Devshirme - Knowledge (XXG)

374:, and relocate them to Istanbul, where they were converted, circumcised, assimilated and trained to serve into the Janissary infantry corps or palace duties. Devshirme were rarely sold, though some could end up as slaves in private households. The fact that they were taken forcibly from their parents made the devshirme system resented by locals. However, revolts were rare, with the exception of a revolt against the devshirme in Albania in 1565. Ordered to cut all ties with their families some managed to use their positions to help their family. There is some evidence that urban Christian and Muslim parents resorted to bribery or sending their children to the country to assure the advancement in life that devshirme recruitment could bring. The boys were forced to convert to Islam. Muslims were not allowed into the system (with some exceptions), but some Muslim families smuggled their sons in anyway. According to Speros Vyronis, "The Ottomans took advantage of the general Christian fear of losing their children and used offers of devshirme exemption in negotiations for surrender of Christian lands. Such exemptions were included in the surrender terms granted to Jannina, Galata, Morea, Chios, etc. Christians who engaged in specialized activities important to the Ottoman state were exempted from the blood tax on their children by way of recognition of the importance of their labors for the empire. Exemption from this tribute was considered a privilege and not a penalty." 35: 245: 503:, who became the first grand vizier to be executed, there was a rise of slave administrators devshirme. They were much easier to control for the sultans, as compared to free administrators of Turkish noble origin. They were also less subject to influence from court factions. From the very beginning, the Turcoman were a danger that undermined the Sultan's creation of a strong state. Thus, the establishment of this class counterbalanced the Turkish nobility, who sometimes opposed the Sultan. 742:

times every day.” As “for any little offense, they beat them cruelly with sticks, rarely hitting them less than a hundred times, and often as much as a thousand. After punishments the boys have to come to them and kiss their clothing and thank them for the cudgelings they have received. You can see, then, that moral degradation and humiliation are part of the training system,” writes 16th century Italian diplomat

1193:, who then imposed a loyalty oath on them. In 1638 or 1648, the devshirme-based recruiting system of the janissary corps formally came to an end. In an order sent in multiple copies to authorities throughout the European provinces in 1666, a devshirme recruitment target of between 300 and 320 was set for an area covering the whole of the central and western 877:. They were mainly collected from Christian subjects, with a few exceptions. However, some Muslim families managed to smuggle their sons in anyway. The devshirme levy was not applied to the major cities of the empire, and children of local craftsmen in rural towns were also exempt, as it was considered that conscripting them would harm the economy. 971: 857:, admitted that devshirme violated sharia but was allowed only out of necessity. Others argued the Muslim conqueror had the right to one fifth of war booty and could thus take the Christian boys; however, Islamic law allows no such booty from communities that had submitted peacefully to conquest and certainly not from their descendants. 773:

environment and their transportation into the Turkish-Islamic environment with the aim of employing them in the service of the Palace, the army, and the state, whereby they were on the one hand to serve the Sultan as slaves and freedmen and on the other to form the ruling class of the State." Accordingly, Papoulia agrees with

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What grief these Christians experience on account of their children who are separated from them while alive, and how many mothers say, “It would have been better to see them dead and buried in our church, rather than to have them taken alive in order to become Turks and abjure our faith. Better that you had died!”

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returned after hearing of their parents torture). Such was the case of an Athenian boy who returned from hiding to save his father's life but chose to die himself rather than abandon his faith and convert to Islam. A firman in 1601 gave strict orders to Ottoman officials to kill any parent that resisted:

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cavalry forces, which itself was a result of changes in early modern warfare such as the introduction of firearms and increased importance of infantry. Indeed, the janissary corps would soon become the empire's largest single military corps. As a result, by the late 16th century, the devshirme system

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We, who do dwell in Turkey ... inform your lordship that we are heavily vexed by the Turk, and that they take away our children and make Muslims of them ... For this reason we beseech your lordship to take council that the most holy pope might send his ships to take us and our wives and children away

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visited Constantinople in 1491 and met many janissaries who not only remembered their former religion and their native land but also favored their former coreligionists. The renegade Hersek, the sultan's relative by marriage, told him that he regretted having left the religion of his fathers and that

543:

The recruitment of children took place every three to four years and at times even annually, according to the needs of the Sultan. The largest loss of children coincided with the peak of Ottoman expansion in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries under the rule of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent.

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argues that the devshirme were not slaves once converted to Islam. The boys were given a formal education, and trained in science, warfare and bureaucratic administration, and became advisers to the sultan, elite infantry, generals in the army, admirals in the navy, and bureaucrats working on finance

785:

states, "The most striking manifestation of this fact is the unprecedented system of devshirme, i.e. the periodic conscription of 'tribute boys', by which the children of Christians were wrung from their families, churches, and communities to be molded into Ottoman praetorians owing their allegiance

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The children were subjected to a draconian training system: “They make them drudge day and night, and they give them no bed to sleep on and very little food.” They were allowed to “speak to each other only when it is urgently necessary” and were made to “pray together without fail at four prescribed

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You understand, then, my lords and Christian gentlemen, what sorrow the Greeks bear, the fathers and the mothers who are separated from their children at the prime of life. Think ye of the heartrending sorrow! How many mothers scratch out their cheeks! How many fathers beat their breast with stones!

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On the other hand, since the devshirme could reach powerful positions, some Muslim families tried to have the recruiters take their sons so that they could achieve professional advancement. Sometimes people of both religion, or family in great needs, attempted to bribe scouts to take their children.

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took eight Christian youths into his service, they made a pact to assassinate him by night, saying “If we kill this Turkish dog, then all of Christendom will be freed ; but if we are caught, then we will become martyrs before God with the others.” When their plot was exposed, and Murad inquired what

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In his memoir, Konstantin Mihailović (1430–1501), a Serbian who was abducted in his youth and marched away by the Turks, saw nothing “prestigious” or “lucrative” about becoming a janissary. “We always thought about killing the Turks and running away by ourselves among the mountains,” he writes, “but

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Illustration of an Ottoman official and his assistant registering Christian boys for the devshirme. The official takes a tax to cover the price of the boys' new red clothes and the cost of transport from their home, while the assistant records their village, district and province, parentage, date of

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Papadopoulos I. Stefanos, "Account of paedomazoma in Thessaloniki during the first occupation of the city by the Turks, ... ", Thessaloniki, 1992, pp. 71–77 (Παπαδόπουλος Στέφανος Ι., Μνεία παιδομαζώματος στη Θεσσαλονίκη κατά την πρώτη κατοχή της πόλης από τους Τούρκους, Χριστιανική Θεσσαλονίκη ...

1907:

Dikici, 'Making of Ottoman court eunuchs', makes clear that white eunuchs could be recruited among devshirme boys, with the pages and their eunuch supervisors coming from the same background. They were sometimes castrated in the palace, whereas the harem's black eunuchs were more often castrated in

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According to Cleveland, the devshirme system offered "limitless opportunities to the young men who became a part of it." Basilike Papoulia wrote that "the devishirme was the 'forcible removal', in the form of a tribute, of children of the Christian subjects from their ethnic, religious and cultural

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Nicolas Brenner. Serai Enderun; das ist inwendige beschaffenheit der türkischen Kayserl, residentz, zu Constantinopoli die newe burgk genannt sampt der ordnung und gebrauschen so von Alberto Bobivio Leopolitano. J. J. Kürner. 1667. Search under Bobovio, Bobovius or Ali Ulvi for other translations.

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They gather together and one tells another of his native land and of what he heard in church or learned in school there, and they agree among themselves that Muhammad is no prophet and that the Turkish religion is false. If there is one among them who has some little book or can teach them in some

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Any parent who refused to have their child taken as a slave was put to death, and children who attempted to resist being taken from their families as janissaries by fleeing would lead to the Turks arresting and then torturing their parents to death (Many children who attempted to flee on their own

480:

At first, the soldiers serving in these corps were selected from the slaves captured during war. However, a new system commonly known as devshirme was soon adopted. In this system, children of the rural Christian populations of the Balkans were conscripted before adolescence and were brought up as

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The diversity of the devshirme also served as a unifying factor for the Ottoman Empire. Greeks, Armenians, Albanians, and other ethnicities would see that the Sultan was Turkish, but his viziers were Albanian, Bulgarian, Greek and other ethnicities. The ethnic diversity in high-level and powerful

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in Anatolia who had two boys and begged God every day to take them away because she would soon be forced to give up one of them. The distress expressed here was motivated not only by religious considerations, but also by the low opinion the Byzantines held for Turks (whom they called barbarians).

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were sometimes recruited from among the devshirme. Unlike the black eunuchs, who were usually castrated in their place of origin, the devshirme were castrated at the palace. The palace eunuchs who supervised them often came from the same background as the devshirme (the Balkans). A considerable

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Christian parents undeniably resented the forced recruitment of their children, as a result they would beg and often seek to buy their children out of the levy. The Balkan peasantry tried to evade the tribute collectors, with many attempting to substitute their children in Bosnia. Many sources

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From the very beginning, the relationship between the ruler and his Turcoman allies was fraught with tension which undermined all attempts by the sultan to create a strong state. With the conquest of the Balkans, the sultan found that he could lessen his dependence on his Turcoman notables by

768:

notes the following regarding the devshirme system: "Although members of the devshirme class were technically slaves, they were of great importance to the Sultan because they owed him their absolute loyalty and became vital to his power. This status enabled some of the 'slaves' to become both

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looked more like a religious order than a military corps. The members of the organization were not banned from marriage, as Tavernier further noted, but it was very uncommon for them. He went on to write that their numbers had increased to a hundred thousand but only due to a degeneration of

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and sold into the palace in the 17th century, reported that both Armenians and Jews were exempt from the devshirme levy. He wrote that the reason for the exemption of Armenians was religious in that Armenian Gregorian Church was considered the closest to Christ's (and therefore Muhammed's)

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To enforce the command of the known and holy fetva of Seyhul -Islam. In accordance with this whenever some one of the infidel parents or some other should oppose the giving up of his son for the Janissaries, he is immediately hanged from his door-sill, his blood being deemed

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were able to get around that injunction with an extraordinarily-creative legal manoeuvre by arguing that although Islamic tradition forbade the enslavement of Christians, Balkan Christians were different because they had converted to Christianity after the advent of Islam.

829:, the law enacted by the Sultan, superseded sharia even though the latter was treated with respect. The devshirme was just one example in which the Sultan's wishes superseded the sharia (another example is that Ottoman sultans set maximum interest rates even though sharia 711:

to Islam, examined and made to serve the empire. The system produced infantry corps soldiers as well as civilian administrators and high-ranked military officials." Their village, district and province, parentage, date of birth, and physical appearance was recorded.

2993:"Polis und Nationalstaat. Eine vergleichende Überbauanalyse im Anschluß an Aristoteles (= Sammlung Luchterhand, Band 93). Mit Widmung des Autors an den Philosophen Prof. Michael Theunissen von Tomberg, Friedrich: (1973) | Graphem. Kunst- und Buchantiquariat" 912:. Since Muslim Bosnians were the only Muslim ethnic group allowed to be recruited, an armed guard was required to lead the Bosnians on their way to Istanbul to avoid any Turkish boys from being smuggled into their ranks. The early Ottoman emphasis on recruiting 516:, made on 28 February 1395, titled: "On the abduction of children according to sultan's order and on the Future Judgment". The speech includes references to the violent Islamization of children and their hard training in the use of dogs and falcons. 1456:

More classifications, such as the artillery and cannon corps, miners and moat diggers and even a separate cannon-wagon corps were introduced later on, but the number of people in these groups were relatively small, and they incorporated Christian

757:

regulations, with many of them in fact being "fake" janissaries, posing as such for tax exemptions and other social privileges. He noted that the actual number of janissaries was in fact much lower. Shaw writes that their number was 30,000 under

724:), the Ottoman ruling class slowly came to be ruled exclusively by the devshirme, creating a separate social class. This class of rulers was chosen from the brightest of devshirme and handpicked to serve in the palace institution, known as the 1466:

Shaw states that the reason for the exemption may have been the recognition of both people as a separate nation (none of the Balkan ethnic groups were recognized as such) or that both Jews and Armenians lived mostly in the major cities

962:

positions of the Ottoman Empire helped to unite the diverse groups under its jurisdiction. They also prevented a hereditary aristocracy from forming but held sway over the Sultan themselves and practically formed their own aristocracy.

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in the year 1581, addressed to the Pope reads: "Holiest father, if you could convince him and save us and the children of Greece, that are taken every day and are turned into Turks, if you could only do this, God may bless you. Amen”.

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Muslims. Upon reaching adolescence, these children were enrolled in one of the four imperial institutions: the palace, the scribes, the Muslim clergy, and the military. Those enrolled in the military would become either part of the

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our youth did not permit us to do that.” Once when he and a group of other boys broke free and escaped, “the whole region pursued us, and having caught and bound us, they beat us and tortured us and dragged us behind horses.”

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According to the historian Cemal Kafadar, one of the main reasons for the decline of the devshirme system was that the size of the janissary corps had to be expanded to compensate for the decline in the importance of the

318:

from the 1400s to the 1600s. This was the second most powerful position in the Ottoman Empire, after the sultan. Initially, the grand viziers were exclusively of Turk origin, but after there were troubles between Sultan

1212:'s regime to reduce the numbers of the askeri class, who were the first class citizens or military class (also called janissaries). Selim was taken prisoner and murdered by the janissaries. The successor to the sultan, 414:

and the system of recruiting Christians effectively stopped by 1648. An attempt to re-institute it in 1703 was resisted by its Ottoman members, who coveted the military and civilian posts. Finally, in the early days of

409:

The practice began to die out as Ottoman soldiers preferred recruiting their own sons into the army, rather than sons from Christian families. In 1594, Muslims were officially allowed to take the positions held by the

1045:. Scouts were recruiting youngsters according to their talent and ability with school subjects, in addition to their personality, character and physical perfection. The Enderûn candidates were not supposed to be 1415:

This levy exacted by early Ottoman governments on Balkan Christians remains a sore spot in Balkan historiography: While many contemporary Turks prefer to look at the process of recruitment as purely voluntary

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caused them to “dare attempt this,” they responded, “None other than our great sorrow for our fathers and dear friends.” He had the children slowly tortured over the course of a year before beheading them.

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Taskin, U. (2008). Klasik donem Osmanli egitim kurumlari – Ottoman educational foundations in classical terms. Uluslararasi Sosyal Arastirmalar Dergisi – The Journal of International Social Research 1,

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This effectively enslaved some of the sultan's own non-Islamic subjects and was therefore illegal under Islamic law, which stipulated that conquered non-Muslims should be demilitarized and protected.

2199:

This effectively enslaved some of the sultan's own non-Islamic subjects and was therefore illegal under Islamic law, which stipulated that conquered non-Muslims should be demilitarized and protected

1072:. The cost of the devshirme service and their clothes were paid by their villages or communities. The boys were gathered into cohorts of a hundred or more to walk to Constantinople, where they were 904:

were preferred. What is certain is that devshirme were primarily recruited from Christians living in the Balkans, particularly Serbs and Bosnians, as well as others from the Balkans region, such as

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Some scholars point out that the early Ottoman Empire did not care about the details of sharia and thus did not see any problems with devshirme. During this time, the Ottomans believed that the

1838:

The disappearance of this dynasty was symptomatic with the rise of the class of slave administrators, who were much easier for the sultan to control than free administrators of noble origin.

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Basgoz, I. & Wilson, H. E. (1989). The educational tradition of the Ottoman Empire and the development of the Turkish educational system of the republican era. Turkish Review 3(16), 15.

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Basgoz, I. & Wilson, H. E. (1989), The educational tradition of the Ottoman Empire and the development of the Turkish educational system of the republican era. Turkish Review 3(16), 15.

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Basgoz, I. & Wilson, H. E. (1989), The educational tradition of the Ottoman Empire and the development of the Turkish educational system of the republican era. Turkish Review 3(16), 15

576:) mention different ways to avoid the devshirme such as: marrying the boys at the age of 12, mutilating them or have both father and son convert to Islam. Conversion to Islam was used in 3529:«Դեվշիրմեն» (մանկահավաքը) օսմանյան կայսրության մեջ ըստ թուրքական և հայկական աղբյուրների [The "Devshirme" (Child-Gathering) in the Ottoman Empire According to Turkish and Armenian Sources 495:, the Sultan's powerful chief minister and military deputy. In the beginning of the Ottoman Empire, this office was held only by Turks. However, after there were problems between sultan 5694: 477:(transliterated in English as janissary), meaning "the New Corps". The devshirme were set apart from the janissary in that they were not a calvalry group, rather exclusively infantry. 217: 716:

wrote in 1686 that diseases were common among the devshirme and that strict discipline was enforced. Although the influence of Turkic nobility continued in the Ottoman court until

938:

from the 15th to the 17th centuries and foreign travelers of the time concluded that Armenians were not exempt. Boys who were orphans or were their family's only son were exempt.

4168: 728:. They had to accompany the Sultan on campaigns, but exceptional service would be rewarded by assignments outside the palace. Those chosen for the scribe institution, known as 540:

in 1646 writes to the director of the Catholic Greek Gymnasion of Rome asking the latter to accept Paulos Omeros, a 12-year-old boy from Chios, to save him from the devshirme.

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The outsides would owe their position, and their continuance on it, solely to the Sultan, and so be more reliably loyal than Turks subject to influence from court factions.

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Van Duinkerken, W. (1998). Educational reform in the tanzimat era (1839–1876): Secular reforms in tanzimat (Unpublished masters thesis, McGiIl University). Retrieved from

4612: 3980: 746:. They were “degraded to the level of animals” and showed a “dog-like devotion to the sultan”, writes Vasiliki Papouli. Many possibly suffered from Stockholm Syndrome. 1220:, which caused a revolt among the janissaries. The authorities kept the janissaries in their barracks and slaughtered thousands of them. That development entered the 4006: 666:

The Tübingen manuscript written by Andre Argyros and John Tholoites and given to Martin Crusius in 1585 shows what the Christian parents thought of the Janissaries:

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Monumenta spectantia ad unionem Ecclesiarum Graecae et Romanae, majorem partem e sanctioribus Vaticani tabulariis, edita ab Augustino Theiner et Francisco Miklosich

1501: 597:

Sources show that it was not rare for the older youth to attempt to preserve their faith and some recollection of their homeland and their families. For instance,

1169: 790:, founder of the Janissaries: "The conquered are slaves of the conquerors, to whom their goods, their women, and their children belong as lawful possession". 580:

to escape the system. In Albania and Epirus the practice led to a Christian revolt where the inhabitants killed the recruiting officials in the year 1565. In

4854: 4195: 4642: 307:(poor) classes. It is first mentioned in written records in 1438, but probably started earlier. It created a faction of soldiers and officials loyal to the 4941: 3392: 761:. By the 1650s, the number of janissaries had increased to 50,000, but by this time, the devshirme had largely been abandoned as a method of recruitment. 335:

administrators of Turkish aristocratic extraction. The devshirme also produced many of the Ottoman Empire's provincial governors, military commanders, and

4205: 2857:"Anemi - Digital Library of Modern Greek Studies - Tagebuch der vonzween Glorwurdigsten Romischen Kaysern Maximiliano und Rudolpho ... / Stephan Gerlachs" 4747: 1076:

and divided between the palace schools and the military training. Anyone not chosen for the palace spent years being toughened by hard labor on farms in

1986:...and point out that many Christian families were hostile and resentful about it—which is perhaps underlined by the use of force to impose the system. 924:

was a direct consequence of being centred on territories, in northwestern Anatolia and the southern Balkans, where those ethnic groups were prevalent.

5549: 5463: 5045: 4542: 4215: 2992: 1027: 787: 151: 131: 2332:

Zoras Th. Georgios, "Some accounts on Paedomazoma", Parnassos, vol. 4, 2 (1962), pp. 217 – (Ζώρας Θ. Γεώργιος, "Μαρτυρίαι τινές περί το Παιδομάζωμα"

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has there meanings in Turkic: 'slave', 'servant' and 'male son'; thus, in this context, they were treated as and called 'servants' through the word

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system of slavery that developed in the early centuries of the Ottoman Empire, and which reached this final development during the reign of Sultan

5689: 5684: 5530: 5384: 4351: 4190: 556:, Christian children were taken by Ottoman officials, every four to seven years, their age ranging from 7 to 20. Those younger than 8 were called 3763:

Inventory of Ottoman Turkish documents about Waqf preserved in the Oriental Department at the St. Cyril and Methodius National Library: Registers

2334: 5709: 5704: 5594: 5389: 5094: 4886: 4874: 4791: 4473: 4346: 4210: 3889:

Hubbard, Glenn and Tim Kane. (2013). Balance: The Economics of Great Powers From Ancient Rome to Modern America. Simon & Schuster. p. 153.

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Hubbard, Glenn and Tim Kane. (2013). Balance: The Economics of Great Powers From Ancient Rome to Modern America. Simon & Schuster. p. 152.

2359:, 1453–1669, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1976, p. 41; Vasiliki Papoulia, The Impact of Devshirme on Greek Society, in 1703:

Lowry shows that not only Christian peasants but large numbers of the Byzantine-Balkan aristocracy were recruited into the Ottoman ruling elite

500: 324: 51: 5584: 5005: 4299: 3963: 3894: 3808: 3744: 3581: 3463: 3365: 3332: 3214: 2760: 2726: 2671: 2641: 2536: 2509: 2482: 2439: 2412: 2382: 2273: 2243: 2192: 2036: 2009: 1963: 1931: 1900: 1861: 1831: 1748: 1696: 1638: 1611: 1543: 1049:

or the only child in their family to ensure that the candidates had strong family values. They also had to not have already learned to speak

2895:

French version exists, and fragments exist in C.G. and A.W. Fisher's "Topkapi Sarayi in the Mid-17th Century: Bobovi's Description" in 1985.

568:(child). One for every forty households was chosen, they had to be unmarried and once taken were ordered to cut all ties with their family. 4483: 4458: 4427: 4102: 3910: 3248: 743: 5554: 3498:

The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century

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had become increasingly abandoned for less rigid recruitment methods, which allowed Muslims to enter directly into the janissary corps.

461:(The Hearth of the Porte Servants). They were divided into two main groups: cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was commonly known as the 5440: 5139: 5099: 5073: 5027: 4768: 4515: 4163: 1124:

number of eunuchs of devshirme origin went on to hold important positions in the government and the military, and many of them became

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Kouymjian, Dickran (1997). "Armenia from the Fall of the Cilician Kingdom (1375) to the Forced Migration under Shah Abbas (1604)" in

5263: 4397: 4314: 4304: 4148: 3942: 3829: 3771: 3509: 3068: 2976: 2914: 2793: 2699: 1198: 4805: 1201:

in 1687, only 130 janissary inductees were graduated to the janissary ranks. The system was finally abolished in the early part of

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process. They would later attend schools across Anatolia to complete their training for six to seven years to qualify as ordinary

34: 5535: 5475: 5268: 4737: 774: 721: 455:

as his personal troops, independent of the regular army." This elite force, which served the Ottoman Sultan directly, was called

347:, many eunuchs of devshirme origin went on to hold important positions in the military and the government, such as grand viziers 394:

in the Ottoman Empire. They were separated according to ability and could rise in rank based on merit. The most talented, the

5539: 5334: 5180: 5035: 5000: 4906: 4864: 4158: 3794:

Cemal Kafadar. "The Question of Ottoman Decline." Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review, vol. 4, no. 1-2, 1997–1998, pp. 52

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Ilgurel, M. (1988). Acemi Oglani. In Diyanet Islam ansiklopedisi (Vol. I, pp. 324–25). Istanbul, Turkey: Turkiye Diyanet Vakfi.

781:, that the devshirme was a penalization imposed on the Balkan peoples since their ancestors had resisted the Ottoman invasion. 537: 266: 126: 5434: 5422: 4859: 4685: 4626: 4232: 4024: 3687: 3677:

Ipsirli, M. (1995). Enderûn. In Diyanet Islam ansiklopedisi (Vol. XI, pp. 185–187). Istanbul, Turkey: Turkiye Diyanet Vakfi.

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It is said that: "Even those personally chosen by the Sultan found nothing admirable about their lot." After Ottoman Sultan

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Back from Barbary : captivity, redemption and French identity in the seventeenth-and eighteenth-century Mediterranean

1237: 1216:, was patient but remembered the results of the uprising in 1807. In 1826, he created the basis of a new modern army, the 638:, a traditional folk song expressed this resentment by cursing the Sultan and admonishing against the kidnapping of boys: 527: 430: 71: 43: 4696: 3030:Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". 1509: 934:

are also believed to have been exempt from the levy by many scholars, although a 1997 publication that examined Armenian

5724: 5579: 5452: 4478: 4227: 445:

were mostly prisoners from war, hostages or slaves that were purchased by the state. The Ottoman Empire, beginning with

2341:(in Greek). On the Axayioli poem, pp 217–221. On the letter of bishop of Chios, pp 221–223. Original letter in Italian. 1666:

Politically, it meant that the devshirme class, composed primarily of descendants of the Balkan noble and rayah classes

584:, after killing the recruiting officials the parents fled to the mountains but were later caught and executed in 1705. 5379: 5374: 5227: 5104: 5068: 5050: 5017: 4988: 4503: 1678: 94: 3206:

Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia

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Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia

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Nasuh, Matrakci (1588). "Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans". Süleymanname, Topkapi Sarai Museum, Ms Hazine 1517

884:, the janissaries were mainly recruited from the Slavic and Albanian populations of the Balkans. According to the 5719: 5458: 5344: 5299: 4153: 3234: 1393: 1061:

mentioned that a youth with a bodily defect, no matter how slight, was never admitted into palace service, since

738:, all orthodox Muslim clergy of the Ottoman Empire were educated and sent to provinces or served in the capital. 3266:

The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Volume II: The Words and Will of God

491:), where they were destined for a career within the palace itself and could attain the highest office of state, 449:, felt a need to "counteract the power of (Turkic) nobles by developing Christian vassal soldiers and converted 5544: 5507: 5480: 5469: 5253: 4911: 4670: 4659: 4141: 3532: 1322: 1050: 806:

writes that since the boys were "effectively enslaved" under the devshirme system, this was a violation of the

758: 698:

In 1456 Greeks living on the western coast of Anatolia appealed to the Knights Hospitalers of Rhodes for help.

257: 818:. The practice of devshirme also involved forced conversions to Islam. This is disputed by Turkish historian 5652: 5237: 5146: 4652: 4495: 3005: 1350: 1293: 1165: 1149: 749: 513: 99: 5642: 5349: 5284: 4966: 4720: 4321: 4107: 4083: 3547: 1157: 889: 577: 344: 4812: 1429:

has meaning of more a 'paid servant' rather than a slave, as word's meaning shifted over years. The word

1153: 402:) were trained for the highest positions in the empire. Others joined the military, including the famed 5339: 5258: 5217: 5207: 4727: 4442: 4237: 3633: 3200: 1073: 935: 853:

Contemporary Ottoman chroniclers had mixed opinions on the practice. An Ottoman historian of the 1500s,

204: 3718: 1569: 1145: 707:

The children were taken from their families and transported to Istanbul. Upon their arrival, they were

4822: 1041:

Those entrusted to find those children were scouts, who were specially-trained agents, throughout the

5486: 5401: 5359: 5354: 4951: 4936: 4680: 4437: 2163:

Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection

1161: 1137: 950: 356: 4112: 892:, in the early days of the empire, all Christians were enrolled indiscriminately. Later, those from 5304: 5294: 5289: 5173: 4675: 4078: 3501: 2856: 1364: 1225: 870: 686:

In desperation the parents would appeal to the Pope and western powers for help. A petition of the

371: 278: 2331: 819: 390: 5679: 5212: 4983: 4242: 4119: 4095: 3047: 2838: 2830: 2657: 2599:"Istoria tou neou ellenismou: Tourkokratia 1453-1669. Oi agones gia ten piste kai ten eleytheria" 2472: 1384: 815: 141: 4508: 1769:

Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence

1133: 1129: 661:

Anonymous song protesting the collecting of young boys to be made slaves of the Ottoman Empire,

606:

other manner something of God's world, they hear him as diligently as if he were their preacher.

352: 348: 3736:

The Holy Wars of King Wladislas and Sultan Murad: The Ottoman-Christian Conflict from 1438–1444

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The selected children were dressed in red so that they could not easily escape on their way to

5637: 5446: 5364: 5222: 5114: 4956: 4309: 3959: 3938: 3890: 3825: 3804: 3767: 3740: 3577: 3505: 3459: 3361: 3328: 3244: 3210: 3204: 3064: 2972: 2910: 2789: 2756: 2722: 2716: 2695: 2667: 2661: 2637: 2532: 2505: 2478: 2435: 2408: 2378: 2269: 2239: 2188: 2180: 2032: 2005: 1959: 1927: 1896: 1857: 1827: 1744: 1692: 1634: 1607: 1539: 1342: 1313: 1141: 1088: 1014:

palace schools, Enderûn was unique with respect to the background of the student body and its

1003: 979: 854: 782: 713: 708: 3734: 3665:

Miller, B. (1973). The palace school of Muhammad the Conqueror (Reprint ed.). NY: Arno Press.

2750: 2429: 1953: 5599: 5319: 4973: 4732: 4530: 4336: 4063: 3922: 3548:"Klasik donem Osmanli egitim kurumlari – Ottoman educational foundations in classical terms" 3039: 2822: 1104: 679: 119: 3386: 1999: 1558:

Ingvar Svanberg and David Westerlund, Islam Outside the Arab World, Routledge, 1999, p. 140

485:

corps (1363), or part of another corps. The most promising were sent to the palace school (

339:

during the 1400s–1600s period. Sometimes, the devshirme recruits were castrated and became

327:, who was the first grand vizier to be executed, there was a rise of slave administrators ( 5574: 5329: 4978: 4832: 4773: 4535: 4294: 4010: 3640: 3524: 3478:

Andrina Stiles, 'The Ottoman Empire: 1450–1700' (Hodder & Stoughton, 1989), pp. 66–73.

2338: 1823: 1221: 834: 675: 598: 581: 367: 109: 5615: 5559: 5166: 5060: 5040: 4993: 4047: 3730: 3350: 1477: 1069: 999: 995: 866: 611: 363: 308: 284: 136: 1799:

creating a counter-force from among the Christians in the newly conquered territories.

1057:

or trade. The ideal age of a recruit was between 10 and 20 years of age. Mehmed Refik

5673: 5569: 5564: 5396: 4961: 4901: 4715: 4598: 4386: 4373: 4341: 4331: 4326: 3927: 3381: 3061:

The Sultan's Servants: The Transformation of Ottoman Provincial Government, 1550–1650

3051: 2842: 1882: 1447:

being the actual term used to describe literal slaves (mostly domestic house slaves).

1100: 1062: 1031: 881: 803: 468: 382: 66: 4432: 3453: 5604: 4847: 4817: 4707: 4547: 4525: 4124: 4073: 3699:

Horniker, A. N. (1944). The Corps of the Janizaries. Military Affairs 8(3), 177–04.

2687: 1125: 1065:

believed that a strong soul and a good mind could be found only in a perfect body.

1007: 865:

The devshirme were collected once every four or five years from rural provinces in

573: 492: 315: 288: 189: 114: 3158:, Vol. 20, No. 1/3, 1957, V. Minorsky, (Cambridge University Press, 1957), p. 437. 3008:. Nouvelle Relation de L'ınterieur du Serrial du Grand Seigneur. 1678, Amsterdam. 651:

Their parents weep and their sisters and brothers too And I cry until it pains me;

3953: 3761: 3717:

Akarsu, F. (n.d.) "Enderun: Ustun yetenekliler icin saray okulu". Retrieved from

3322: 2966: 2870: 2783: 2631: 2613: 2598: 2581: 2553: 2526: 2499: 2402: 2263: 2233: 2121: 2026: 1921: 1886: 1851: 1817: 1682: 1655: 1628: 1601: 283:'collecting', usually translated as "child levy" or "blood tax") was the 5647: 5314: 5193: 4647: 4356: 4222: 4004:

Website on the Ottoman empire – original German version; here its Janissary page

3406:

Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden Grill, 1967–97), vol. 4, art. 'Devshirme'. p 151.

1262: 1257: 1092: 1023: 1015: 1011: 946: 921: 826: 403: 378: 3110:

Cleveland, William L. "A History of the Modern Middle East. 3rd Edition." p. 46

1982:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml#section_4

4896: 4520: 4363: 983: 942: 725: 311:. It counterbalanced the Turkish nobility, who sometimes opposed the Sultan. 166: 104: 1002:

and other palace schools of the previous civilizations, such as those of the

5512: 5309: 4664: 4591: 4574: 4368: 3396:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 151–152. 3238: 3183:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

3169:

The Government of the Ottoman empire in the time of Suleiman the Magnificent

1793: 1242: 1213: 1209: 1208:

After Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, there was a reform movement in Sultan

1202: 1081: 941:

Well-known examples of Ottomans who had been recruited as devshirme include

931: 917: 905: 786:

to the Sultan and the official faith of Islam." This system as explained by

753: 717: 687: 496: 482: 436: 427:

The devshirme (from the Turkish word meaning to collect) came up out of the

416: 320: 5158: 4247: 3142:, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1966, V.L.Menage, (Cambridge University Press, 1966), 70. 3126:, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1966, V.L.Menage, (Cambridge University Press, 1966), 64. 1018:

system. In the strict draft phase, students were taken forcefully from the

735: 691: 3043: 1722:

David Nicolle (2011). "Devshirme System". In Alexander Mikaberidze (ed.).

1087:

The brightest youths who fit into the general guidelines and had a strong

798:

According to scholars, the practice of devshirme was a clear violation of

5189: 4842: 4690: 4447: 4422: 4136: 1442: 1436: 1430: 1424: 1190: 1096: 1077: 901: 874: 822:, who argues that the devshirme were not slaves once converted to Islam. 734:, were also granted prestigious positions. At the religious institution, 729: 623: 563: 557: 486: 472: 462: 456: 450: 440: 428: 362:

Ottoman officials would take male Christian children, aged 7 to 20, from

300: 161: 17: 4837: 4827: 4607: 4581: 4262: 4257: 3327:. Makers of the Muslim World Series. Oneworld Publications. p. 4. 2834: 2810: 2583:

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he prayed at night before the cross which he kept carefully concealed.

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Perry Anderson (1979). Lineages of the Absolutist State. Verso. p. 366

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http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca:1801/webclient/StreamGate?folder_id

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http://fusunakarsu.com/articles/ENDERUN_ustun_yetenekliler_icin.html

3598: 2826: 970: 530:

to liberate the Christians from the Turks. The text is found in the

5700:

Persecution of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire before the 20th century

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Empire of difference : the Ottomans in comparative perspective

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David Nicolle (2019). "Devshirme System". In Spencer Tucker (ed.).

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school of law, which the Ottoman Empire claimed to have practiced.

3458:. Internet Archive. New York, NY : Dorset Press. p. 25. 3385: 2144:

Many scholars consider that the "child levy" violated Islamic law.

1630:

Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power

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The Legacy of Jihad: Islamic Holy War and the Fate of Non-Muslims

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The Legacy of Jihad: Islamic Holy War and the Fate of Non-Muslims

331:). They were much easier for the sultans to control, compared to 4603: 1189:

In 1632, the janissaries attempted an unsuccessful coup against

927: 838: 830: 249:

birth and physical appearance. Ottoman miniature painting, 1558.

5162: 4020: 3415:

John A. Fine – The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey pdf

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Osman's dream : the story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923

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Many scholars consider the practice of devshirme as violating

3766:. Narodna biblioteka "Sv. sv. Kiril i Metodiĭ". p. 243. 2885:

A History of the Modern Middle East Cleveland and Buntin p.42

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Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition, Norman Itzkowitz, p. 49

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Visions of Empire How Five Imperial Regimes Shaped the World

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Halil Inalcik, "Ottoman Civilisation", p. 138, Ankara 2004.

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Known as 'collection of children' or 'child-gathering' in:

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Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry

2087:, ed. Cyril Glassé, (Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 129. 2057:

Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals

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soldiers and bureaucrats from among the children of their

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2322:(11ος-15ος μ.Χ.), Θεσσαλονίκη 1992, σ. 71–77) (in Greek). 2288:

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Beshir Agha: chief eunuch of the Ottoman imperial harem

2568:"The History of Turkish-Occupied Greece (Four volumes)" 1398: 385:

writes that enslavement of Christian boys violates the

295:

Christian subjects and raising them in the religion of

3243:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 860. 3156:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

3140:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

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Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

2257: 2255: 2068: 2066: 1327: 703:

from here, for we are suffering greatly from the Turk.

655:

For last year it was my son and this year my brother.

526:

in Greek by Ioannes Axayiolis, who appeals to Emperor

2431:

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points out that the reasoning is not accepted in the

2755:. Cities through time. Runestone Press. p. 43. 1358: 807: 519:

A reference to devshirme is made in a poem composed

299:. Those coming from the Balkans came primarily from 5630: 5610:

Child abductions in the Russian invasion of Ukraine

5521: 5496: 5415: 5277: 5246: 5200: 5087: 5059: 5026: 4927: 4873: 4790: 4756: 4706: 4634: 4625: 4562: 4494: 4456: 4395: 4384: 4287: 4278: 4179: 4054: 3063:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 76. 2401:Clarence-Smith, W.G.; Clarence-Smith, W.G. (2006). 507: 419:'s reign, the practice of devshirme was abolished. 3926: 3915:Süleymanname, Topkapi Sarai Museum, Ms Hazine 1517 3790: 3788: 3786: 3349: 2174: 2172: 1506:Süleymanname, Topkapi Sarai Museum, Ms Hazine 1517 1107:. They would get the highest salaries amongst the 3301: 3299: 3297: 2630:Michałowicz, K.; Soucek, S.; Stolz, B.A. (2010). 2235:Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804 2133: 2131: 2095: 2093: 1654:Charles Jelavich; Barbara Jelavich, eds. (1963). 647:You catch and shackle the old and the archpriests 3233:Kunt, I. (2000). "The Rise of the Ottomans". In 5695:Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire 3981:"Islam and slavery: The persistence of history" 3504:(ed.) 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Although often destined for the 27:Ottoman child levy and enslavement 25: 5555:Tennessee Children's Home Society 4352:List of Ottoman sultans' consorts 4315:Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques 2474:Historical Dictionary of Bulgaria 2434:. John Murray Press. p. 26. 1603:The Modern Middle East: A History 536:of 1624. In another account, the 5536:American Indian boarding schools 5476:Islamic adoptional jurisprudence 4347:List of Ottoman sultans' mothers 3306:William Gervase Clarence-Smith. 2721:. Greenwood Press. p. 197. 2694:. London: Papermac. p. 46. 1819:The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire 775:Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb 501:Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger 325:Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger 33: 5715:Education in the Ottoman Empire 5540:American Indian outing programs 5335:Cultural variations in adoption 4428:Defterdars/Ministers of Finance 3455:Everyday life in Ottoman Turkey 2749:Bator, R.; Rothero, C. (2000). 2377:. Timaş Yayınları. p. 71. 930:were exempt from this service. 5690:Slaves from the Ottoman Empire 5685:Military of the Ottoman Empire 5435:Adoption and Safe Families Act 5423:Access to Adoption Records Act 4169:Persecution of Ottoman Muslims 3605:. American Military University 3576:. Cambridge University Press. 2232:Peter F. Sugar (1 July 2012). 2179:David Nicolle (22 July 2011). 1726:. Vol. 1. pp. 273–4. 1662:University of California Press 1218:Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye 844:William Gervase Clarence-Smith 653:As long as I live I shall cry, 554:William Gervase Clarence-Smith 538:Roman Catholic bishop of Chios 1: 5710:Society of the Ottoman Empire 5705:Culture of the Ottoman Empire 5325:Political abuse of psychiatry 2614:"Istoria tou neou ellenismou" 2085:The New Encyclopedia of Islam 2001:Kosovo : a short history 1197:. On the accession of sultan 978:The primary objective of the 777:and Harold Bowen, authors of 520: 323:and the Turkish grand vizier 44:History of the Ottoman Empire 5580:Forced adoption in Australia 5524:in adoption or child custody 5453:Foster Care Independence Act 3643:=0&dvs=1248070802480~852 3536:5-6/2-3 (1959): pp. 247–256. 2477:. Rowman & Littlefield. 1816:Aksin Somel, Selcuk (2010). 1538:. Basic Books. p. 325. 1443: 1437: 1431: 1425: 1308: 1109:administrators of the empire 1091:were then given to selected 779:Islamic Society and the West 730: 564: 558: 512:) is a speech by Archbishop 487: 473: 463: 457: 451: 441: 429: 272: 4613:Vassal and tributary states 2586:. apud J. Tornaesium. 1558. 2407:. Oxford University Press. 2187:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 273–. 1952:Clarence-Smith, W. 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(2008). 1998:Malcolm, Noel (1998). 1354: 1346: 1205:'s reign (1703–1730). 1022:and were converted to 975: 890:Encyclopaedia of Islam 837:explains that Ottoman 705: 673: 664: 608: 595: 578:Bosnia and Herzegovina 532: 250: 4728:Dragoman of the Fleet 4443:Dragoman of the Porte 4233:Armenian Constitution 4120:Stagnation and reform 3880:Kinross, pp. 456–457. 3739:. BRILL. p. 13. 3639:28 March 2012 at the 3321:Hathaway, J. (2005). 3167:Lybyer, Albert Howe, 3044:10.1353/jwh.2014.0005 2498:Bostom, A.G. (2010). 2055:Douglas E Stresusnd. 1958:. Hurst. p. 49. 1923:The History of Serbia 1012:contemporary European 986:positions, either as 973: 247: 58:Court and aristocracy 5735:Anti-intellectualism 5730:European slave trade 5653:St. John's Orphanage 5487:Uniform Adoption Act 5402:Sealed birth records 5360:Language of adoption 5355:Interracial adoption 4448:Outer Palace Service 4364:Inner Palace Service 2504:. Prometheus Books. 2355:A. E. Vacalopoulos. 1920:John K. Cox (2002). 1576:. University of Utah 1170:Hadım Suleiman Pasha 1166:Hadım Suleiman Pasha 1150:Sofu Hadım Ali Pasha 951:Sokollu Mehmed Pasha 528:Charles V of Germany 303:Balkan families and 5725:Ottoman slave trade 5305:Adoption tax credit 5295:Adoption home study 5290:Adoption disclosure 5201:Adoption by country 4643:Classic period army 4484:Chamber of Deputies 4459:Imperial Government 3546:Taskin, U. (2008). 3502:Richard Hovannisian 3387:"Janissaries" 2956:, pp. 132–139. 2932:, pp. 115–117. 2428:Mansel, P. (2011). 2312:, pp. 112–129. 1226:Auspicious Incident 992:high administrators 871:Southeastern Europe 372:Southeastern Europe 289:forcibly recruiting 152:Rise of nationalism 4270:Translation Office 4154:2nd Constitutional 4142:1st Constitutional 4096:Sultanate of Women 3733:(17 August 2012). 2658:Traian Stoianovich 2375:Türklerin Tarihi 2 2181:"Devshirme System" 1512:on 3 December 2018 1146:Hadım Mehmed Pasha 976: 816:People of the Book 709:forcibly converted 251: 142:Great Fire of 1660 5665: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5638:Duplessis Orphans 5447:Dima Yakovlev Law 5365:Same-sex adoption 5156: 5155: 5123: 5122: 5115:Star and crescent 4786: 4785: 4782: 4781: 4621: 4620: 4558: 4557: 4310:Ottoman Caliphate 4191:Foreign relations 3987:. 22 August 2015. 3965:978-1-135-36591-2 3895:978-1-4767-0025-0 3847:, pp. 44–45. 3809:978-1-4767-0025-0 3746:978-90-04-21904-5 3583:978-0-521-71533-1 3487:Shaw 1976, p. 114 3465:978-0-88029-175-0 3367:978-0-19-505326-5 3334:978-1-85168-390-1 3216:978-1-59884-337-8 2762:978-0-8225-3217-0 2728:978-0-313-30813-0 2673:978-1-317-47615-3 2643:978-1-55876-531-3 2538:978-0-87471-796-9 2511:978-1-61592-017-4 2484:978-1-4422-4180-0 2441:978-1-84854-647-9 2414:978-0-19-522151-0 2384:978-605-08-2221-2 2275:978-0-226-09801-2 2245:978-0-295-80363-0 2194:978-1-59884-337-8 2038:978-0-86356-049-1 2011:978-0-333-66612-8 1965:978-1-78738-415-6 1933:978-0-313-31290-8 1902:978-1-107-06068-5 1863:978-1-4587-8155-0 1833:978-0-8108-7579-1 1750:978-0-429-97513-4 1698:978-0-691-19280-2 1640:978-0-307-42518-8 1613:978-0-19-021886-7 1545:978-0-465-02396-7 1397: 1377: 1326: 1306: 1168:and his namesake 1142:Hadim Mesih Pasha 1138:Hadım Hasan Pasha 1105:military officers 1089:primary education 802:or Islamic law. 783:Vladimir Minorsky 714:Albertus Bobovius 357:Hadım Hasan Pasha 282: 270: 242: 241: 16:(Redirected from 5742: 5720:Military slavery 5600:Tianjin Massacre 5501: 5320:Child laundering 5183: 5176: 5169: 5160: 4887:Social structure 4880: 4733:Imperial Arsenal 4632: 4466: 4405: 4403:(classic period) 4398:Imperial Council 4393: 4285: 4184: 4041: 4034: 4027: 4018: 3988: 3969: 3948: 3932: 3918: 3897: 3887: 3881: 3878: 3872: 3866: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3822:Arming the State 3817: 3811: 3801: 3795: 3792: 3781: 3780: 3757: 3751: 3750: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3706: 3700: 3697: 3691: 3684: 3678: 3675: 3666: 3663: 3654: 3650: 3644: 3630: 3624: 3621: 3615: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3594: 3588: 3587: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3552: 3543: 3537: 3525:Zulalyan, Manvel 3523: 3519: 3513: 3494: 3488: 3485: 3479: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3449: 3443: 3440: 3434: 3431: 3425: 3422: 3416: 3413: 3407: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3389: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3355: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3310:. pp. 38–9. 3303: 3292: 3291: 3283: 3274: 3273: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3250:978-1-13905574-1 3230: 3224: 3223: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3178: 3172: 3165: 3159: 3149: 3143: 3133: 3127: 3117: 3111: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3083: 3077: 3074: 3055: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2963: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2907:Arming the State 2902: 2896: 2892: 2886: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2867: 2861: 2860: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2746: 2740: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2627: 2618: 2617: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2594: 2588: 2587: 2578: 2572: 2571: 2564: 2558: 2557: 2549: 2543: 2542: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2495: 2489: 2488: 2468: 2462: 2459: 2453: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2398: 2389: 2388: 2370: 2364: 2357:The Greek Nation 2353: 2342: 2329: 2323: 2319: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2286: 2280: 2279: 2259: 2250: 2249: 2229: 2223: 2220: 2214: 2211: 2202: 2201: 2176: 2167: 2166: 2158: 2147: 2146: 2135: 2126: 2125: 2117: 2106: 2105: 2097: 2088: 2082: 2076: 2070: 2061: 2060: 2052: 2043: 2042: 2022: 2016: 2015: 1995: 1989: 1979: 1970: 1969: 1949: 1938: 1937: 1917: 1911: 1910: 1879: 1868: 1867: 1847: 1841: 1840: 1813: 1802: 1801: 1796:. p. 1820. 1785: 1776: 1775: 1764: 1755: 1754: 1734: 1728: 1727: 1719: 1706: 1705: 1675: 1669: 1668: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1624: 1618: 1617: 1597: 1586: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1565: 1559: 1556: 1550: 1549: 1531: 1522: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1508:. Archived from 1497: 1482: 1474: 1468: 1464: 1458: 1454: 1448: 1446: 1440: 1434: 1428: 1422: 1416: 1413: 1404: 1402: 1392: 1390: 1382: 1372: 1370: 1362: 1361: 1339: 1333: 1331: 1321: 1319: 1311: 1301: 1299: 1290: 1281: 1278: 1154:Hadım Şehabeddin 1099:to complete the 1095:families across 1082:for the military 988:military leaders 813: 733: 662: 567: 561: 535: 525: 522: 511: 499:and the Turkish 490: 476: 466: 460: 454: 444: 434: 277: 275: 265: 263: 234: 227: 220: 52:Social structure 46: 37: 30: 21: 5750: 5749: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5741: 5740: 5739: 5670: 5669: 5666: 5657: 5626: 5575:Michael A. Hess 5523: 5517: 5492: 5411: 5330:Closed adoption 5273: 5242: 5196: 5187: 5157: 5152: 5119: 5083: 5055: 5022: 4923: 4912:Ottoman Turkish 4869: 4778: 4752: 4702: 4697:Modernized army 4681:Sekban-i Djedid 4617: 4554: 4509:Shaykh al-Islām 4490: 4467: 4462: 4461: 4452: 4406: 4401: 4400: 4380: 4295:Ottoman dynasty 4274: 4175: 4050: 4045: 4011:Wayback Machine 3995: 3979: 3976: 3974:Further reading 3966: 3951: 3945: 3921: 3908: 3905: 3900: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3867: 3863: 3855: 3851: 3843: 3839: 3832: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3784: 3774: 3759: 3758: 3754: 3747: 3731:Jefferson, John 3729: 3728: 3724: 3716: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3698: 3694: 3686:Katheryn Hain, 3685: 3681: 3676: 3669: 3664: 3657: 3651: 3647: 3641:Wayback Machine 3631: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3608: 3606: 3596: 3595: 3591: 3584: 3571: 3570: 3566: 3550: 3545: 3544: 3540: 3521: 3520: 3516: 3495: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3451: 3450: 3446: 3441: 3437: 3432: 3428: 3423: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3405: 3401: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3335: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3305: 3304: 3295: 3285: 3284: 3277: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3251: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3217: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3166: 3162: 3150: 3146: 3134: 3130: 3118: 3114: 3109: 3105: 3095: 3093: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3071: 3058: 3029: 3028: 3024: 3016: 3012: 3004: 3000: 2991: 2990: 2986: 2979: 2965: 2964: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2928: 2924: 2917: 2904: 2903: 2899: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2880: 2869: 2868: 2864: 2855: 2854: 2850: 2827:10.2307/2853347 2808: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2782: 2781: 2777: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2748: 2747: 2743: 2733: 2731: 2729: 2714: 2713: 2709: 2702: 2686: 2685: 2681: 2674: 2656: 2655: 2651: 2644: 2629: 2628: 2621: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2596: 2595: 2591: 2580: 2579: 2575: 2566: 2565: 2561: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2539: 2524: 2523: 2519: 2512: 2497: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2470: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2456: 2446: 2444: 2442: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2415: 2400: 2399: 2392: 2385: 2372: 2371: 2367: 2354: 2345: 2339:Wayback Machine 2330: 2326: 2320: 2316: 2308: 2304: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2276: 2261: 2260: 2253: 2246: 2231: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2205: 2195: 2178: 2177: 2170: 2160: 2159: 2150: 2137: 2136: 2129: 2119: 2118: 2109: 2099: 2098: 2091: 2083: 2079: 2071: 2064: 2054: 2053: 2046: 2039: 2028:The Janissaries 2024: 2023: 2019: 2012: 1997: 1996: 1992: 1980: 1973: 1966: 1951: 1950: 1941: 1934: 1919: 1918: 1914: 1903: 1895:. p. 196. 1883:Duindam, Jeroen 1881: 1880: 1871: 1864: 1849: 1848: 1844: 1834: 1824:Scarecrow Press 1815: 1814: 1805: 1787: 1786: 1779: 1766: 1765: 1758: 1751: 1736: 1735: 1731: 1721: 1720: 1709: 1699: 1677: 1676: 1672: 1653: 1652: 1648: 1641: 1626: 1625: 1621: 1614: 1599: 1598: 1589: 1579: 1577: 1568:Hain, Kathryn. 1567: 1566: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1546: 1533: 1532: 1525: 1515: 1513: 1499: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1475: 1471: 1465: 1461: 1455: 1451: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1407: 1347:tribut de sânge 1340: 1336: 1291: 1284: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1234: 1222:Ottoman history 1178: 1148:. Others, like 1134:Sinan Borovinić 1130:Hadım Ali Pasha 1117: 974:Enderûn pyramid 968: 959: 957:Unifying factor 863: 835:James L. Gelvin 796: 676:Stephen Gerlach 663: 660: 657: 654: 652: 650: 648: 646: 644: 599:Stephan Gerlach 562:(nursling) and 550: 523: 488:Enderûn Mektebi 464:Kapikulu Sipahi 425: 353:Sinan Borovinić 349:Hadım Ali Pasha 258:Ottoman Turkish 238: 209: 171: 146: 81: 42: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5748: 5746: 5738: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5672: 5671: 5663: 5662: 5659: 5658: 5656: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5634: 5632: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5616:Postremo mense 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5560:Baby Scoop Era 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5533: 5527: 5525: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5515: 5510: 5504: 5498: 5494: 5493: 5491: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5473: 5467: 5461: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5419: 5417: 5413: 5412: 5410: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5393: 5392: 5387: 5385:United Kingdom 5382: 5377: 5372: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5281: 5279: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5271: 5266: 5264:United Kingdom 5261: 5256: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5243: 5241: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5204: 5202: 5198: 5197: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5178: 5171: 5163: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5150: 5143: 5136: 5128: 5125: 5124: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5091: 5089: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5065: 5063: 5057: 5056: 5054: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5032: 5030: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5020: 5015: 5014: 5013: 5008: 4998: 4997: 4996: 4991: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4970: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4933: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4883: 4877: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4851: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4809: 4808: 4803: 4796: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4784: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4753: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4712: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4701: 4700: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4676:Nizam-i Djedid 4667: 4662: 4657: 4656: 4655: 4638: 4636: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4615: 4610: 4601: 4599:Mutasarrifates 4596: 4595: 4594: 4584: 4579: 4578: 4577: 4566: 4564: 4560: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4552: 4551: 4550: 4540: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4500: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4488: 4487: 4486: 4481: 4470: 4468: 4457: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4438:Reis ül-Küttab 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4409: 4407: 4396: 4390: 4382: 4381: 4379: 4378: 4377: 4376: 4374:Palace Schools 4371: 4361: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4322:Imperial Harem 4319: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4291: 4289: 4288:House of Osman 4282: 4276: 4275: 4273: 4272: 4267: 4266: 4265: 4260: 4252: 4251: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4220: 4219: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4187: 4181: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4173: 4172: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4146: 4145: 4144: 4139: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4117: 4116: 4115: 4110: 4108:Decline thesis 4103:Transformation 4100: 4099: 4098: 4088: 4087: 4086: 4084:Constantinople 4081: 4076: 4066: 4060: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4048:Ottoman Empire 4046: 4044: 4043: 4036: 4029: 4021: 4015: 4014: 4001: 3994: 3993:External links 3991: 3990: 3989: 3975: 3972: 3971: 3970: 3964: 3949: 3943: 3923:Shaw, Stanford 3919: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3898: 3882: 3873: 3871:, p. 223. 3861: 3849: 3837: 3830: 3812: 3796: 3782: 3772: 3752: 3745: 3722: 3710: 3701: 3692: 3679: 3667: 3655: 3645: 3625: 3616: 3597:Kopper, Paul. 3589: 3582: 3564: 3538: 3514: 3489: 3480: 3471: 3464: 3444: 3435: 3426: 3417: 3408: 3399: 3384:, ed. (1911). 3382:Chisholm, Hugh 3373: 3366: 3340: 3333: 3313: 3293: 3286:Sami Zubaida. 3275: 3272:. p. 122. 3256: 3249: 3235:Jones, Michael 3225: 3215: 3192: 3173: 3160: 3144: 3128: 3112: 3103: 3078: 3076: 3075: 3069: 3022: 3020:, p. 121. 3010: 2998: 2984: 2977: 2958: 2946: 2944:, p. 117. 2934: 2922: 2915: 2897: 2887: 2878: 2862: 2848: 2821:(3): 433–443. 2801: 2794: 2775: 2761: 2741: 2727: 2707: 2700: 2679: 2672: 2649: 2642: 2619: 2604: 2589: 2573: 2559: 2544: 2537: 2517: 2510: 2490: 2483: 2463: 2454: 2440: 2420: 2413: 2390: 2383: 2365: 2343: 2324: 2314: 2302: 2290: 2281: 2274: 2251: 2244: 2224: 2215: 2203: 2193: 2168: 2165:. p. 353. 2148: 2127: 2107: 2089: 2077: 2075:, p. 114. 2062: 2044: 2037: 2017: 2010: 1990: 1971: 1964: 1939: 1932: 1912: 1901: 1869: 1862: 1842: 1832: 1826:. p. 67. 1803: 1777: 1771:. p. 51. 1767:David Brewer. 1756: 1749: 1729: 1707: 1697: 1691:. p. 68. 1679:Kumar, Krishan 1670: 1664:. p. 68. 1646: 1639: 1619: 1612: 1587: 1560: 1551: 1544: 1523: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1483: 1478:Crimean Tatars 1469: 1459: 1449: 1417: 1405: 1351:Serbo-Croatian 1334: 1294:Medieval Greek 1282: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1233: 1230: 1224:annals as the 1177: 1174: 1116: 1113: 1070:Constantinople 967: 964: 958: 955: 867:Eastern Europe 862: 859: 795: 792: 722:Çandarlı Halil 658: 641: 612:Janus Lascaris 610:Greek scholar 549: 546: 458:Kapıkulu Ocağı 424: 421: 240: 239: 237: 236: 229: 222: 214: 211: 210: 208: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 181: 178: 177: 173: 172: 170: 169: 164: 158: 155: 154: 148: 147: 145: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 123: 122: 117: 112: 107: 105:Greek Orthodox 97: 91: 88: 87: 83: 82: 80: 79: 74: 69: 63: 60: 59: 55: 54: 48: 47: 39: 38: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5747: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5668: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5629: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5570:Home Children 5568: 5566: 5565:Sixties Scoop 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5520: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5502: 5499: 5495: 5488: 5485: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5471: 5468: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5451: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5436: 5433: 5430: 5427: 5424: 5421: 5420: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5397:Open adoption 5395: 5391: 5390:United States 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5276: 5270: 5269:United States 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5245: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5233:United States 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 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4746: 4744: 4743:Naval battles 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4716:Kapudan Pasha 4714: 4713: 4711: 4709: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4673: 4672: 4671:Reform period 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4654: 4651: 4650: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4639: 4637: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4624: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4576: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4568: 4567: 4565: 4561: 4549: 4546: 4545: 4544: 4541: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4517: 4514: 4510: 4507: 4506: 4505: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4493: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4410: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4391: 4388: 4383: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4366: 4365: 4362: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4332:Haseki sultan 4330: 4328: 4327:Valide sultan 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Routledge. 3957: 3956: 3950: 3946: 3944:0-521-21280-4 3940: 3936: 3933:. Cambridge: 3931: 3930: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3907: 3906: 3902: 3896: 3892: 3886: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3862: 3859:, p. 46. 3858: 3853: 3850: 3846: 3841: 3838: 3833: 3831:1-86064-404-X 3827: 3823: 3816: 3813: 3810: 3806: 3800: 3797: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3773:9789545230721 3769: 3765: 3764: 3756: 3753: 3748: 3742: 3738: 3737: 3732: 3726: 3723: 3720: 3714: 3711: 3705: 3702: 3696: 3693: 3689: 3683: 3680: 3674: 3672: 3668: 3662: 3660: 3656: 3649: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3635: 3629: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3604: 3600: 3593: 3590: 3585: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3565: 3561:(3): 343–366. 3560: 3556: 3549: 3542: 3539: 3535: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522:(in Armenian) 3518: 3515: 3511: 3510:1-4039-6422-X 3507: 3503: 3499: 3493: 3490: 3484: 3481: 3475: 3472: 3467: 3461: 3457: 3456: 3448: 3445: 3439: 3436: 3430: 3427: 3421: 3418: 3412: 3409: 3403: 3400: 3395: 3394: 3388: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3369: 3363: 3359: 3354: 3353: 3344: 3341: 3336: 3330: 3326: 3325: 3317: 3314: 3309: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3282: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3264:F .E Peters. 3260: 3257: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3241: 3236: 3229: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3208: 3207: 3202: 3196: 3193: 3189:(2): 271–278. 3188: 3184: 3177: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3116: 3113: 3107: 3104: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3072: 3070:0-231-05578-1 3066: 3062: 3057: 3056: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3026: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3011: 3007: 3002: 2999: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2980: 2978:9781442606234 2974: 2970: 2969: 2962: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2935: 2931: 2926: 2923: 2918: 2916:1-86064-404-X 2912: 2908: 2901: 2898: 2891: 2888: 2882: 2879: 2874: 2873: 2866: 2863: 2858: 2852: 2849: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2805: 2802: 2797: 2795:9781615920174 2791: 2787: 2786: 2779: 2776: 2764: 2758: 2754: 2753: 2745: 2742: 2730: 2724: 2720: 2719: 2711: 2708: 2703: 2701:0-333-66215-6 2697: 2693: 2689: 2688:Malcolm, Noel 2683: 2680: 2675: 2669: 2665: 2664: 2659: 2653: 2650: 2645: 2639: 2635: 2634: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2608: 2605: 2600: 2593: 2590: 2585: 2584: 2577: 2574: 2569: 2563: 2560: 2555: 2548: 2545: 2540: 2534: 2530: 2529: 2521: 2518: 2513: 2507: 2503: 2502: 2494: 2491: 2486: 2480: 2476: 2475: 2467: 2464: 2458: 2455: 2443: 2437: 2433: 2432: 2424: 2421: 2416: 2410: 2406: 2405: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2380: 2376: 2369: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2333: 2328: 2325: 2318: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2303: 2300:, p. 27. 2299: 2294: 2291: 2285: 2282: 2277: 2271: 2267: 2266: 2258: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2241: 2237: 2236: 2228: 2225: 2219: 2216: 2210: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2134: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2103: 2096: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2067: 2063: 2059:. p. 83. 2058: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2040: 2034: 2030: 2029: 2021: 2018: 2013: 2007: 2003: 2002: 1994: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1961: 1957: 1956: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1916: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1889: 1884: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1859: 1855: 1854: 1846: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1820: 1812: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1791: 1788:Ahmad Feroz. 1784: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1746: 1743:. Routledge. 1742: 1741: 1733: 1730: 1725: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1685: 1680: 1674: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1650: 1647: 1642: 1636: 1632: 1631: 1623: 1620: 1615: 1609: 1605: 1604: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1575: 1571: 1564: 1561: 1555: 1552: 1547: 1541: 1537: 1530: 1528: 1524: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1496: 1493: 1487: 1479: 1473: 1470: 1463: 1460: 1453: 1450: 1445: 1439: 1433: 1427: 1421: 1418: 1412: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1395: 1386: 1381: 1375: 1366: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1338: 1335: 1330: 1324: 1315: 1310: 1304: 1295: 1289: 1287: 1283: 1277: 1274: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1231: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1206: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1184: 1175: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1122: 1114: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101:enculturation 1098: 1094: 1090: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1066: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 994:to serve the 993: 989: 985: 981: 980:Palace School 972: 965: 963: 956: 954: 952: 948: 944: 939: 937: 933: 929: 925: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 882:Bernard Lewis 880:According to 878: 876: 872: 868: 860: 858: 856: 851: 849: 845: 840: 836: 832: 828: 823: 821: 820:Halil İnalcık 817: 812: 811: 805: 804:David Nicolle 801: 793: 791: 789: 784: 780: 776: 770: 767: 762: 760: 755: 751: 747: 745: 739: 737: 732: 727: 723: 719: 715: 710: 704: 699: 696: 693: 689: 684: 681: 677: 672: 667: 656: 639: 637: 632: 628: 625: 620: 616: 613: 607: 602: 600: 594: 589: 585: 583: 579: 575: 569: 566: 560: 555: 547: 545: 541: 539: 534: 529: 517: 515: 510: 504: 502: 498: 494: 489: 484: 478: 475: 470: 465: 459: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 432: 422: 420: 418: 413: 407: 405: 401: 397: 392: 391:Halil İnalcık 388: 384: 383:David Nicolle 380: 375: 373: 369: 365: 360: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 317: 316:grand viziers 312: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 280: 274: 268: 259: 255: 246: 235: 230: 228: 223: 221: 216: 215: 213: 212: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 182: 180: 179: 174: 168: 165: 163: 160: 159: 157: 156: 153: 149: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 102: 101: 98: 96: 93: 92: 90: 89: 84: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 67:Ottoman court 65: 64: 62: 61: 56: 53: 49: 45: 41: 40: 36: 32: 31: 19: 5667: 5614: 5605:Mortara case 5589: 5145: 5140:Bibliography 5138: 5131: 5100:Coat of arms 5074:Christianity 5028:Demographics 5011:of Armenians 4952:Illumination 4937:Architecture 4891: 4818:Central bank 4769:Conscription 4695: 4686:Mansure Army 4669: 4641: 4548:Hakham Bashi 4516:Christianity 4463: 4413:Grand Vizier 4402: 4254:Civil codes 4228:Constitution 4074:Ghaza thesis 3984: 3954: 3928: 3914: 3885: 3876: 3869:Murphey 2006 3864: 3857:Murphey 2006 3852: 3845:Murphey 2006 3840: 3821: 3815: 3799: 3777: 3762: 3755: 3735: 3725: 3713: 3704: 3695: 3682: 3648: 3628: 3619: 3607:. 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