78:
1191:
3427:
2395:
4820:
3134:
873:
3145:
6662:
2837:
68:
Diffusion-limited escape theory was first used by Donald Hunten in 1973 to describe hydrogen escape on one of Saturn's moons, Titan. The following year, in 1974, Hunten found that the diffusion-limited escape theory agreed with observations of hydrogen escape on Earth. Diffusion-limited escape theory
6683:
concentration. There are several important factors that we neglected in this calculation. The Earth likely had higher rates of hydrogen outgassing because the interior of the Earth was much warmer ~ 4 billion years ago. Additionally, there is geologic evidence that the mantle was more reducing
611:
Transport of gas molecules in the atmosphere occurs by two mechanisms: molecular and eddy diffusion. Molecular diffusion is the transport of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration due to thermal motion. Eddy diffusion is the transport of molecules by the turbulent
3684:
2146:
490:
4650:
2896:
4448:
6441:
1186:{\displaystyle {\vec {v}}_{1}-{\vec {v}}_{2}=-D_{12}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}\nabla \left({\frac {n_{1}}{n}}\right)+{\frac {m_{2}-m_{1}}{m}}\nabla (\ln {P})+\alpha _{T}\nabla (\ln {T})-{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{mkT}}({\vec {a}}_{1}-{\vec {a}}_{2})\right)}
2071:
Each variable is defined in table on right. The terms on the right hand side of the formula account for diffusion due to molecular concentration, pressure, temperature, and force gradients respectively. The expression above ultimately comes from the
3422:{\displaystyle \Phi _{1}=\Phi _{1}^{\text{mol}}+\Phi _{1}^{\text{eddy}}=-Kn{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}-D_{12}n_{1}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}+{\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}+{\frac {\alpha _{T}}{T}}{\frac {dT}{dz}}\right)}
5385:
6489:
5957:
2544:
6312:
2637:
4222:
3478:
4582:
696:
2626:
2390:{\displaystyle w_{1}-w_{2}=-D_{12}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {d}{dz}}\left({\frac {n_{1}}{n}}\right)+{\frac {m_{2}-m_{1}}{m}}{\frac {d}{dz}}(\ln {P})+\alpha _{T}{\frac {d}{dz}}(\ln {T})\right)}
773:
5276:
4926:
4974:
864:. The above formula for eddy diffusion is a simplification for how gases actually mix in the atmosphere. The eddy diffusion coefficient can only be empirically derived from atmospheric tracer studies.
4871:
5800:
2400:
We are interested in the diffusion of a lighter molecule (e.g. hydrogen) through a stationary heavier background gas (air). Therefore, we can take velocity of the heavy background gas to be zero:
1792:
7042:
Meadows, Victoria S.; Arney, Giada N.; Schwieterman, Edward W.; Lustig-Yaeger, Jacob; Lincowski, Andrew P.; Robinson, Tyler; Domagal-Goldman, Shawn D.; Deitrick, Russell; Barnes, Rory K. (2018).
4815:{\displaystyle b_{12}=b_{\mathrm {H} }{\frac {n_{\mathrm {H} }}{n_{\mathrm {H} }+n_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }}}+b_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }{\frac {n_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }}{n_{\mathrm {H} }+n_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }}}}
349:
5204:
3129:{\displaystyle \Phi _{1}^{\text{mol}}=w_{1}n_{1}=-D_{12}n_{1}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}+{\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}+{\frac {\alpha _{T}}{T}}{\frac {dT}{dz}}\right)}
599:
Note that hydrogen is the only gas in Earth's atmosphere that escapes at the diffusion-limit. Helium escape is not diffusion-limited and instead escapes by a suprathermal process known as the
5719:
5023:
2076:. We can simplify the above equation considerably with several assumptions. We will consider only vertical diffusion, and a neutral gas such that the accelerations are both equal to gravity (
2138:
245:
4281:
6327:
6033:
5582:
594:
5069:
3967:
5147:
5108:
1857:
532:
341:
156:
mechanisms. On Earth, the rate-limiting step or "bottleneck" for hydrogen escape is diffusion through the heterosphere. Therefore, hydrogen escape on Earth is diffusion-limited.
81:
A diagram showing that hydrogen diffusion in the upper atmosphere is the bottleneck for hydrogen escape on Earth, following from that given in
Catling and Kasting (2017), p. 147.
6481:
6074:
1442:
6152:
6115:
5497:
4497:
5615:
4273:
5530:
5461:
5428:
3470:
1960:
1924:
1276:
1240:
3863:
2888:
4634:
4115:
4041:
3734:
2028:
1571:
7500:
Bell, Jared M.; Bougher, Stephen W.; Waite, J. Hunter; Ridley, Aaron J.; Magee, Brian A.; Mandt, Kathleen E.; Westlake, Joseph; DeJong, Anna D.; Bar–Nun, Akiva (2010).
4068:
188:
7337:
303:
2431:
4608:
1405:
1369:
7341:
6657:{\displaystyle f_{T}(\mathrm {H_{2}} )\approx {\frac {\Phi _{volc}(H_{2})}{2.5\times 10^{13}}}={\frac {3.75\times 10^{9}}{2.5\times 10^{13}}}=1.5\times 10^{-4}=150}
3994:
3917:
3890:
3815:
3788:
3761:
1662:
1635:
1602:
1501:
1474:
1336:
1309:
842:
5284:
7502:"Simulating the one-dimensional structure of Titan's upper atmosphere: 1. Formulation of the Titan Global Ionosphere-Thermosphere Model and benchmark simulations"
6166:
must have been nearly absent in the prebiotic atmosphere. Photochemical models, which do more complicated versions of the calculations above, predict prebiotic O
4520:
2061:
1992:
1882:
1815:
1691:
1530:
862:
815:
795:
630:
267:
2832:{\displaystyle w_{1}=-D_{12}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}+{\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}+{\frac {\alpha _{T}}{T}}{\frac {dT}{dz}}\right)}
5854:
2447:
6243:
5157:
Every rocky body in the solar system with a substantial atmosphere, including Earth, Mars, Venus, and Titan, loses hydrogen at the diffusion-limited rate.
867:
The molecular diffusion flux, on the other hand, can be derived from theory. The general formula for the diffusion of gas 1 relative to gas 2 is given by
37:
to space is limited by the upward diffusion of escaping gases through the upper atmosphere, and not by escape mechanisms at the top of the atmosphere (the
3679:{\displaystyle \Phi _{1}=-Kn{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}-D_{12}n_{1}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}+{\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}\right)}
4123:
4525:
132:
O vapor that travels through it, preventing the upward mixing of some hydrogen. In the upper homosphere, hydrogen bearing molecules are split by
638:
6186:
concentrations in the prebiotic atmosphere were also controlled by its sources and sinks. In the prebiotic atmosphere, the main source of H
2555:
5466:
Observations of hydrogen escape on Venus and Titan are also at the diffusion-limit. On Venus, hydrogen escape was measured to be about
7694:
7457:
Hodges, R. Richard; Tinsley, Brian A. (1981). "Charge exchange in the Venus ionosphere as the source of the hot exospheric hydrogen".
7304:
The mathematical theory of non-uniform gases; an account of the kinetic theory of viscosity, thermal conduction and diffusion in gases
7276:
707:
6747:
5840:
If we assume that hydrogen escape occurred at the diffusion-limit in the prebiotic atmosphere, then we can estimate the amount of H
3139:
By adding the molecular diffusion flux and the eddy diffusion flux, we get the total flux of molecule 1 through the background gas
5209:
4876:
4931:
7414:
Anderson, Donald E. (1974). "Mariner 6, 7, and 9 Ultraviolet
Spectrometer Experiment: Analysis of hydrogen Lyman alpha data".
4828:
7313:
6838:
485:{\displaystyle f_{T}(\mathrm {H} )=f_{\mathrm {H} }+2f_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }+2f_{\mathrm {H_{2}O} }+4f_{\mathrm {CH_{4}} }+...}
1697:
5725:
5463:
H atoms cm⋅s. These observations suggest that Mars' atmosphere is losing hydrogen at roughly the diffusion limited value.
5163:
4979:
4443:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}={\frac {b_{12}g(m_{2}-m_{1})}{kT}}{\frac {n_{1}}{n}}={\frac {b_{12}g(m_{2}-m_{1})}{kT}}f_{1}}
5671:
2079:
163:
through a heavier background atmosphere, you can derive a formula for the upward diffusion-limited flux of hydrogen (
6436:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\text{volc}}(H_{2})\approx \Phi _{\text{esc}}(H_{2})=2.5\times 10^{13}f_{T}(\mathrm {H_{2}} )}
5149:
molecules cm⋅s. The above formula can be used to calculate the diffusion-limited flux of gases other than hydrogen.
196:
6688:) would have been outgassed by volcanos relative to oxidized volcanic gases. Other reduced volcanic gases, like CH
6763:
Catling, D. C. (2001-08-03). "Biogenic
Methane, Hydrogen Escape, and the Irreversible Oxidation of Early Earth".
7019:
6994:
6939:
6914:
5973:
5542:
553:
5028:
550:. Plugging these numbers into the formulas above gives a predicted diffusion-limited hydrogen escape rate of
7699:
100:
For a hydrogen atom to escape from the exobase, it must first travel upward through the atmosphere from the
62:
7175:
6210:(see the previous section). This is not the case in the modern atmosphere where the main sink of volcanic H
4640:
diffuse through the heterosphere, so we will use a diffusion parameter that is the weighted sum of H and H
3922:
5113:
5074:
1826:
498:
308:
17:
7501:
5638:
content of the prebiotic atmosphere was controlled by its sources and sinks. If the potential sinks of O
343:
by summing all hydrogen bearing species weighted by the number of hydrogen atoms each species contains:
6453:
6046:
1414:
61:. Diffusion-limited hydrogen escape was likely important for the rise of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere (
6124:
6087:
5469:
4459:
7709:
7632:
7569:
7516:
7466:
7423:
7364:
7233:
7190:
7130:
7065:
7006:
6926:
6871:
6772:
5587:
4230:
2438:
69:
is now used widely to model the composition of exoplanet atmospheres and Earth's ancient atmosphere.
6117:
H atoms cm⋅s. If the prebiotic atmosphere had a similar volcanic hydrogen flux, then the potential O
5533:
5502:
5433:
5400:
3435:
1929:
1893:
1245:
1209:
7684:
7224:
Massie, S. T.; Hunten, D. M. (1981). "Stratospheric eddy diffusion coefficients from tracer data".
3820:
2845:
4613:
7601:
7396:
7331:
7156:
7055:
6895:
6804:
4073:
3999:
3692:
2073:
2006:
1819:
1536:
153:
34:
5532:
H atoms cm⋅s, which are in reasonable agreement. On Titan, hydrogen escape was measured by the
4522:
is a constant. For hydrogen (gas 1) diffusion through air (gas 2) in the heterosphere on Earth
4046:
166:
65:) and can be used to estimate the oxygen and hydrogen content of Earth's prebiotic atmosphere.
7689:
7660:
7593:
7585:
7542:
7482:
7439:
7388:
7380:
7319:
7309:
7282:
7272:
7249:
7206:
7148:
7099:
7081:
7044:"The Habitability of Proxima Centauri b: Environmental States and Observational Discriminants"
7024:
6944:
6887:
6844:
6834:
6796:
6788:
6743:
5844:
that escaped due to water photolysis. If the prebiotic atmosphere had a modern stratospheric H
534:
cm⋅s, and, the concentration of hydrogen bearing gases above the tropopause is 1.8 ppmv (
272:
5848:
O mixing ratio of 3 ppmv which is equivalent to 6 ppmv of H after photolysis, then
5380:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}^{mars}=C_{\text{Mars}}f_{T}(\mathrm {H} )=(3.3\pm 1.1)\times 10^{8}}
2403:
612:
mixing of a gas. The sum of molecular and eddy diffusion fluxes give the total flux of a gas
7650:
7640:
7577:
7534:
7524:
7474:
7431:
7372:
7241:
7198:
7138:
7089:
7073:
7014:
6934:
6879:
6780:
6735:
4587:
1383:
1347:
305:
is the total hydrogen mixing ratio in all its forms above the tropopause. You can calculate
6483:
H atoms cm⋅s, then we can estimate the total hydrogen content of the prebiotic atmosphere.
3972:
3895:
3868:
3793:
3766:
3739:
1640:
1613:
1580:
1479:
1452:
1314:
1287:
820:
77:
7704:
5391:
5278:. Multiplying these numbers together gives the diffusion-limited rate escape of hydrogen:
535:
94:
7355:
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2001). "Detection of
Molecular Hydrogen in the Atmosphere of Mars".
596:
H atoms cm⋅s. This calculated hydrogen flux agrees with measurements of hydrogen escape.
7636:
7573:
7520:
7470:
7427:
7368:
7237:
7194:
7176:"Observed variations of the exospheric hydrogen density with the exospheric temperature"
7134:
7069:
7010:
6930:
6875:
6776:
5952:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}(H)=(2.5\times 10^{13})\cdot (6\times 10^{-6})=1.5\times 10^{8}}
7302:
7094:
7043:
6962:
6827:
4505:
2539:{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dz}}\ln {P}={\frac {1}{P}}{\frac {dP}{dz}}={\frac {-mg}{kT}}}
2046:
1977:
1867:
1800:
1676:
1515:
847:
800:
780:
615:
252:
6307:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\text{volc}}(H_{2})\approx \Phi _{\text{esc}}(\mathrm {H_{2}} )}
6084:
would have been reactions with volcanic hydrogen. The modern volcanic H flux is about
5642:
greatly outweighed the sources, then the atmosphere would have been nearly devoid of O
7678:
7160:
7143:
7118:
6899:
5963:
7621:"Evidence for a reducing Archean ambient mantle and its effects on the carbon cycle"
7605:
7400:
6808:
5813:
photolysis remain in the atmosphere, then they will eventually recombine to make CO
5634:
on the Earth's atmosphere before the rise of life (the prebiotic atmosphere). The O
3763:
must decrease with altitude in order to contribute to the upward flux of gas 1. If
149:
145:
58:
4502:
This is the diffusion-limited flux of a molecule. For any particular atmosphere,
5825:
O photolysis remain in the atmosphere, then they will eventually react to form H
133:
101:
7308:. Cowling, T. G. (Thomas George) (3rd ed.). : Cambridge University Press.
6862:
Walker, James C. G. (1978). "Oxygen and hydrogen in the primitive atmosphere".
5654:
4217:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}=D_{12}n_{1}\left({\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}\right)}
2549:
The chain rule can also be used to simplify the derivative in the third term.
2434:
600:
125:
121:
117:
7664:
7589:
7546:
7486:
7443:
7384:
7286:
7253:
7210:
7152:
7085:
7028:
6948:
6891:
6848:
6792:
6679:
This estimate should be considered as a lower bound on the actual prebiotic H
6321:
was escaping at the diffusion-limited rate as it is on the modern Earth then
4043:, see Walker 1977, p. 160. The maximum flux of gas 1 relative to gas 2 (
93:) where gases are collisionless. Hydrogen atoms at the exobase exceeding the
7478:
7435:
7376:
7245:
7202:
6784:
5206:
molecules cm⋅s. Spectroscopic measurements of Mars' atmosphere suggest that
4577:{\displaystyle m_{\text{air}}-m_{\text{hydrogen}}\approx 4.8\times 10^{-26}}
90:
86:
7597:
7392:
7103:
6800:
7077:
6739:
7538:
7529:
7323:
5160:
For Mars, the constant governing diffusion-limited escape of hydrogen is
7655:
6672:
concentration in the modern atmosphere is 0.55 ppmv, so prebiotic H
5630:
We can use diffusion-limited hydrogen escape to estimate the amount of O
691:{\displaystyle \Phi _{i}=\Phi _{i}^{\text{mol}}+\Phi _{i}^{\text{eddy}}}
41:). The escape of any atmospheric gas can be diffusion-limited, but only
7581:
7560:
Kasting, James F. (1984). "The evolution of the prebiotic atmosphere".
6883:
6170:
mixing ratios below 10, which is extremely low compared to the modern O
38:
7645:
7620:
2621:{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dz}}\ln {T}={\frac {1}{T}}{\frac {dT}{dz}}}
269:
is a constant for a particular background atmosphere and planet, and
5397:
spacecraft indirectly observed hydrogen escape flux on Mars between
7060:
5499:
H atoms cm⋅s, while the calculated diffusion limited rate is about
6162:
sinks were ~50 times greater than the abiotic source. Therefore, O
3996:
isn't physically possible. For a mathematical explanation for why
54:
46:
7119:"A coupled atmosphere-ecosystem model of the early Archean Earth"
6684:
in the distant past, meaning that even more reduced gases (e.g. H
6963:"Donald M. Hunten (1925 - 2010) | American Astronomical Society"
6158:
molecules cm⋅s. These calculated values predict that potential O
85:
Hydrogen escape on Earth occurs at ~500 km altitude at the
50:
3432:
Temperature gradients are fairly small in the heterosphere, so
768:{\displaystyle \Phi _{i}^{\text{eddy}}=-Kn{\frac {df_{i}}{dz}}}
6202:
to form water, but this was very likely a negligible sink of H
5110:
molecules cm⋅s. In more detailed calculations the constant is
97:
escape to space without colliding into another gas particle.
6676:
was likely several hundred times higher than today's value.
6121:
sink would have been a fourth of the hydrogen volcanism, or
5271:{\displaystyle f_{T}(\mathrm {H} )=(30\pm 10)\times 10^{-6}}
4921:{\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }\approx 5.2\times 10^{7}}
817:
is the number density of the atmosphere (molecules cm), and
7020:
10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031<0305:paeoth>2.0.co;2
6940:
10.1175/1520-0469(1973)030<0726:TEOHFT>2.0.CO;2
5966:
says that every mol of H escape produced 0.25 mol of O
5584:
H atoms cm⋅s, and the calculated diffusion-limited rate is
6190:
was volcanic outgassing, and the main sink of outgassing H
4969:{\displaystyle b_{\mathrm {H} }\approx 2.73\times 10^{19}}
3919:
in order to drive a constant upward flux of gas 1 (recall
6011:
5992:
5778:
5740:
5686:
6229:
concentration was at a steady-state, then the volcanic H
4866:{\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {H} }\approx 1.8\times 10^{7}}
159:
By considering one dimensional molecular diffusion of H
6732:
Atmospheric
Evolution on Inhabited and Lifeless Worlds
5758:
6492:
6456:
6330:
6246:
6127:
6090:
6049:
5976:
5857:
5795:{\displaystyle {\ce {H_2O + h\nu -> 1/2O_2 + 2H}}}
5728:
5674:
5590:
5545:
5505:
5472:
5436:
5403:
5287:
5212:
5166:
5116:
5077:
5031:
4982:
4934:
4879:
4831:
4653:
4616:
4590:
4528:
4508:
4462:
4284:
4233:
4126:
4076:
4049:
4002:
3975:
3925:
3898:
3871:
3823:
3796:
3769:
3742:
3695:
3481:
3438:
3148:
2899:
2848:
2640:
2558:
2450:
2406:
2149:
2082:
2049:
2009:
1980:
1932:
1896:
1870:
1829:
1803:
1787:{\displaystyle (n_{1}m_{1}+n_{1}m_{2})/(n_{1}+n_{2})}
1700:
1679:
1643:
1616:
1583:
1539:
1518:
1482:
1455:
1417:
1386:
1350:
1317:
1290:
1248:
1212:
876:
850:
823:
803:
783:
710:
641:
618:
556:
501:
352:
311:
275:
255:
199:
169:
6233:
flux was approximately equal to the escape flux of H
5805:
These reactions aren't necessarily a net source of O
128:(known as the "cold trap") freezes out most of the H
120:
through turbulent mixing, which dominates up to the
148:to the exobase where they escape the atmosphere by
7301:
6826:
6656:
6475:
6435:
6306:
6146:
6109:
6068:
6027:
5951:
5794:
5713:
5609:
5576:
5524:
5491:
5455:
5422:
5379:
5270:
5198:
5141:
5102:
5063:
5017:
4968:
4920:
4865:
4814:
4628:
4602:
4576:
4514:
4491:
4442:
4267:
4216:
4109:
4062:
4035:
3988:
3961:
3911:
3884:
3857:
3809:
3782:
3755:
3728:
3678:
3464:
3421:
3128:
2882:
2831:
2620:
2538:
2425:
2389:
2132:
2055:
2022:
1986:
1954:
1918:
1876:
1851:
1809:
1786:
1685:
1656:
1629:
1596:
1565:
1524:
1495:
1468:
1436:
1399:
1363:
1330:
1303:
1270:
1234:
1185:
856:
836:
809:
789:
767:
690:
624:
588:
526:
484:
335:
297:
261:
239:
182:
6194:would have been escape to space. Some outgassed H
5199:{\displaystyle C_{\text{Mars}}=1.1\times 10^{13}}
3817:must decrease rapidly with altitude (recall that
5714:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO_2 + h\nu -> CO + O}}}
5018:{\displaystyle b_{H2}\approx 1.46\times 10^{19}}
7117:Kharecha, P.; Kasting, J.; Siefert, J. (2005).
6995:"Production and Escape of Terrestrial Hydrogen"
6993:Hunten, Donald M.; Strobel, Darrell F. (1974).
2133:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}_{1}={\vec {a}}_{2}=g}
7459:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics
6696:S should also contribute to this calculation.
2890:. The flux of molecular diffusion is given by
2441:to rewrite the derivative in the second term.
240:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}=Cf_{T}(\mathrm {H} )}
104:. Near ground level, hydrogen in the form of H
6730:Catling, David C.; Kasting, James F. (2017).
2842:Note that we have also made the substitution
2140:) so the last term cancels. We are left with
701:The vertical eddy diffusion flux is given by
73:Diffusion-Limited Escape of Hydrogen on Earth
8:
7336:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6214:is its reaction with plentiful atmospheric O
6178:Hydrogen content of the prebiotic atmosphere
5153:Diffusion-limited escape in the Solar System
6028:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H_2O -> O_2 +4H}}}
7340:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
5626:Oxygen content of the prebiotic atmosphere
5621:Applications to Earth's ancient atmosphere
5577:{\displaystyle (2.0\pm 2.1)\times 10^{10}}
589:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}=4.3\times 10^{8}}
45:has been observed in our solar system, on
7654:
7644:
7619:Aulbach, Sonja; Stagno, Vincenzo (2016).
7528:
7142:
7093:
7059:
7018:
6938:
6734:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6639:
6617:
6599:
6586:
6574:
6553:
6531:
6524:
6511:
6506:
6497:
6491:
6467:
6455:
6423:
6418:
6409:
6399:
6377:
6364:
6348:
6335:
6329:
6294:
6289:
6280:
6264:
6251:
6245:
6138:
6126:
6101:
6089:
6060:
6048:
6020:
6010:
6005:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5977:
5975:
5943:
5918:
5893:
5862:
5856:
5787:
5777:
5772:
5739:
5734:
5729:
5727:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5673:
5601:
5589:
5568:
5544:
5516:
5504:
5483:
5471:
5447:
5435:
5414:
5402:
5371:
5338:
5329:
5319:
5297:
5292:
5286:
5259:
5226:
5217:
5211:
5190:
5171:
5165:
5133:
5115:
5094:
5076:
5055:
5036:
5030:
5009:
4987:
4981:
4960:
4940:
4939:
4933:
4912:
4890:
4885:
4884:
4878:
4857:
4837:
4836:
4830:
4800:
4795:
4794:
4780:
4779:
4765:
4760:
4759:
4753:
4744:
4739:
4738:
4719:
4714:
4713:
4699:
4698:
4686:
4685:
4679:
4672:
4671:
4658:
4652:
4615:
4589:
4565:
4546:
4533:
4527:
4507:
4483:
4467:
4461:
4434:
4410:
4397:
4381:
4374:
4360:
4354:
4334:
4321:
4305:
4298:
4289:
4283:
4257:
4251:
4238:
4232:
4187:
4174:
4164:
4154:
4144:
4131:
4125:
4090:
4084:
4075:
4054:
4048:
4016:
4010:
4001:
3980:
3974:
3953:
3943:
3930:
3924:
3903:
3897:
3876:
3870:
3847:
3841:
3828:
3822:
3801:
3795:
3774:
3768:
3747:
3741:
3709:
3703:
3694:
3648:
3635:
3625:
3605:
3595:
3586:
3576:
3565:
3559:
3548:
3538:
3514:
3504:
3486:
3480:
3445:
3437:
3394:
3383:
3377:
3351:
3338:
3328:
3308:
3298:
3289:
3279:
3268:
3262:
3251:
3241:
3217:
3207:
3189:
3184:
3171:
3166:
3153:
3147:
3101:
3090:
3084:
3058:
3045:
3035:
3015:
3005:
2996:
2986:
2975:
2969:
2958:
2948:
2932:
2922:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2874:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2804:
2793:
2787:
2761:
2748:
2738:
2718:
2708:
2699:
2689:
2678:
2672:
2661:
2645:
2639:
2598:
2588:
2580:
2559:
2557:
2513:
2490:
2480:
2472:
2451:
2449:
2411:
2405:
2374:
2350:
2344:
2329:
2305:
2293:
2280:
2273:
2255:
2249:
2230:
2221:
2211:
2200:
2194:
2183:
2167:
2154:
2148:
2118:
2107:
2106:
2096:
2085:
2084:
2081:
2048:
2014:
2008:
1979:
1946:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1910:
1899:
1898:
1895:
1869:
1840:
1828:
1802:
1775:
1762:
1750:
1741:
1731:
1718:
1708:
1699:
1678:
1648:
1642:
1621:
1615:
1588:
1582:
1557:
1544:
1538:
1517:
1487:
1481:
1460:
1454:
1428:
1416:
1391:
1385:
1355:
1349:
1322:
1316:
1295:
1289:
1262:
1251:
1250:
1247:
1226:
1215:
1214:
1211:
1169:
1158:
1157:
1147:
1136:
1135:
1111:
1101:
1094:
1083:
1065:
1050:
1026:
1013:
1006:
988:
982:
966:
956:
945:
939:
928:
912:
901:
900:
890:
879:
878:
875:
849:
828:
822:
802:
782:
748:
738:
720:
715:
709:
682:
677:
664:
659:
646:
640:
617:
580:
561:
555:
518:
500:
461:
453:
452:
430:
425:
424:
405:
400:
399:
382:
381:
366:
357:
351:
325:
316:
310:
280:
274:
254:
229:
220:
204:
198:
174:
168:
124:. At about 17 km altitude, the cold
18:Diffusion-Limited Escape (of Atmospheres)
5064:{\displaystyle b_{12}=1.8\times 10^{19}}
5025:cm⋅s, the binary diffusion parameter is
1195:
76:
6705:
5837:only if the hydrogen escapes to space.
7329:
3689:The maximum flux of gas 1 occurs when
6198:would have reacted with atmospheric O
6035:), so the abiotic net production of O
1340:vertical velocity of gas 1, 2 (cm s)
7:
7300:Chapman, Sydney, 1888-1970. (1970).
6988:
6986:
6984:
6982:
6820:
6818:
6725:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6717:
6715:
6713:
6711:
6709:
4644:number densities at the tropopause.
3962:{\displaystyle \Phi _{1}=w_{1}n_{1}}
1966:from gravity, electric fields, etc.
43:diffusion-limited escape of hydrogen
6999:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
6919:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
6825:Walker, James Callan Gray. (1977).
6080:molecules cm⋅s. The main sinks of O
5142:{\displaystyle C=2.5\times 10^{13}}
5103:{\displaystyle C=2.9\times 10^{13}}
1852:{\displaystyle 1.38\times 10^{-23}}
797:is the eddy diffusion coefficient,
527:{\displaystyle C=2.5\times 10^{13}}
336:{\displaystyle f_{T}(\mathrm {H} )}
27:Escape of gases from the atmosphere
6528:
6508:
6420:
6361:
6332:
6291:
6277:
6248:
5859:
5809:. If the CO and O produced from CO
5620:
5339:
5289:
5227:
4941:
4887:
4838:
4797:
4781:
4762:
4741:
4716:
4700:
4687:
4673:
4464:
4286:
4128:
4051:
3927:
3483:
3181:
3163:
3150:
2901:
1071:
1038:
975:
844:is the volume mixing ratio of gas
712:
674:
656:
643:
558:
458:
454:
436:
427:
402:
383:
367:
326:
230:
201:
171:
25:
6476:{\displaystyle 3.75\times 10^{9}}
6317:Additionally, if we assume that H
6225:If we assume that the prebiotic H
6069:{\displaystyle 3.75\times 10^{7}}
3892:would require rapidly increasing
3736:. Qualitatively, this is because
2631:Making these substitutions gives
1437:{\displaystyle 2.6\times 10^{19}}
7144:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2005.00049.x
6147:{\displaystyle 1.9\times 10^{9}}
6110:{\displaystyle 7.5\times 10^{9}}
5492:{\displaystyle 1.7\times 10^{7}}
4492:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}=Cf_{1}}
7509:Journal of Geophysical Research
7416:Journal of Geophysical Research
7226:Journal of Geophysical Research
7183:Journal of Geophysical Research
5610:{\displaystyle 3\times 10^{10}}
4268:{\displaystyle D_{12}=b_{12}/n}
6915:"The Escape of H 2 from Titan"
6559:
6546:
6518:
6503:
6430:
6415:
6383:
6370:
6354:
6341:
6301:
6286:
6270:
6257:
5998:
5927:
5905:
5899:
5880:
5874:
5868:
5755:
5698:
5649:In the prebiotic atmosphere, O
5558:
5546:
5525:{\displaystyle 3\times 10^{7}}
5456:{\displaystyle 2\times 10^{8}}
5423:{\displaystyle 1\times 10^{8}}
5361:
5349:
5343:
5335:
5249:
5237:
5231:
5223:
4416:
4390:
4340:
4314:
4193:
4167:
3790:decreases with altitude, then
3654:
3628:
3465:{\displaystyle dT/dz\approx 0}
3357:
3331:
3064:
3038:
2767:
2741:
2379:
2365:
2334:
2320:
2112:
2090:
1955:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}_{2}}
1940:
1919:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}_{1}}
1904:
1781:
1755:
1747:
1701:
1666:molecular mass of gas 1 and 2
1505:number densities of gas 1 and
1271:{\displaystyle {\vec {v}}_{2}}
1256:
1235:{\displaystyle {\vec {v}}_{1}}
1220:
1175:
1163:
1141:
1131:
1088:
1074:
1055:
1041:
906:
884:
371:
363:
330:
322:
292:
286:
234:
226:
1:
6450:flux was the modern value of
3858:{\displaystyle f_{1}=n_{1}/n}
2883:{\displaystyle n_{1}/n=f_{1}}
1373:binary diffusion coefficient
4629:{\displaystyle T\approx 208}
2074:Boltzmann transport equation
1964:acceleration of gas 1 and 2
1280:velocity of gas 1, 2 (cm s)
136:photons leaving only H and H
6864:Pure and Applied Geophysics
6829:Evolution of the atmosphere
4110:{\displaystyle df_{1}/dz=0}
4036:{\displaystyle df_{1}/dz=0}
3729:{\displaystyle df_{1}/dz=0}
2023:{\displaystyle \alpha _{T}}
1996:gravitational acceleration
1566:{\displaystyle n_{1}+n_{2}}
1409:binary diffusion parameter
536:parts per million by volume
144:diffuse upward through the
7726:
5817:. Likewise, if the H and O
7695:Meteorological hypotheses
4063:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}}
183:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}}
89:(the lower border of the
63:the Great Oxidation Event
632:through the atmosphere:
495:For Earth's atmosphere,
298:{\displaystyle f_{T}(H)}
33:occurs when the rate of
31:Diffusion-limited escape
7479:10.1029/ja086ia09p07649
7436:10.1029/ja079i010p01513
7377:10.1126/science.1065569
7246:10.1029/jc086ic10p09859
7203:10.1029/ja080i004p00639
7174:Bertaux, J. L. (1975).
6785:10.1126/science.1061976
3472:, which leaves us with
2426:{\displaystyle w_{2}=0}
546:O, and 0.55 ppmv H
6913:Hunten, D. M. (1973).
6658:
6477:
6437:
6308:
6174:mixing ratio of 0.21.
6148:
6111:
6070:
6029:
5953:
5833:O is a net source of O
5829:O. The photolysis of H
5796:
5715:
5611:
5578:
5526:
5493:
5457:
5424:
5381:
5272:
5200:
5143:
5104:
5065:
5019:
4970:
4922:
4867:
4816:
4630:
4604:
4603:{\displaystyle g=9.81}
4578:
4516:
4493:
4444:
4269:
4218:
4111:
4064:
4037:
3990:
3969:). Rapidly increasing
3963:
3913:
3886:
3865:). Rapidly decreasing
3859:
3811:
3784:
3757:
3730:
3680:
3466:
3423:
3130:
2884:
2833:
2622:
2540:
2433:. We can also use the
2427:
2391:
2134:
2057:
2024:
1988:
1956:
1920:
1878:
1853:
1811:
1788:
1687:
1658:
1631:
1606:mixing ratio of gas 1
1598:
1567:
1526:
1497:
1470:
1438:
1401:
1400:{\displaystyle b_{12}}
1365:
1364:{\displaystyle D_{12}}
1332:
1305:
1272:
1236:
1187:
858:
838:
811:
791:
769:
692:
626:
590:
528:
486:
337:
299:
263:
241:
184:
116:travels upward in the
82:
7267:Banks, P. M. (2013).
7078:10.1089/ast.2016.1589
6740:10.1017/9781139020558
6659:
6478:
6438:
6309:
6149:
6112:
6071:
6030:
5954:
5797:
5716:
5665:O in the atmosphere:
5612:
5579:
5527:
5494:
5458:
5425:
5382:
5273:
5201:
5144:
5105:
5071:. These numbers give
5066:
5020:
4971:
4923:
4868:
4817:
4636: K. Both H and H
4631:
4605:
4579:
4517:
4494:
4445:
4270:
4219:
4112:
4065:
4038:
3991:
3989:{\displaystyle w_{1}}
3964:
3914:
3912:{\displaystyle w_{1}}
3887:
3885:{\displaystyle n_{1}}
3860:
3812:
3810:{\displaystyle n_{1}}
3785:
3783:{\displaystyle f_{1}}
3758:
3756:{\displaystyle f_{1}}
3731:
3681:
3467:
3424:
3131:
2885:
2834:
2623:
2541:
2428:
2392:
2135:
2058:
2025:
1989:
1957:
1921:
1879:
1854:
1812:
1789:
1688:
1659:
1657:{\displaystyle m_{2}}
1632:
1630:{\displaystyle m_{1}}
1599:
1597:{\displaystyle f_{1}}
1568:
1527:
1498:
1496:{\displaystyle n_{2}}
1471:
1469:{\displaystyle n_{1}}
1439:
1402:
1366:
1333:
1331:{\displaystyle w_{2}}
1306:
1304:{\displaystyle w_{1}}
1273:
1237:
1188:
859:
839:
837:{\displaystyle f_{i}}
812:
792:
770:
693:
627:
591:
529:
487:
338:
300:
264:
242:
185:
80:
7530:10.1029/2010je003636
7271:. Elsevier Science.
6490:
6454:
6328:
6244:
6125:
6088:
6047:
5974:
5855:
5726:
5672:
5653:was produced by the
5588:
5543:
5503:
5470:
5434:
5401:
5285:
5210:
5164:
5114:
5075:
5029:
4980:
4932:
4877:
4829:
4651:
4614:
4588:
4526:
4506:
4460:
4282:
4231:
4124:
4074:
4070:, which occurs when
4047:
4000:
3973:
3923:
3896:
3869:
3821:
3794:
3767:
3740:
3693:
3479:
3436:
3146:
2897:
2846:
2638:
2556:
2448:
2439:hydrostatic equation
2404:
2147:
2080:
2047:
2032:thermal diffusivity
2007:
1998:(9.81 m s on Earth)
1978:
1930:
1894:
1868:
1827:
1801:
1698:
1677:
1641:
1614:
1581:
1537:
1516:
1480:
1453:
1415:
1384:
1348:
1315:
1288:
1246:
1210:
874:
848:
821:
801:
781:
708:
639:
616:
554:
499:
350:
309:
273:
253:
197:
167:
150:Jeans thermal escape
7637:2016Geo....44..751A
7574:1984OrLi...14...75K
7521:2010JGRE..11512002B
7471:1981JGR....86.7649H
7428:1974JGR....79.1513A
7369:2001Sci...294.1914K
7363:(5548): 1914–1917.
7238:1981JGR....86.9859M
7195:1975JGR....80..639B
7135:2005Gbio....3...53K
7070:2018AsBio..18..133M
7011:1974JAtS...31..305H
6931:1973JAtS...30..726H
6876:1978PApGe.116..222W
6777:2001Sci...293..839C
6206:because of scarce O
6013:
5994:
5780:
5742:
5688:
5311:
3194:
3176:
2914:
725:
687:
669:
152:and/or a number of
140:behind. The H and H
7582:10.1007/bf00933642
6884:10.1007/bf01636879
6654:
6473:
6433:
6304:
6144:
6107:
6066:
6025:
6001:
5982:
5949:
5792:
5768:
5767:
5730:
5711:
5676:
5607:
5574:
5522:
5489:
5453:
5420:
5377:
5288:
5268:
5196:
5139:
5100:
5061:
5015:
4966:
4918:
4863:
4812:
4626:
4600:
4574:
4512:
4489:
4440:
4265:
4214:
4107:
4060:
4033:
3986:
3959:
3909:
3882:
3855:
3807:
3780:
3753:
3726:
3676:
3462:
3419:
3180:
3162:
3126:
2900:
2880:
2829:
2618:
2536:
2423:
2387:
2130:
2065:air pressure (Pa)
2053:
2034:(~-0.25 for H or H
2020:
1984:
1952:
1916:
1874:
1849:
1820:Boltzmann constant
1807:
1784:
1683:
1654:
1627:
1594:
1563:
1522:
1493:
1466:
1434:
1397:
1361:
1328:
1301:
1268:
1232:
1183:
854:
834:
807:
787:
765:
711:
688:
673:
655:
622:
586:
524:
482:
333:
295:
259:
237:
180:
83:
35:atmospheric escape
7465:(A9): 7649–7656.
7422:(10): 1513–1518.
6771:(5531): 839–843.
6624:
6581:
6446:If the volcanic H
6367:
6338:
6283:
6254:
6043:O photolysis was
6023:
6004:
5997:
5985:
5790:
5771:
5766:
5751:
5745:
5733:
5709:
5703:
5694:
5679:
5322:
5174:
4810:
4729:
4549:
4536:
4515:{\displaystyle C}
4428:
4369:
4352:
4208:
3669:
3620:
3593:
3529:
3412:
3392:
3372:
3323:
3296:
3232:
3192:
3174:
3119:
3099:
3079:
3030:
3003:
2912:
2822:
2802:
2782:
2733:
2706:
2616:
2596:
2572:
2534:
2508:
2488:
2464:
2363:
2318:
2303:
2264:
2243:
2228:
2115:
2093:
2069:
2068:
2056:{\displaystyle P}
1987:{\displaystyle g}
1943:
1907:
1877:{\displaystyle T}
1810:{\displaystyle k}
1686:{\displaystyle m}
1668:(in kg molecule)
1525:{\displaystyle n}
1507:2 (molecules cm)
1375:(cm s molecules)
1259:
1223:
1166:
1144:
1129:
1036:
997:
973:
909:
887:
857:{\displaystyle i}
810:{\displaystyle n}
790:{\displaystyle K}
763:
723:
685:
667:
625:{\displaystyle i}
262:{\displaystyle C}
16:(Redirected from
7717:
7669:
7668:
7658:
7648:
7646:10.1130/g38070.1
7616:
7610:
7609:
7557:
7551:
7550:
7532:
7506:
7497:
7491:
7490:
7454:
7448:
7447:
7411:
7405:
7404:
7352:
7346:
7345:
7335:
7327:
7307:
7297:
7291:
7290:
7269:Aeronomy: Part B
7264:
7258:
7257:
7221:
7215:
7214:
7180:
7171:
7165:
7164:
7146:
7114:
7108:
7107:
7097:
7063:
7039:
7033:
7032:
7022:
6990:
6977:
6976:
6974:
6973:
6959:
6953:
6952:
6942:
6910:
6904:
6903:
6870:(2–3): 222–231.
6859:
6853:
6852:
6832:
6822:
6813:
6812:
6760:
6754:
6753:
6727:
6668:By comparison, H
6663:
6661:
6660:
6655:
6647:
6646:
6625:
6623:
6622:
6621:
6605:
6604:
6603:
6587:
6582:
6580:
6579:
6578:
6562:
6558:
6557:
6545:
6544:
6525:
6517:
6516:
6515:
6502:
6501:
6482:
6480:
6479:
6474:
6472:
6471:
6442:
6440:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6428:
6427:
6414:
6413:
6404:
6403:
6382:
6381:
6369:
6368:
6365:
6353:
6352:
6340:
6339:
6336:
6313:
6311:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6299:
6298:
6285:
6284:
6281:
6269:
6268:
6256:
6255:
6252:
6153:
6151:
6150:
6145:
6143:
6142:
6116:
6114:
6113:
6108:
6106:
6105:
6075:
6073:
6072:
6067:
6065:
6064:
6034:
6032:
6031:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6012:
6009:
6002:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5983:
5958:
5956:
5955:
5950:
5948:
5947:
5926:
5925:
5898:
5897:
5867:
5866:
5801:
5799:
5798:
5793:
5791:
5788:
5779:
5776:
5769:
5759:
5749:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5731:
5720:
5718:
5717:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5701:
5692:
5687:
5684:
5677:
5616:
5614:
5613:
5608:
5606:
5605:
5583:
5581:
5580:
5575:
5573:
5572:
5531:
5529:
5528:
5523:
5521:
5520:
5498:
5496:
5495:
5490:
5488:
5487:
5462:
5460:
5459:
5454:
5452:
5451:
5429:
5427:
5426:
5421:
5419:
5418:
5386:
5384:
5383:
5378:
5376:
5375:
5342:
5334:
5333:
5324:
5323:
5320:
5310:
5296:
5277:
5275:
5274:
5269:
5267:
5266:
5230:
5222:
5221:
5205:
5203:
5202:
5197:
5195:
5194:
5176:
5175:
5172:
5148:
5146:
5145:
5140:
5138:
5137:
5109:
5107:
5106:
5101:
5099:
5098:
5070:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5060:
5059:
5041:
5040:
5024:
5022:
5021:
5016:
5014:
5013:
4995:
4994:
4975:
4973:
4972:
4967:
4965:
4964:
4946:
4945:
4944:
4927:
4925:
4924:
4919:
4917:
4916:
4898:
4897:
4896:
4895:
4894:
4872:
4870:
4869:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4821:
4819:
4818:
4813:
4811:
4809:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4805:
4804:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4770:
4769:
4754:
4752:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4730:
4728:
4727:
4726:
4725:
4724:
4723:
4705:
4704:
4703:
4692:
4691:
4690:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4676:
4663:
4662:
4635:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4609:
4607:
4606:
4601:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4575:
4573:
4572:
4551:
4550:
4547:
4538:
4537:
4534:
4521:
4519:
4518:
4513:
4498:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4488:
4487:
4472:
4471:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4439:
4438:
4429:
4427:
4419:
4415:
4414:
4402:
4401:
4386:
4385:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4364:
4355:
4353:
4351:
4343:
4339:
4338:
4326:
4325:
4310:
4309:
4299:
4294:
4293:
4274:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4255:
4243:
4242:
4223:
4221:
4220:
4215:
4213:
4209:
4207:
4199:
4192:
4191:
4179:
4178:
4165:
4159:
4158:
4149:
4148:
4136:
4135:
4116:
4114:
4113:
4108:
4094:
4089:
4088:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4042:
4040:
4039:
4034:
4020:
4015:
4014:
3995:
3993:
3992:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3968:
3966:
3965:
3960:
3958:
3957:
3948:
3947:
3935:
3934:
3918:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3908:
3907:
3891:
3889:
3888:
3883:
3881:
3880:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3845:
3833:
3832:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3808:
3806:
3805:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3762:
3760:
3759:
3754:
3752:
3751:
3735:
3733:
3732:
3727:
3713:
3708:
3707:
3685:
3683:
3682:
3677:
3675:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3660:
3653:
3652:
3640:
3639:
3626:
3621:
3619:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3596:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3581:
3580:
3570:
3569:
3560:
3553:
3552:
3543:
3542:
3530:
3528:
3520:
3519:
3518:
3505:
3491:
3490:
3471:
3469:
3468:
3463:
3449:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3403:
3395:
3393:
3388:
3387:
3378:
3373:
3371:
3363:
3356:
3355:
3343:
3342:
3329:
3324:
3322:
3314:
3313:
3312:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3284:
3283:
3273:
3272:
3263:
3256:
3255:
3246:
3245:
3233:
3231:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3208:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3158:
3157:
3135:
3133:
3132:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3110:
3102:
3100:
3095:
3094:
3085:
3080:
3078:
3070:
3063:
3062:
3050:
3049:
3036:
3031:
3029:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3006:
3004:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2991:
2990:
2980:
2979:
2970:
2963:
2962:
2953:
2952:
2937:
2936:
2927:
2926:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2863:
2858:
2857:
2838:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2813:
2805:
2803:
2798:
2797:
2788:
2783:
2781:
2773:
2766:
2765:
2753:
2752:
2739:
2734:
2732:
2724:
2723:
2722:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2694:
2693:
2683:
2682:
2673:
2666:
2665:
2650:
2649:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2607:
2599:
2597:
2589:
2584:
2573:
2571:
2560:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2525:
2514:
2509:
2507:
2499:
2491:
2489:
2481:
2476:
2465:
2463:
2452:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2416:
2415:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2364:
2362:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2333:
2319:
2317:
2306:
2304:
2299:
2298:
2297:
2285:
2284:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2259:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2216:
2215:
2205:
2204:
2195:
2188:
2187:
2172:
2171:
2159:
2158:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2116:
2108:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2094:
2086:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2054:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2019:
2018:
1993:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1951:
1950:
1945:
1944:
1936:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1886:Temperature (K)
1883:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1848:
1847:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1779:
1767:
1766:
1754:
1746:
1745:
1736:
1735:
1723:
1722:
1713:
1712:
1692:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1663:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1653:
1652:
1636:
1634:
1633:
1628:
1626:
1625:
1603:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1562:
1561:
1549:
1548:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1492:
1491:
1475:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1443:
1441:
1440:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1406:
1404:
1403:
1398:
1396:
1395:
1370:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1360:
1359:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1310:
1308:
1307:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1269:
1267:
1266:
1261:
1260:
1252:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1224:
1216:
1196:
1192:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1167:
1159:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1145:
1137:
1130:
1128:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1106:
1105:
1095:
1087:
1070:
1069:
1054:
1037:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1018:
1017:
1007:
1002:
998:
993:
992:
983:
974:
972:
971:
970:
961:
960:
950:
949:
940:
933:
932:
917:
916:
911:
910:
902:
895:
894:
889:
888:
880:
863:
861:
860:
855:
843:
841:
840:
835:
833:
832:
816:
814:
813:
808:
796:
794:
793:
788:
774:
772:
771:
766:
764:
762:
754:
753:
752:
739:
724:
721:
719:
697:
695:
694:
689:
686:
683:
681:
668:
665:
663:
651:
650:
631:
629:
628:
623:
595:
593:
592:
587:
585:
584:
566:
565:
533:
531:
530:
525:
523:
522:
491:
489:
488:
483:
469:
468:
467:
466:
465:
441:
440:
439:
435:
434:
413:
412:
411:
410:
409:
388:
387:
386:
370:
362:
361:
342:
340:
339:
334:
329:
321:
320:
304:
302:
301:
296:
285:
284:
268:
266:
265:
260:
246:
244:
243:
238:
233:
225:
224:
209:
208:
189:
187:
186:
181:
179:
178:
21:
7725:
7724:
7720:
7719:
7718:
7716:
7715:
7714:
7675:
7674:
7673:
7672:
7618:
7617:
7613:
7562:Origins of Life
7559:
7558:
7554:
7515:(E12): E12002.
7504:
7499:
7498:
7494:
7456:
7455:
7451:
7413:
7412:
7408:
7354:
7353:
7349:
7328:
7316:
7299:
7298:
7294:
7279:
7266:
7265:
7261:
7223:
7222:
7218:
7178:
7173:
7172:
7168:
7116:
7115:
7111:
7041:
7040:
7036:
6992:
6991:
6980:
6971:
6969:
6961:
6960:
6956:
6912:
6911:
6907:
6861:
6860:
6856:
6841:
6824:
6823:
6816:
6762:
6761:
6757:
6750:
6729:
6728:
6707:
6702:
6695:
6691:
6687:
6682:
6675:
6671:
6635:
6613:
6606:
6595:
6588:
6570:
6563:
6549:
6527:
6526:
6507:
6493:
6488:
6487:
6463:
6452:
6451:
6449:
6419:
6405:
6395:
6373:
6360:
6344:
6331:
6326:
6325:
6320:
6290:
6276:
6260:
6247:
6242:
6241:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6180:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6134:
6123:
6122:
6120:
6097:
6086:
6085:
6083:
6079:
6056:
6045:
6044:
6042:
6038:
5972:
5971:
5969:
5939:
5914:
5889:
5858:
5853:
5852:
5847:
5843:
5836:
5832:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5724:
5723:
5670:
5669:
5664:
5660:
5652:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5597:
5586:
5585:
5564:
5541:
5540:
5512:
5501:
5500:
5479:
5468:
5467:
5443:
5432:
5431:
5410:
5399:
5398:
5367:
5325:
5315:
5283:
5282:
5255:
5213:
5208:
5207:
5186:
5167:
5162:
5161:
5155:
5129:
5112:
5111:
5090:
5073:
5072:
5051:
5032:
5027:
5026:
5005:
4983:
4978:
4977:
4956:
4935:
4930:
4929:
4908:
4886:
4880:
4875:
4874:
4853:
4832:
4827:
4826:
4796:
4790:
4775:
4774:
4761:
4755:
4740:
4734:
4715:
4709:
4694:
4693:
4681:
4667:
4654:
4649:
4648:
4643:
4639:
4612:
4611:
4586:
4585:
4561:
4542:
4529:
4524:
4523:
4504:
4503:
4479:
4463:
4458:
4457:
4430:
4420:
4406:
4393:
4377:
4376:
4356:
4344:
4330:
4317:
4301:
4300:
4285:
4280:
4279:
4247:
4234:
4229:
4228:
4200:
4183:
4170:
4166:
4160:
4150:
4140:
4127:
4122:
4121:
4117:) is therefore
4080:
4072:
4071:
4050:
4045:
4044:
4006:
3998:
3997:
3976:
3971:
3970:
3949:
3939:
3926:
3921:
3920:
3899:
3894:
3893:
3872:
3867:
3866:
3837:
3824:
3819:
3818:
3797:
3792:
3791:
3770:
3765:
3764:
3743:
3738:
3737:
3699:
3691:
3690:
3661:
3644:
3631:
3627:
3612:
3601:
3597:
3582:
3572:
3571:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3544:
3534:
3521:
3510:
3506:
3482:
3477:
3476:
3434:
3433:
3404:
3396:
3379:
3364:
3347:
3334:
3330:
3315:
3304:
3300:
3285:
3275:
3274:
3264:
3261:
3257:
3247:
3237:
3224:
3213:
3209:
3149:
3144:
3143:
3111:
3103:
3086:
3071:
3054:
3041:
3037:
3022:
3011:
3007:
2992:
2982:
2981:
2971:
2968:
2964:
2954:
2944:
2928:
2918:
2895:
2894:
2870:
2849:
2844:
2843:
2814:
2806:
2789:
2774:
2757:
2744:
2740:
2725:
2714:
2710:
2695:
2685:
2684:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2657:
2641:
2636:
2635:
2608:
2600:
2564:
2554:
2553:
2526:
2515:
2500:
2492:
2456:
2446:
2445:
2407:
2402:
2401:
2355:
2340:
2310:
2289:
2276:
2275:
2251:
2245:
2235:
2217:
2207:
2206:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2179:
2163:
2150:
2145:
2144:
2105:
2083:
2078:
2077:
2045:
2044:
2037:
2010:
2005:
2004:
1976:
1975:
1933:
1928:
1927:
1897:
1892:
1891:
1866:
1865:
1836:
1825:
1824:
1799:
1798:
1771:
1758:
1737:
1727:
1714:
1704:
1696:
1695:
1675:
1674:
1644:
1639:
1638:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1584:
1579:
1578:
1573:(molecules cm)
1553:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1514:
1513:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1424:
1413:
1412:
1387:
1382:
1381:
1351:
1346:
1345:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1291:
1286:
1285:
1249:
1244:
1243:
1213:
1208:
1207:
1156:
1134:
1118:
1107:
1097:
1096:
1061:
1022:
1009:
1008:
984:
978:
962:
952:
951:
941:
938:
934:
924:
899:
877:
872:
871:
846:
845:
824:
819:
818:
799:
798:
779:
778:
755:
744:
740:
706:
705:
642:
637:
636:
614:
613:
609:
576:
557:
552:
551:
549:
545:
542:, 3 ppmv H
541:
514:
497:
496:
457:
448:
426:
420:
401:
395:
377:
353:
348:
347:
312:
307:
306:
276:
271:
270:
251:
250:
216:
200:
195:
194:
170:
165:
164:
162:
143:
139:
131:
115:
111:
107:
95:escape velocity
75:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7723:
7721:
7713:
7712:
7707:
7702:
7700:Origin of life
7697:
7692:
7687:
7677:
7676:
7671:
7670:
7631:(9): 751–754.
7611:
7568:(1–4): 75–82.
7552:
7492:
7449:
7406:
7347:
7314:
7292:
7278:978-1322254555
7277:
7259:
7216:
7189:(4): 639–642.
7166:
7109:
7054:(2): 133–189.
7034:
7005:(2): 305–317.
6978:
6954:
6925:(4): 726–732.
6905:
6854:
6839:
6814:
6755:
6748:
6704:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6693:
6689:
6685:
6680:
6673:
6669:
6666:
6665:
6653:
6650:
6645:
6642:
6638:
6634:
6631:
6628:
6620:
6616:
6612:
6609:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6591:
6585:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6566:
6561:
6556:
6552:
6548:
6543:
6540:
6537:
6534:
6530:
6523:
6520:
6514:
6510:
6505:
6500:
6496:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6459:
6447:
6444:
6443:
6432:
6426:
6422:
6417:
6412:
6408:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6391:
6388:
6385:
6380:
6376:
6372:
6363:
6359:
6356:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6334:
6318:
6315:
6314:
6303:
6297:
6293:
6288:
6279:
6275:
6272:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6250:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6176:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6130:
6118:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6093:
6081:
6077:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6052:
6040:
6036:
6019:
6016:
6008:
6000:
5989:
5980:
5967:
5961:
5960:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5935:
5932:
5929:
5924:
5921:
5917:
5913:
5910:
5907:
5904:
5901:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5885:
5882:
5879:
5876:
5873:
5870:
5865:
5861:
5845:
5841:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5786:
5783:
5775:
5765:
5762:
5757:
5754:
5748:
5737:
5721:
5706:
5700:
5697:
5691:
5683:
5662:
5658:
5650:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:H atoms cm⋅s.
5604:
5600:
5596:
5593:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5560:
5557:
5554:
5551:
5548:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5508:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5475:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5439:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5406:
5389:
5388:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5363:
5360:
5357:
5354:
5351:
5348:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5332:
5328:
5318:
5314:
5309:
5306:
5303:
5300:
5295:
5291:
5265:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5251:
5248:
5245:
5242:
5239:
5236:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5220:
5216:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5182:
5179:
5170:
5154:
5151:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5125:
5122:
5119:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5086:
5083:
5080:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5047:
5044:
5039:
5035:
5012:
5008:
5004:
5001:
4998:
4993:
4990:
4986:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4952:
4949:
4943:
4938:
4928:molecules cm,
4915:
4911:
4907:
4904:
4901:
4893:
4889:
4883:
4873:molecules cm,
4860:
4856:
4852:
4849:
4846:
4840:
4835:
4823:
4822:
4803:
4799:
4793:
4789:
4783:
4778:
4768:
4764:
4758:
4747:
4743:
4737:
4733:
4722:
4718:
4712:
4708:
4702:
4697:
4689:
4684:
4675:
4670:
4666:
4661:
4657:
4641:
4637:
4625:
4622:
4619:
4599:
4596:
4593:
4571:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4557:
4554:
4545:
4541:
4532:
4511:
4500:
4499:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4475:
4470:
4466:
4451:
4450:
4437:
4433:
4426:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4359:
4350:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4313:
4308:
4304:
4297:
4292:
4288:
4264:
4260:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4241:
4237:
4225:
4224:
4212:
4206:
4203:
4198:
4195:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4163:
4157:
4153:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4134:
4130:
4106:
4103:
4100:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4057:
4053:
4032:
4029:
4026:
4023:
4019:
4013:
4009:
4005:
3983:
3979:
3956:
3952:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3906:
3902:
3879:
3875:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3827:
3804:
3800:
3777:
3773:
3750:
3746:
3725:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3687:
3686:
3674:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3656:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3615:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3589:
3585:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3564:
3557:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3527:
3524:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3489:
3485:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3430:
3429:
3417:
3410:
3407:
3402:
3399:
3391:
3386:
3382:
3376:
3370:
3367:
3362:
3359:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3327:
3321:
3318:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3267:
3260:
3254:
3250:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3137:
3136:
3124:
3117:
3114:
3109:
3106:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3083:
3077:
3074:
3069:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3028:
3025:
3018:
3014:
3010:
2999:
2995:
2989:
2985:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2961:
2957:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2940:
2935:
2931:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2907:
2903:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2852:
2840:
2839:
2827:
2820:
2817:
2812:
2809:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2772:
2769:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2728:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2677:
2670:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2648:
2644:
2629:
2628:
2614:
2611:
2606:
2603:
2595:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2576:
2570:
2567:
2563:
2547:
2546:
2532:
2529:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2498:
2495:
2487:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2468:
2462:
2459:
2455:
2422:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2398:
2397:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2361:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2241:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2129:
2126:
2121:
2114:
2111:
2104:
2099:
2092:
2089:
2067:
2066:
2063:
2052:
2041:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2017:
2013:
2001:
2000:
1994:
1983:
1972:
1971:
1962:
1949:
1942:
1939:
1913:
1906:
1903:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1873:
1862:
1861:
1846:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1817:
1806:
1795:
1794:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1693:
1682:
1671:
1670:
1664:
1651:
1647:
1624:
1620:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1591:
1587:
1575:
1574:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1532:
1521:
1510:
1509:
1503:
1490:
1486:
1463:
1459:
1447:
1446:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1407:
1394:
1390:
1378:
1377:
1371:
1358:
1354:
1342:
1341:
1338:
1325:
1321:
1298:
1294:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1265:
1258:
1255:
1229:
1222:
1219:
1204:
1203:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1165:
1162:
1155:
1150:
1143:
1140:
1133:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1035:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1005:
1001:
996:
991:
987:
981:
977:
969:
965:
959:
955:
948:
944:
937:
931:
927:
923:
920:
915:
908:
905:
898:
893:
886:
883:
853:
831:
827:
806:
786:
776:
775:
761:
758:
751:
747:
743:
737:
734:
731:
728:
718:
714:
699:
698:
680:
676:
672:
662:
658:
654:
649:
645:
621:
608:
605:
583:
579:
575:
572:
569:
564:
560:
547:
543:
539:
521:
517:
513:
510:
507:
504:
493:
492:
481:
478:
475:
472:
464:
460:
456:
451:
447:
444:
438:
433:
429:
423:
419:
416:
408:
404:
398:
394:
391:
385:
380:
376:
373:
369:
365:
360:
356:
332:
328:
324:
319:
315:
294:
291:
288:
283:
279:
258:
248:
247:
236:
232:
228:
223:
219:
215:
212:
207:
203:
177:
173:
160:
141:
137:
129:
113:
109:
105:
74:
71:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7722:
7711:
7708:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7682:
7680:
7666:
7662:
7657:
7652:
7647:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7626:
7622:
7615:
7612:
7607:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7556:
7553:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7539:2027.42/94638
7536:
7531:
7526:
7522:
7518:
7514:
7510:
7503:
7496:
7493:
7488:
7484:
7480:
7476:
7472:
7468:
7464:
7460:
7453:
7450:
7445:
7441:
7437:
7433:
7429:
7425:
7421:
7417:
7410:
7407:
7402:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7370:
7366:
7362:
7358:
7351:
7348:
7343:
7339:
7333:
7325:
7321:
7317:
7311:
7306:
7305:
7296:
7293:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7274:
7270:
7263:
7260:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7232:(C10): 9859.
7231:
7227:
7220:
7217:
7212:
7208:
7204:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7177:
7170:
7167:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7150:
7145:
7140:
7136:
7132:
7128:
7124:
7120:
7113:
7110:
7105:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7087:
7083:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7067:
7062:
7057:
7053:
7049:
7045:
7038:
7035:
7030:
7026:
7021:
7016:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6989:
6987:
6985:
6983:
6979:
6968:
6964:
6958:
6955:
6950:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6920:
6916:
6909:
6906:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6885:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6858:
6855:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6836:
6833:. Macmillan.
6831:
6830:
6821:
6819:
6815:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6794:
6790:
6786:
6782:
6778:
6774:
6770:
6766:
6759:
6756:
6751:
6749:9781139020558
6745:
6741:
6737:
6733:
6726:
6724:
6722:
6720:
6718:
6716:
6714:
6712:
6710:
6706:
6699:
6697:
6677:
6651:
6648:
6643:
6640:
6636:
6632:
6629:
6626:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6607:
6600:
6596:
6592:
6589:
6583:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6564:
6554:
6550:
6541:
6538:
6535:
6532:
6521:
6512:
6498:
6494:
6486:
6485:
6484:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6457:
6424:
6410:
6406:
6400:
6396:
6392:
6389:
6386:
6378:
6374:
6357:
6349:
6345:
6324:
6323:
6322:
6295:
6273:
6265:
6261:
6240:
6239:
6238:
6223:
6177:
6175:
6139:
6135:
6131:
6128:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6091:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6050:
6017:
6014:
6006:
5987:
5978:
5965:
5964:Stoichiometry
5944:
5940:
5936:
5933:
5930:
5922:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5908:
5902:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5883:
5877:
5871:
5863:
5851:
5850:
5849:
5838:
5784:
5781:
5773:
5763:
5760:
5752:
5746:
5735:
5722:
5704:
5695:
5689:
5681:
5668:
5667:
5666:
5656:
5647:
5625:
5618:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5591:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5555:
5552:
5549:
5538:
5536:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5506:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5473:
5464:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5437:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5404:
5396:
5394:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5358:
5355:
5352:
5346:
5330:
5326:
5316:
5312:
5307:
5304:
5301:
5298:
5293:
5281:
5280:
5279:
5263:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5246:
5243:
5240:
5234:
5218:
5214:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5180:
5177:
5168:
5158:
5152:
5150:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5123:
5120:
5117:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5084:
5081:
5078:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5045:
5042:
5037:
5033:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4999:
4996:
4991:
4988:
4984:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4950:
4947:
4936:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4902:
4899:
4891:
4881:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4847:
4844:
4833:
4801:
4791:
4787:
4776:
4766:
4756:
4745:
4735:
4731:
4720:
4710:
4706:
4695:
4682:
4668:
4664:
4659:
4655:
4647:
4646:
4645:
4623:
4620:
4617:
4597:
4594:
4591:
4569:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4555:
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3415:
3408:
3405:
3400:
3397:
3389:
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3309:
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3290:
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3141:
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2239:
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2222:
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2197:
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2119:
2109:
2102:
2097:
2087:
2075:
2064:
2050:
2043:
2042:
2039:
2031:
2015:
2011:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1981:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1947:
1937:
1911:
1901:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1871:
1864:
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1715:
1709:
1705:
1694:
1680:
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1618:
1610:
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1605:
1589:
1585:
1577:
1576:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1533:
1519:
1512:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1488:
1484:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1448:
1445:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1408:
1392:
1388:
1380:
1379:
1376:
1372:
1356:
1352:
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1339:
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1284:
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1279:
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1206:
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1198:
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1179:
1170:
1160:
1153:
1148:
1138:
1125:
1122:
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1080:
1077:
1066:
1062:
1058:
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1047:
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1033:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1003:
999:
994:
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985:
979:
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946:
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896:
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869:
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851:
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825:
804:
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756:
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735:
732:
729:
726:
716:
704:
703:
702:
678:
670:
660:
652:
647:
635:
634:
633:
619:
606:
604:
602:
597:
581:
577:
573:
570:
567:
562:
537:
519:
515:
511:
508:
505:
502:
479:
476:
473:
470:
462:
449:
445:
442:
431:
421:
417:
414:
406:
396:
392:
389:
378:
374:
358:
354:
346:
345:
344:
317:
313:
289:
281:
277:
256:
221:
217:
213:
210:
205:
193:
192:
191:
175:
157:
155:
151:
147:
135:
127:
123:
119:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
79:
72:
70:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
7656:11573/908413
7628:
7624:
7614:
7565:
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7555:
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7508:
7495:
7462:
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7169:
7129:(2): 53–76.
7126:
7122:
7112:
7051:
7048:Astrobiology
7047:
7037:
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6998:
6970:. Retrieved
6966:
6957:
6922:
6918:
6908:
6867:
6863:
6857:
6828:
6768:
6764:
6758:
6731:
6678:
6667:
6445:
6316:
6224:
6181:
5962:
5959:H atoms cm⋅s
5839:
5804:
5648:
5629:
5534:
5465:
5392:
5390:
5387:H atoms cm⋅s
5159:
5156:
4824:
4501:
4452:
4226:
3688:
3431:
3138:
2841:
2630:
2548:
2399:
2070:
2033:
1997:
1968:
1965:
1822:
1667:
1506:
1444:cm s for H)
1410:
1374:
866:
777:
700:
610:
598:
494:
249:
158:
154:suprathermal
146:heterosphere
99:
84:
67:
42:
30:
29:
7710:Proterozoic
1202:Definition
134:ultraviolet
102:troposphere
7685:Atmosphere
7679:Categories
7315:0521075777
7123:Geobiology
7061:1608.08620
6972:2019-06-09
6840:0028543904
6700:References
5655:photolysis
5537:spacecraft
4976:cm⋅s, and
2435:chain rule
607:Derivation
601:polar wind
126:tropopause
118:homosphere
7665:0091-7613
7590:0302-1688
7547:0148-0227
7487:0148-0227
7444:0148-0227
7385:0036-8075
7332:cite book
7287:895251690
7254:0148-0227
7211:0148-0227
7161:128501605
7153:1472-4677
7086:1531-1074
7029:0022-4928
6949:0022-4928
6900:129027583
6892:0033-4553
6849:888673181
6793:0036-8075
6641:−
6633:×
6611:×
6593:×
6568:×
6529:Φ
6522:≈
6461:×
6393:×
6362:Φ
6358:≈
6333:Φ
6278:Φ
6274:≈
6249:Φ
6218:to form H
6132:×
6095:×
6054:×
5999:⟶
5937:×
5920:−
5912:×
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5887:×
5860:Φ
5756:⟶
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5699:⟶
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5510:×
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5088:×
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4997:≈
4954:×
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4906:×
4900:≈
4851:×
4845:≈
4621:≈
4610:m⋅s, and
4567:−
4559:×
4553:≈
4540:−
4465:Φ
4404:−
4328:−
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4181:−
4129:Φ
4052:Φ
3928:Φ
3642:−
3532:−
3496:−
3484:Φ
3457:≈
3381:α
3345:−
3235:−
3199:−
3182:Φ
3164:Φ
3151:Φ
3088:α
3052:−
2942:−
2902:Φ
2791:α
2755:−
2655:−
2578:
2517:−
2470:
2372:
2342:α
2327:
2287:−
2177:−
2161:−
2113:→
2091:→
2012:α
1941:→
1905:→
1842:−
1834:×
1422:×
1257:→
1221:→
1199:Variable
1164:→
1154:−
1142:→
1092:−
1081:
1072:∇
1063:α
1048:
1039:∇
1020:−
976:∇
922:−
907:→
897:−
885:→
730:−
713:Φ
675:Φ
657:Φ
644:Φ
574:×
559:Φ
512:×
202:Φ
172:Φ
122:homopause
91:exosphere
7690:Hydrogen
7606:29721376
7598:11536587
7401:25856765
7393:11729314
7104:29431479
6809:37386726
6801:11486082
4548:hydrogen
2437:and the
2038:in air)
112:, and CH
7633:Bibcode
7625:Geology
7570:Bibcode
7517:Bibcode
7467:Bibcode
7424:Bibcode
7365:Bibcode
7357:Science
7234:Bibcode
7191:Bibcode
7131:Bibcode
7095:5820795
7066:Bibcode
7007:Bibcode
6967:aas.org
6927:Bibcode
6872:Bibcode
6773:Bibcode
6765:Science
5535:Cassini
5395:6 and 7
5393:Mariner
1969:(cm s)
87:exobase
39:exobase
7705:Oxygen
7663:
7604:
7596:
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7383:
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7027:
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6799:
6791:
6746:
6039:from H
5970:(i.e.
5821:from H
5539:to be
4227:Since
7602:S2CID
7505:(PDF)
7397:S2CID
7324:74562
7179:(PDF)
7157:S2CID
7056:arXiv
6896:S2CID
6805:S2CID
6692:and H
5661:and H
5657:of CO
4275:,
1859:J K)
59:Titan
55:Venus
47:Earth
7661:ISSN
7594:PMID
7586:ISSN
7543:ISSN
7483:ISSN
7440:ISSN
7389:PMID
7381:ISSN
7342:link
7338:link
7320:OCLC
7310:ISBN
7283:OCLC
7273:ISBN
7250:ISSN
7207:ISSN
7149:ISSN
7100:PMID
7082:ISSN
7025:ISSN
6945:ISSN
6888:ISSN
6845:OCLC
6835:ISBN
6797:PMID
6789:ISSN
6744:ISBN
6664:ppmv
6590:3.75
6458:3.75
6337:volc
6253:volc
6051:3.75
5430:and
5321:Mars
5173:Mars
5000:1.46
4951:2.73
4825:For
4598:9.81
3191:eddy
1926:and
1831:1.38
1637:and
1476:and
722:eddy
684:eddy
538:) CH
108:O, H
57:and
51:Mars
7651:hdl
7641:doi
7578:doi
7535:hdl
7525:doi
7513:115
7475:doi
7432:doi
7373:doi
7361:294
7242:doi
7199:doi
7139:doi
7090:PMC
7074:doi
7015:doi
6935:doi
6880:doi
6868:116
6781:doi
6769:293
6736:doi
6652:150
6630:1.5
6608:2.5
6565:2.5
6390:2.5
6366:esc
6282:esc
6222:O.
6129:1.9
6092:7.5
5934:1.5
5884:2.5
5556:2.1
5550:2.0
5474:1.7
5359:1.1
5353:3.3
5181:1.1
5124:2.5
5085:2.9
5046:1.8
4903:5.2
4848:1.8
4624:208
4556:4.8
4535:air
4453:or
3173:mol
2911:mol
1419:2.6
666:mol
571:4.3
509:2.5
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5869:(
5864:l
5846:2
5842:2
5835:2
5831:2
5827:2
5823:2
5819:2
5815:2
5811:2
5807:2
5789:H
5785:2
5782:+
5774:2
5770:O
5764:2
5761:1
5750:h
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5744:O
5736:2
5732:H
5708:O
5705:+
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5644:2
5640:2
5636:2
5632:2
5592:3
5559:)
5547:(
5518:7
5507:3
5485:7
5449:8
5438:2
5416:8
5405:1
5373:8
5362:)
5350:(
5347:=
5344:)
5340:H
5336:(
5331:T
5327:f
5317:C
5313:=
5308:s
5305:r
5302:a
5299:m
5294:l
5264:6
5250:)
5238:(
5235:=
5232:)
5228:H
5224:(
5219:T
5215:f
5178:=
5169:C
5121:=
5118:C
5082:=
5079:C
5043:=
5034:b
4992:2
4989:H
4985:b
4942:H
4937:b
4914:7
4892:2
4888:H
4882:n
4859:7
4839:H
4834:n
4802:2
4798:H
4792:n
4788:+
4782:H
4777:n
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4763:H
4757:n
4746:2
4742:H
4736:b
4732:+
4721:2
4717:H
4711:n
4707:+
4701:H
4696:n
4688:H
4683:n
4674:H
4669:b
4665:=
4656:b
4642:2
4638:2
4618:T
4595:=
4592:g
4544:m
4531:m
4510:C
4485:1
4481:f
4477:C
4474:=
4469:l
4436:1
4432:f
4425:T
4422:k
4417:)
4412:1
4408:m
4399:2
4395:m
4391:(
4388:g
4379:b
4372:=
4367:n
4362:1
4358:n
4349:T
4346:k
4341:)
4336:1
4332:m
4323:2
4319:m
4315:(
4312:g
4303:b
4296:=
4291:l
4263:n
4259:/
4249:b
4245:=
4236:D
4211:)
4205:T
4202:k
4197:g
4194:)
4189:1
4185:m
4176:2
4172:m
4168:(
4162:(
4156:1
4152:n
4142:D
4138:=
4133:l
4105:0
4102:=
4099:z
4096:d
4092:/
4086:1
4082:f
4078:d
4056:l
4031:0
4028:=
4025:z
4022:d
4018:/
4012:1
4008:f
4004:d
3982:1
3978:w
3955:1
3951:n
3945:1
3941:w
3937:=
3932:1
3905:1
3901:w
3878:1
3874:n
3853:n
3849:/
3843:1
3839:n
3835:=
3830:1
3826:f
3803:1
3799:n
3776:1
3772:f
3749:1
3745:f
3724:0
3721:=
3718:z
3715:d
3711:/
3705:1
3701:f
3697:d
3673:)
3666:T
3663:k
3658:g
3655:)
3650:1
3646:m
3637:2
3633:m
3629:(
3623:+
3617:z
3614:d
3607:1
3603:f
3599:d
3588:2
3584:n
3578:1
3574:n
3567:2
3563:n
3556:(
3550:1
3546:n
3536:D
3526:z
3523:d
3516:1
3512:f
3508:d
3502:n
3499:K
3493:=
3488:1
3460:0
3454:z
3451:d
3447:/
3443:T
3440:d
3416:)
3409:z
3406:d
3401:T
3398:d
3390:T
3385:T
3375:+
3369:T
3366:k
3361:g
3358:)
3353:1
3349:m
3340:2
3336:m
3332:(
3326:+
3320:z
3317:d
3310:1
3306:f
3302:d
3291:2
3287:n
3281:1
3277:n
3270:2
3266:n
3259:(
3253:1
3249:n
3239:D
3229:z
3226:d
3219:1
3215:f
3211:d
3205:n
3202:K
3196:=
3186:1
3178:+
3168:1
3160:=
3155:1
3123:)
3116:z
3113:d
3108:T
3105:d
3097:T
3092:T
3082:+
3076:T
3073:k
3068:g
3065:)
3060:1
3056:m
3047:2
3043:m
3039:(
3033:+
3027:z
3024:d
3017:1
3013:f
3009:d
2998:2
2994:n
2988:1
2984:n
2977:2
2973:n
2966:(
2960:1
2956:n
2946:D
2939:=
2934:1
2930:n
2924:1
2920:w
2916:=
2906:1
2876:1
2872:f
2868:=
2865:n
2861:/
2855:1
2851:n
2826:)
2819:z
2816:d
2811:T
2808:d
2800:T
2795:T
2785:+
2779:T
2776:k
2771:g
2768:)
2763:1
2759:m
2750:2
2746:m
2742:(
2736:+
2730:z
2727:d
2720:1
2716:f
2712:d
2701:2
2697:n
2691:1
2687:n
2680:2
2676:n
2669:(
2659:D
2652:=
2647:1
2643:w
2613:z
2610:d
2605:T
2602:d
2594:T
2591:1
2586:=
2582:T
2569:z
2566:d
2562:d
2531:T
2528:k
2523:g
2520:m
2511:=
2505:z
2502:d
2497:P
2494:d
2486:P
2483:1
2478:=
2474:P
2461:z
2458:d
2454:d
2421:0
2418:=
2413:2
2409:w
2384:)
2380:)
2376:T
2366:(
2360:z
2357:d
2353:d
2346:T
2338:+
2335:)
2331:P
2321:(
2315:z
2312:d
2308:d
2301:m
2295:1
2291:m
2282:2
2278:m
2271:+
2267:)
2262:n
2257:1
2253:n
2247:(
2240:z
2237:d
2233:d
2223:2
2219:n
2213:1
2209:n
2202:2
2198:n
2191:(
2181:D
2174:=
2169:2
2165:w
2156:1
2152:w
2128:g
2125:=
2120:2
2110:a
2103:=
2098:1
2088:a
2051:P
2036:2
2016:T
1982:g
1948:2
1938:a
1912:1
1902:a
1872:T
1823:(
1805:k
1782:)
1777:2
1773:n
1769:+
1764:1
1760:n
1756:(
1752:/
1748:)
1743:2
1739:m
1733:1
1729:n
1725:+
1720:1
1716:m
1710:1
1706:n
1702:(
1681:m
1650:2
1646:m
1623:1
1619:m
1590:1
1586:f
1559:2
1555:n
1551:+
1546:1
1542:n
1520:n
1489:2
1485:n
1462:1
1458:n
1411:(
1389:b
1353:D
1324:2
1320:w
1297:1
1293:w
1264:2
1254:v
1228:1
1218:v
1180:)
1176:)
1171:2
1161:a
1149:1
1139:a
1132:(
1126:T
1123:k
1120:m
1113:2
1109:m
1103:1
1099:m
1089:)
1085:T
1075:(
1067:T
1059:+
1056:)
1052:P
1042:(
1034:m
1028:1
1024:m
1015:2
1011:m
1004:+
1000:)
995:n
990:1
986:n
980:(
968:2
964:n
958:1
954:n
947:2
943:n
936:(
926:D
919:=
914:2
904:v
892:1
882:v
852:i
830:i
826:f
805:n
785:K
760:z
757:d
750:i
746:f
742:d
736:n
733:K
727:=
717:i
679:i
671:+
661:i
653:=
648:i
620:i
582:8
568:=
563:l
548:2
544:2
540:4
506:=
503:C
480:.
477:.
474:.
471:+
463:4
459:H
455:C
450:f
446:4
443:+
437:O
432:2
428:H
422:f
418:2
415:+
407:2
403:H
397:f
393:2
390:+
384:H
379:f
375:=
372:)
368:H
364:(
359:T
355:f
331:)
327:H
323:(
318:T
314:f
293:)
290:H
287:(
282:T
278:f
257:C
235:)
231:H
227:(
222:T
218:f
214:C
211:=
206:l
176:l
161:2
142:2
138:2
130:2
114:4
110:2
106:2
20:)
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