture sparks calls for moratorium"
2391:"China is set to dominate the deep sea and its wealth of rare metals"
2004:
1321:
1291:
1287:
1283:
859:. The pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one
825:
801:
774:
2331:
1725:
Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 13. Marine sediments".
2988:– Explore the volcanoes of the Mariana Arc, Submarine Ring of Fire.
2895:
Sea Floor Exploration: Scientific Adventures Diving into the Abyss.
2717:"David Attenborough calls for ban on 'devastating' deep sea mining"
2178:"14 million tonnes of microplastics on sea floor: Australian study"
265:. Most of the ocean is very deep, where the seabed is known as the
4134:
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3732:
3687:
1253:
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29:
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Sulphate-reducing bacteria environmental and engineered systems
261:
The structure of the seabed of the global ocean is governed by
2615:"Out of Our Depth: Mining the Ocean Floor in Papua New Guinea"
1783:
Grobe, Hannes; Kiekmann, Bernhard; Hillenbrand, Claus-Dieter.
436:– which is a steep descent into the ocean, until reaching the
2918:
Electromagnetic Seabed Logging. A new tool for geoscientists.
2022:
Chapter 1 Characterizing the Seabed: a Geoscience Perspective
1866:
1639:
Parkes, R. John; Henrik Sass (2007). Barton, Larry L. (ed.).
1615:
Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results
1151:. In shallow areas, the seabed can host sediments created by
991:. Further out in the open ocean, they include underwater and
901:
1729:(3rd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 273–289.
1704:(3rd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 321–351.
1343:, and battery technologies use many of the deep-sea metals.
2774:
2476:
2474:
2482:
Deep Sea Minerals: Deep Sea Minerals and the Green Economy
1956:"Exploring the Ocean Basins with Satellite Altimeter Data"
331:
of material on land and from other rarer sources, such as
1507: – Mineral deposits from seafloor hydrothermal vents
1498: – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors
1410: – Fishing method by towing a net along the seafloor
2953:– the Center for Ocean Sciences Educational Excellence.
1976:
Charette, Matthew A.; Smith, Walter H. F. (June 2010).
1500:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1491:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
832:. This community lives in or near marine or freshwater
488:, according to their depth. Lying along the top of the
2454:"Campaign Reports | Deep Sea Mining: Out Of Our Depth"
323:
Features of the seabed are governed by the physics of
1695:
1693:
1266:
is the extraction of minerals from the seabed of the
1199:
The seabed has been explored by submersibles such as
2326:(Report). U.S. Geological Survey. 2024. p. 63.
1448:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1131:— vents emitting chemicals toxic to humans and most
808: 'the depths '), also known as benthon, is the
4074:
4048:
4010:
3962:
3901:
3796:
3668:
3565:
3360:
3046:
606:Total sediment thickness of the world's oceans and
2621:. MiningWatch Canada, CELCoR, Packard Foundation.
2019:Braathen, Alvar; Brekke, Harald (7 January 2020).
1301:(ISA) regulates all mineral-related activities in
914:to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater
258:. All floors of the ocean are known as 'seabeds'.
3982:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
1147:are another seabed feature, usually connected to
2973:– A rich collection of images, video, audio and
1819:from the Census of Antarctic Marine Life website
1645:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 329–358.
3972:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
1954:Sandwell, D. T.; Smith, W. H. F. (2006-07-07).
1812:
1810:
1593:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1191:A video describing the operation and use of an
816:that live on, in, or near the bottom of a sea,
2429:"Cook Islands Seabed Minerals Authority - Map"
1901:"North American Benthological Society website"
1428: – Water outside of national jurisdiction
3024:
2875:Safeguarding the Underwater Cultural Heritage
655:sediment comes from extraterrestrial sources.
639:, that accumulate on the bottom of the ocean.
215:
8:
1847:
1831:"How does pressure change with ocean depth?"
1562:"Open Ocean – Oceans, Coasts, and Seashores"
1453:New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy
1371:sand, silt and mud for construction purposes
1026:The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35
2957:Ocean Explorer (www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov)
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1324:, where it has been approved. In 2022, the
1270:. The main ores of commercial interest are
1127:of marine life have been discovered around
1065:. Some features of the seabed include flat
3031:
3017:
3009:
222:
208:
48:
2775:"SPC-EU Deep Sea Minerals Project - Home"
2597:
2587:
2554:
2299:
2223:
2104:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2003:
1993:
878:; most organisms in the benthic zone are
463:runs along the edge of this ridge. Along
355:operations. To map the seabed, ships use
312:, known as mud, to larger particles from
1465:Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor
1316:Deep sea mining is also possible in the
1924:Nehring, S. & Albrecht, U. (1997).
1528:
1477: – Movement of Earth's lithosphere
539:Different seabeds in the world's oceans
537:
160:
139:
116:
58:
51:
3303:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
2613:Rosenbaum, Dr. Helen (November 2011).
2272:Communications Earth & Environment
1440: – Methane-water lattice compound
1309:; and 5 for cobalt-rich crusts in the
452:cascading down the continental slope.
2625:from the original on 13 December 2019
2073:"The Discovery of Hydrothermal Vents"
1455: – Indigenous rights controversy
863:for every 10 metres of water depth).
7:
4250:
2981:NOAA, Ocean Explorer YouTube Channel
2077:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
684:shells, which become siliceous ooze.
2986:Submarine Ring of Fire, Mariana Arc
2971:Submarine Ring of Fire 2004 Gallery
2967:Submarine Ring of Fire 2006 Gallery
960:) refers to the shape of the land (
4130:National Oceanographic Data Center
3557:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
3445:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
25:
3977:Global Sea Level Observing System
2025:. Brill Nijhoff. pp. 21–35.
1568:. U.S. Department of the Interior
1505:Seafloor massive sulfide deposits
1459:Offshore geotechnical engineering
995:features such as ocean rises and
4260:
4249:
4240:
4239:
3435:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
3351:
3340:
2995:National Geophysical Data Center
2324:Mineral commodity summaries 2024
2246:
1672:metres below the seafloor (mbsf)
1623:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.155.200.1997
1365:exclusive economic zones (EEZ's)
1246:This section is an excerpt from
758:This section is an excerpt from
579:
567:
555:
543:
4165:Ocean thermal energy conversion
3888:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
2857:from the original on 2021-09-08
2814:from the original on 2016-01-24
2785:from the original on 2021-09-06
2756:from the original on 2021-09-06
2727:from the original on 2021-09-06
2698:from the original on 2021-04-11
2460:from the original on 2019-12-13
2435:from the original on 2022-06-30
2151:May, Tiffany (7 October 2020).
945:World map with ocean topography
398:of the ocean floor showing the
2880:. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
2389:Kuo, Lily (October 19, 2023).
2350:International Seabed Authority
1299:International Seabed Authority
1:
1978:"The Volume of Earth's Ocean"
1229:currently resides in Earth's
973:coastal and oceanic landforms
3425:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
3395:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
3151:Luke's variational principle
2963:NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery
2547:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.05.010
1785:"The memory of polar oceans"
1651:10.1017/CBO9780511541490.012
1617:. Vol. 155. p. 3.
1320:(EEZ) of countries, such as
1003:system, as well as undersea
971:Marine topographies include
2576:Frontiers in Marine Science
2502:"Breaking Free From Mining"
2212:Frontiers in Marine Science
2130:Science Mission Directorate
1367:are exploring the subject.
1174:Oceanography § History
705:Hydrogenous and cosmogenous
562:white sand seabed in Mexico
423:The major oceanic divisions
4309:
3490:Ocean dynamical thermostat
3338:
2947:Understanding the Seafloor
2292:10.1038/s43247-021-00213-8
2126:"Ocean Surface Topography"
1867:
1345:Electric vehicle batteries
1245:
1167:
930:
902:
794:
757:
595:
467:edges there are typically
383:
4235:
4025:Ocean acoustic tomography
3838:Mohorovičić discontinuity
3430:General circulation model
3066:Benjamin–Feir instability
3000:Astonishing deep sea life
2225:10.3389/fmars.2020.576170
2031:10.1163/9789004391567_003
1771:Types of Marine Sediments
660:Terrigenous and biogenous
4155:Ocean surface topography
3530:Thermohaline circulation
3520:Subsurface ocean current
3460:Hydrothermal circulation
3293:Wave–current interaction
3071:Boussinesq approximation
2619:Deep Sea Mining Campaign
2589:10.3389/fmars.2020.00384
1511:Sediment Profile Imagery
1373:is abundant, along with
1211:ocean surface topography
937:Ocean surface topography
896:in 1891, comes from the
872:dead and decaying matter
834:sedimentary environments
4192:Sea surface temperature
4175:Outline of oceanography
3370:Atmospheric circulation
3308:shallow water equations
3298:Waves and shallow water
3191:Significant wave height
2658:10.1126/science.1138289
2346:"Exploration Contracts"
1995:10.5670/oceanog.2010.51
1883:A Greek–English Lexicon
1758:The Bottom of the Ocean
1487:Seabed characterization
1318:exclusive economic zone
1280:Clarion-Clipperton Zone
1129:black and white smokers
848:, and then down to the
615:Sediments in the seabed
410:(yellow-green) and the
289:for creatures, as the "
254:) is the bottom of the
4187:Sea surface microlayer
3552:Wind generated current
2992:Age of the Ocean Floor
1848:
1589:"Ocean floor features"
1260:
1235:microplastic pollution
1196:
1058:
946:
781:
745:
714:
685:
669:
611:
550:gravel seabed in Italy
424:
416:
46:
27:The bottom of an ocean
4020:Deep scattering layer
4002:World Geodetic System
3510:Princeton Ocean Model
3390:Coriolis–Stokes force
3040:Physical oceanography
1874:Liddell, Henry George
1835:oceanservice.NOAA.gov
1687:," Water Encyclopedia
1685:Ocean-Floor Sediments
1566:National Park Service
1311:Western Pacific Ocean
1257:
1205:and, to some extent,
1195:in deep sea research.
1190:
1053:
975:ranging from coastal
944:
874:sustains the benthic
769:
736:
712:
675:
667:
605:
574:sand seabed in Greece
504:Depth below seafloor
448:, which is caused by
422:
393:
33:
4040:Underwater acoustics
3600:Perigean spring tide
3465:Langmuir circulation
3176:Rossby-gravity waves
2851:The Ocean Foundation
2101:Ocean Margin Systems
1683:Murray, Richard W. "
1426:International waters
1352:environmental impact
1303:international waters
1272:polymetallic nodules
1170:Deep-sea exploration
1125:deep sea communities
906:'depth of the sea'.
828:, also known as the
689:Terrigenous sediment
509:Depth below seafloor
18:Depth below seafloor
4202:Science On a Sphere
3808:Convergent boundary
3480:Modular Ocean Model
3440:Geostrophic current
3156:Mild-slope equation
2834:Gems & Gemology
2539:2017MarPo..82..134K
2284:2021ComEE...2..148M
1727:Marine Geochemistry
1702:Marine Geochemistry
1360:deep sea ecosystems
1337:dynamic positioning
985:continental shelves
729:Size classification
608:continental margins
513:vertical coordinate
432:, continues to the
400:continental shelves
357:acoustic technology
238:(also known as the
3858:Seafloor spreading
3848:Outer trench swell
3813:Divergent boundary
3713:Continental margin
3698:Carbonate platform
3595:Lunitidal interval
2949:presentation from
2916:Stéphane Sainson:
2487:2021-11-04 at the
2202:Barrett, Justine;
2157:The New York Times
1386:In art and culture
1375:mineral rich sands
1261:
1215:maps of the seabed
1197:
1121:hydrothermal vents
1079:hydrothermal vents
1059:
947:
912:freshwater biology
782:
746:
715:
686:
670:
612:
586:hydrothermal vents
479:hydrothermal vents
425:
417:
386:Seafloor spreading
361:hydrothermal vents
325:sediment transport
176:Hydrothermal vents
127:Surface microlayer
47:
4293:Fisheries science
4275:
4274:
4267:Oceans portal
4227:World Ocean Atlas
4217:Underwater glider
4160:Ocean temperature
3823:Hydrothermal vent
3788:Submarine volcano
3723:Continental shelf
3703:Coastal geography
3693:Bathymetric chart
3575:Amphidromic point
3263:Wave nonlinearity
3121:Infragravity wave
2934:978-3-319-45355-2
2926:978-3-319-45353-8
2911:978-3-319-03203-0
2903:978-3-319-03202-3
2111:978-3-662-05127-6
1773:", Article Myriad
1760:," Marine Science
1736:978-1-4051-8734-3
1711:978-1-4051-8734-3
1660:978-0-521-85485-6
1547:978-0-321-59779-3
1438:Methane clathrate
1341:electric vehicles
1221:Plastic pollution
1193:autonomous lander
1188:
1101:shell materials.
1013:submarine canyons
958:marine topography
950:Seabed topography
866:Because light is
846:continental shelf
720:manganese nodules
647:hydrothermal vent
515:used in geology,
434:continental slope
430:continental shelf
374:beach nourishment
365:Plastic pollution
232:
231:
104:Continental shelf
43:seafloor sediment
16:(Redirected from
4300:
4265:
4264:
4253:
4252:
4243:
4242:
4182:Pelagic sediment
4120:Marine pollution
3914:Deep ocean water
3783:Submarine canyon
3718:Continental rise
3610:Rule of twelfths
3525:Sverdrup balance
3455:Humboldt Current
3380:Boundary current
3355:
3344:
3161:Radiation stress
3131:Iribarren number
3106:Equatorial waves
3061:Ballantine scale
3056:Airy wave theory
3033:
3026:
3019:
3010:
3004:TED (conference)
2920:Springer, 2016.
2897:Springer, 2014.
2893:Roger Hekinian:
2881:
2872:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2862:
2843:
2837:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2790:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2761:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2703:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2591:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2507:. Archived from
2506:
2498:
2492:
2478:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2401:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2368:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2303:
2262:
2256:
2251:Available under
2250:
2245:
2227:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2069:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
1997:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1951:
1945:
1942:
1936:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1903:. Archived from
1897:
1891:
1870:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1851:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1826:
1820:
1814:
1805:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1789:
1780:
1774:
1767:
1761:
1754:
1741:
1740:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1697:
1688:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1667:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1538:The Earth System
1533:
1516:
1501:
1496:Seafloor mapping
1492:
1470:
1449:
1432:Manganese nodule
1330:Papua New Guinea
1307:mid-ocean ridges
1213:show very clear
1189:
1110:mid-ocean ridges
1071:mid-ocean ridges
1041:
1037:
1029:
1017:oceanic plateaus
1009:oceanic trenches
954:ocean topography
905:
904:
805:
798:
583:
571:
559:
547:
469:oceanic trenches
446:continental rise
440:– a topographic
408:mid-ocean ridges
404:oceanic plateaus
370:sulfide deposits
298:marine sediments
271:continental rise
224:
217:
210:
89:Seagrass meadows
84:Mangrove forests
60:Coastal habitats
49:
21:
4308:
4307:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4297:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4259:
4231:
4070:
4044:
4006:
3987:Sea-level curve
3958:
3897:
3883:Transform fault
3833:Mid-ocean ridge
3799:
3792:
3758:Oceanic plateau
3664:
3650:Tidal resonance
3620:Theory of tides
3561:
3470:Longshore drift
3420:Ekman transport
3356:
3350:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3336:
3288:Wave turbulence
3221:Trochoidal wave
3146:Longshore drift
3042:
3037:
2943:
2890:
2888:Further reading
2885:
2884:
2873:
2869:
2860:
2858:
2847:"Seabed Mining"
2845:
2844:
2840:
2831:
2827:
2817:
2815:
2808:Deepwater group
2802:
2801:
2797:
2788:
2786:
2779:dsm.gsd.spc.int
2773:
2772:
2768:
2759:
2757:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2730:
2728:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2701:
2699:
2686:
2685:
2681:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2628:
2626:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2524:
2523:
2519:
2511:
2504:
2500:
2499:
2495:
2489:Wayback Machine
2479:
2472:
2463:
2461:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2438:
2436:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2417:. 26 June 2024.
2413:
2412:
2408:
2399:
2397:
2395:Washington Post
2388:
2387:
2383:
2378:. 2 April 2024.
2370:
2369:
2365:
2355:
2353:
2352:. 17 March 2022
2344:
2343:
2339:
2332:10.3133/mcs2024
2322:
2321:
2317:
2301:1721.1/138864.2
2264:
2263:
2259:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2184:
2176:
2175:
2171:
2161:
2159:
2150:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2133:
2132:. 31 March 2010
2124:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2082:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2063:
2053:
2051:
2041:
2018:
2017:
2013:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1961:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1923:
1919:
1910:
1908:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1888:Perseus Project
1864:
1860:
1846:
1842:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1815:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1787:
1782:
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1777:
1768:
1764:
1755:
1744:
1737:
1724:
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1698:
1691:
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1665:
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1607:
1597:
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1586:
1585:
1581:
1571:
1569:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1548:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1514:
1499:
1490:
1481:Research vessel
1475:Plate tectonics
1468:
1447:
1444:Nepheloid layer
1408:Bottom trawling
1403:
1388:
1383:
1382:
1264:Deep sea mining
1251:
1248:Deep sea mining
1243:
1223:
1178:
1176:
1168:Main articles:
1166:
1161:
1048:
1039:
1035:
1027:
1001:mid-ocean ridge
939:
929:
924:
923:
916:bodies of water
763:
755:
740:types from the
731:
707:
662:
600:
598:Marine sediment
594:
587:
584:
575:
572:
563:
560:
551:
548:
506:
457:mid-ocean ridge
415:
388:
382:
263:plate tectonics
228:
196:Marine sediment
132:Epipelagic zone
74:Intertidal zone
53:Marine habitats
35:Common stingray
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4306:
4304:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4280:
4279:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4269:
4257:
4247:
4236:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4207:Stratification
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4178:
4177:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4099:
4097:Color of water
4094:
4092:Benthic lander
4089:
4084:
4078:
4076:
4072:
4071:
4069:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4016:
4014:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4004:
3999:
3997:Sea level rise
3994:
3992:Sea level drop
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3968:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3905:
3903:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3828:Marine geology
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3804:
3802:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3768:Passive margin
3765:
3763:Oceanic trench
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3674:
3672:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3571:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
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3549:
3544:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3495:Ocean dynamics
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3385:Coriolis force
3382:
3377:
3372:
3366:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3339:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3333:
3332:
3322:
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3311:
3310:
3305:
3295:
3290:
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3280:
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3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3206:Stokes problem
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3141:Kinematic wave
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3052:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3028:
3021:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2997:
2989:
2983:
2978:
2960:
2954:
2942:
2941:External links
2939:
2938:
2937:
2914:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2867:
2853:. 2010-08-07.
2838:
2825:
2795:
2766:
2752:. 2021-03-31.
2737:
2723:. 2020-03-12.
2708:
2694:. 2019-09-15.
2679:
2636:
2605:
2562:
2517:
2514:on 2021-12-23.
2493:
2470:
2456:. 2011-11-19.
2445:
2420:
2406:
2381:
2363:
2337:
2315:
2257:
2194:
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2143:
2117:
2110:
2090:
2079:. 11 June 2018
2061:
2039:
2011:
1988:(2): 112–114.
1968:
1946:
1937:
1917:
1892:
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1840:
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1384:
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1244:
1242:
1239:
1222:
1219:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1137:chemosynthesis
1106:Atlantic Ocean
1067:abyssal plains
1054:Layers of the
1047:
1044:
1021:abyssal plains
966:ocean currents
928:
925:
850:abyssal depths
764:
756:
754:
751:
742:Southern Ocean
730:
727:
706:
703:
661:
658:
657:
656:
650:
640:
630:
596:Main article:
593:
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573:
566:
564:
561:
554:
552:
549:
542:
540:
529:ocean drilling
505:
502:
465:tectonic plate
412:abyssal plains
394:
381:
378:
230:
229:
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101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
63:
62:
56:
55:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4305:
4294:
4291:
4289:
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4268:
4263:
4258:
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4246:
4238:
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4225:
4223:
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4205:
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4198:
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4185:
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4180:
4176:
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4158:
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4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4115:Marine energy
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4105:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4082:Acidification
4080:
4079:
4077:
4073:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4035:SOFAR channel
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4013:
4009:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3906:
3904:
3900:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3843:Oceanic crust
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3818:Fracture zone
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3801:
3795:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3753:Oceanic basin
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3683:Abyssal plain
3681:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3671:
3667:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3590:Internal tide
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3485:Ocean current
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3354:
3343:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3283:Wave shoaling
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3243:Ursell number
3241:
3239:
3236:
3232:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3126:Internal wave
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3076:Breaking wave
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3049:
3045:
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3034:
3029:
3027:
3022:
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3015:
3014:
3011:
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3001:
2998:
2996:
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2990:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
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2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
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2948:
2945:
2944:
2940:
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2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2879:
2876:
2871:
2868:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2796:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2770:
2767:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2741:
2738:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2683:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2652:(5827): 987.
2651:
2647:
2640:
2637:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2609:
2606:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
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2577:
2573:
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2563:
2557:
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2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2527:Marine Policy
2521:
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2494:
2490:
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2258:
2254:
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2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2195:
2183:
2179:
2173:
2170:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2144:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2103:
2102:
2094:
2091:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2040:9789004391567
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2023:
2015:
2012:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1957:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1918:
1907:on 2008-07-05
1906:
1902:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1878:Scott, Robert
1875:
1871:
1862:
1859:
1855:
1852:18: 232-336.
1850:
1844:
1841:
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1832:
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1445:
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1439:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1420:Human outpost
1418:
1415:
1414:Demersal fish
1412:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1391:
1385:
1381:and diamonds.
1380:
1376:
1372:
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1366:
1361:
1357:
1353:
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1346:
1342:
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1333:
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1319:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1276:abyssal plain
1273:
1269:
1265:
1256:
1249:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1203:
1194:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1099:phytoplankton
1096:
1092:
1091:Microorganism
1087:
1086:abyssal plain
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1063:sedimentation
1057:
1052:
1045:
1043:
1033:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
969:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
943:
938:
934:
926:
921:
917:
913:
909:
899:
895:
891:
887:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
864:
862:
858:
853:
851:
847:
844:, out to the
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
804:
797:
793:
790:
789:Ancient Greek
786:
780:
776:
772:
768:
761:
752:
750:
743:
739:
735:
728:
726:
723:
721:
711:
704:
702:
699:
693:
690:
683:
679:
674:
666:
659:
654:
651:
648:
644:
641:
638:
637:phytoplankton
634:
631:
628:
624:
621:
620:
619:
616:
609:
604:
599:
591:
582:
577:
570:
565:
558:
553:
546:
541:
538:
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
503:
501:
499:
495:
491:
490:abyssal plain
487:
482:
480:
476:
472:
470:
466:
462:
458:
453:
451:
447:
443:
439:
438:abyssal plain
435:
431:
421:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
387:
379:
377:
375:
371:
366:
362:
358:
354:
349:
347:
346:phytoplankton
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
294:
292:
288:
284:
283:sediment core
280:
276:
272:
268:
267:abyssal plain
264:
259:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
225:
220:
218:
213:
211:
206:
205:
203:
202:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
186:Demersal zone
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
168:
167:
166:
163:
159:
154:
151:
149:
146:
145:
144:
143:
138:
133:
130:
128:
125:
124:
123:
122:
119:
118:Ocean surface
115:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
69:Littoral zone
67:
66:
65:
64:
61:
57:
54:
50:
44:
40:
39:invertebrates
37:foraging for
36:
32:
19:
4288:Oceanography
4222:Water column
4170:Oceanography
4145:Observations
4140:Explorations
4110:Marginal sea
4103:
4061:OSTM/Jason-2
3893:Volcanic arc
3868:Slab suction
3772:
3585:Head of tide
3475:Loop Current
3415:Ekman spiral
3201:Stokes drift
3111:Gravity wave
3086:Cnoidal wave
2917:
2894:
2877:
2870:
2859:. Retrieved
2850:
2841:
2833:
2828:
2816:. Retrieved
2807:
2798:
2787:. Retrieved
2778:
2769:
2758:. Retrieved
2749:
2740:
2729:. Retrieved
2721:the Guardian
2720:
2711:
2700:. Retrieved
2692:the Guardian
2691:
2682:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2627:. Retrieved
2618:
2608:
2599:10261/216646
2579:
2575:
2565:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2509:the original
2496:
2480:SPC (2013).
2462:. Retrieved
2448:
2437:. Retrieved
2423:
2409:
2398:. Retrieved
2394:
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2204:Chase, Zanna
2197:
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2134:. Retrieved
2129:
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2100:
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2081:. Retrieved
2076:
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2021:
2014:
1985:
1982:Oceanography
1981:
1971:
1960:. Retrieved
1949:
1940:
1930:Lauterbornia
1929:
1925:
1920:
1909:. Retrieved
1905:the original
1895:
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1592:
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1570:. Retrieved
1565:
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1537:
1531:
1392:
1389:
1349:
1334:
1326:Cook Islands
1315:
1296:
1262:
1241:Exploitation
1227:microplastic
1224:
1207:scuba divers
1200:
1198:
1159:Human impact
1114:
1103:
1095:sea currents
1083:
1060:
1056:pelagic zone
1042:10 km.
1025:
970:
957:
953:
949:
948:
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907:
892:, coined by
889:
884:detritivores
865:
857:water column
854:
830:benthic zone
802:
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792:
783:
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716:
694:
687:
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626:
622:
613:
521:oceanography
517:paleontology
508:
507:
494:abyssal zone
483:
473:
454:
426:
350:
337:tidal energy
333:volcanic ash
322:
295:
260:
252:ocean bottom
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
233:
191:Benthic zone
161:
153:Oceanic zone
148:Pelagic zone
109:Neritic zone
94:Kelp forests
4212:Thermocline
3929:Mesopelagic
3902:Ocean zones
3873:Slab window
3738:Hydrography
3678:Abyssal fan
3645:Tidal range
3635:Tidal power
3630:Tidal force
3515:Rip current
3450:Gulf Stream
3410:Ekman layer
3400:Downwelling
3375:Baroclinity
3362:Circulation
3258:Wave height
3248:Wave action
3231:megatsunami
3211:Stokes wave
3171:Rossby wave
3136:Kelvin wave
3116:Green's law
2818:6 September
2556:1874/358248
2533:: 134–137.
2162:30 November
1958:. NOAA/NGDC
1932:31: 17-30,
1377:containing
1164:Exploration
1153:marine life
1145:Brine pools
1133:vertebrates
1032:metric tons
989:coral reefs
910:is used in
838:tidal pools
653:Cosmogenous
643:Hydrogenous
627:lithogenous
623:Terrigenous
486:marine life
406:(red), the
302:terrigenous
248:ocean floor
99:Coral reefs
4282:Categories
4150:Reanalysis
4049:Satellites
4030:Sofar bomb
3878:Subduction
3853:Ridge push
3748:Ocean bank
3728:Contourite
3655:Tide gauge
3640:Tidal race
3625:Tidal bore
3615:Slack tide
3580:Earth tide
3500:Ocean gyre
3320:Wind setup
3315:Wind fetch
3278:Wave setup
3273:Wave radar
3268:Wave power
3166:Rogue wave
3096:Dispersion
2861:2021-09-06
2789:2021-09-06
2760:2021-09-06
2731:2021-09-06
2702:2021-04-02
2464:2021-09-06
2439:2022-07-06
2400:2024-02-14
2278:(1): 148.
2187:9 November
2136:13 October
2083:13 October
2054:13 October
1962:2007-04-21
1911:2008-08-16
1598:13 October
1572:13 October
1523:References
1356:Greenpeace
1149:cold seeps
1093:activity,
981:shorelines
962:topography
933:Bathymetry
931:See also:
927:Topography
880:scavengers
876:food chain
861:atmosphere
840:along the
787:(from
610:in meters.
498:hadal zone
396:Bathymetry
384:See also:
181:Cold seeps
140:Open ocean
4012:Acoustics
3964:Sea level
3863:Slab pull
3800:tectonics
3708:Cold seep
3670:Landforms
3547:Whirlpool
3542:Upwelling
3325:Wind wave
3253:Wave base
3181:Sea state
3101:Edge wave
3091:Cross sea
2928:(print);
2905:(print);
2674:128645876
2310:2662-4435
2253:CC BY 4.0
2242:222125532
2234:2296-7745
2049:210979539
2005:1912/3862
1005:volcanoes
997:seamounts
977:estuaries
888:The term
842:foreshore
814:organisms
810:community
779:tide pool
633:Biogenous
592:Sediments
525:petrology
380:Structure
244:sea floor
171:Seamounts
162:Sea floor
79:Estuaries
4245:Category
4197:Seawater
3924:Littoral
3919:Deep sea
3778:Seamount
3660:Tideline
3605:Rip tide
3535:shutdown
3505:Overflow
3238:Undertow
3081:Clapotis
2855:Archived
2836:, p. 206
2812:Archived
2810:. 2015.
2783:Archived
2754:Archived
2725:Archived
2696:Archived
2666:17510349
2623:Archived
2485:Archived
2458:Archived
2433:Archived
2376:Mongabay
2182:phys.org
1794:: 37–45.
1401:See also
1379:ilmenite
1268:deep sea
1231:seafloor
1141:bacteria
1123:. Large
1117:deep sea
1075:trenches
1046:Features
1030:10
993:deep sea
868:absorbed
773:and two
738:Sediment
698:Plankton
682:silicate
649:systems.
450:sediment
353:dredging
318:boulders
240:seafloor
4255:Commons
4125:Mooring
4075:Related
4066:Jason-3
4056:Jason-1
3939:Pelagic
3934:Oceanic
3909:Benthic
3226:Tsunami
3196:Soliton
2975:podcast
2936:(eBook)
2913:(eBook)
2750:Reuters
2646:Science
2582:: 384.
2535:Bibcode
2356:31 July
2280:Bibcode
1886:at the
1817:Benthos
1666:11 June
1119:around
1073:, deep
908:Benthos
894:Haeckel
890:benthos
836:, from
803:bénthos
785:Benthos
775:chitons
771:Seaweed
760:Benthos
753:Benthos
678:diatoms
533:acronym
531:). The
492:is the
475:Hotspot
329:erosion
291:benthos
287:habitat
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3688:Atoll
3567:Tides
3330:model
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3048:Waves
2951:Cosee
2670:S2CID
2629:2 May
2512:(PDF)
2505:(PDF)
2238:S2CID
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900:noun
898:Greek
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818:river
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310:silts
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279:shelf
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2930:ISBN
2922:ISBN
2907:ISBN
2899:ISBN
2820:2021
2662:PMID
2631:2020
2358:2024
2306:ISSN
2230:ISSN
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