484:. The projectile can impart momentum, and thereby facilitate escape of the atmosphere, in three main ways: (a) the meteoroid heats and accelerates the gas it encounters as it travels through the atmosphere, (b) solid ejecta from the impact crater heat atmospheric particles through drag as they are ejected, and (c) the impact creates vapor which expands away from the surface. In the first case, the heated gas can escape in a manner similar to hydrodynamic escape, albeit on a more localized scale. Most of the escape from impact erosion occurs due to the third case. The maximum atmosphere that can be ejected is above a plane tangent to the impact site.
319:
552:
atmospheric processes, such as gravity waves, convection, and dust storms. Oxygen loss is dominated by suprathermal methods: photochemical (~1300 g/s), charge exchange (~130 g/s), and sputtering (~80 g/s) escape combine for a total loss rate of ~1500 g/s. Other heavy atoms, such as carbon and nitrogen, are primarily lost due to photochemical reactions and interactions with the solar wind.
421:
461:
88:
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Ions in the solar wind or magnetosphere can charge exchange with molecules in the upper atmosphere. A fast-moving ion can capture the electron from a slow atmospheric neutral, creating a fast neutral and a slow ion. The slow ion is trapped on the magnetic field lines, but the fast neutral can escape.
497:
Atmospheric escape of hydrogen on Earth is due to charge exchange escape (~60–90%), Jeans escape (~10–40%), and polar wind escape (~10–15%), currently losing about 3 kg/s of hydrogen. The Earth additionally loses approximately 50 g/s of helium primarily through polar wind escape. Escape of
342:
radiation, is absorbed by the atmosphere. As molecules are heated, they expand upwards and are further accelerated until they reach escape velocity. In this process, lighter molecules can drag heavier molecules with them through collisions as a larger quantity of gas escapes. Hydrodynamic escape has
298:
Three factors strongly contribute to the relative importance of Jeans escape: mass of the molecule, escape velocity of the planet, and heating of the upper atmosphere by radiation from the parent star. Heavier molecules are less likely to escape because they move slower than lighter molecules at the
551:
The MAVEN mission has also explored the current rate of atmospheric escape of Mars. Jeans escape plays an important role in the continued escape of hydrogen on Mars, contributing to a loss rate that varies between 160 - 1800 g/s. Jeans escape of hydrogen can be significantly modulated by lower
1847:
Ehrenreich, David; Bourrier, Vincent; Wheatley, Peter J.; des Etangs, Alain
Lecavelier; Hébrard, Guillaume; Udry, Stéphane; Bonfils, Xavier; Delfosse, Xavier; Désert, Jean-Michel (June 2015). "A giant comet-like cloud of hydrogen escaping the warm Neptune-mass exoplanet GJ 436b".
322:
A visualization of hydrodynamic escape. At some level in the atmosphere, the bulk gas will be heated and begin to expand. As the gas expands, it accelerates and escapes the atmosphere. In this process, lighter, faster molecules drag heavier, slower molecules out of the
315:. Finally, the distance a planet orbits from a star also plays a part; a close planet has a hotter atmosphere, with higher velocities and hence, a greater likelihood of escape. A distant body has a cooler atmosphere, with lower velocities, and less chance of escape.
1478:
Jakosky, B. M.; Brain, D.; Chaffin, M.; Curry, S.; Deighan, J.; Grebowsky, J.; Halekas, J.; Leblanc, F.; Lillis, R. (2018-11-15). "Loss of the
Martian atmosphere to space: Present-day loss rates determined from MAVEN observations and integrated loss through time".
577:
gained from pick-up and sputtering associated with the solar winds increases thermal escape throughout the orbit of Titan, causing neutral hydrogen to escape. The escaped hydrogen maintains an orbit following in the wake of Titan, creating a neutral hydrogen
44:. A number of different mechanisms can be responsible for atmospheric escape; these processes can be divided into thermal escape, non-thermal (or suprathermal) escape, and impact erosion. The relative importance of each loss process depends on the planet's
1257:
Lammer, H.; Lichtenegger, H. I. M.; Biernat, H. K.; Erkaev, N. V.; Arshukova, I. L.; Kolb, C.; Gunell, H.; Lukyanov, A.; Holmstrom, M.; Barabash, S.; Zhang, T. L.; Baumjohann, W. (2006). "Loss of hydrogen and oxygen from the upper atmosphere of Venus".
655:, which is an issue for Lyman-alpha. Helium has on the other hand the disadvantage that it requires knowledge about the hydrogen-helium ratio to model the mass-loss of the atmosphere. Helium escape was measured around many giant exoplanets, including
464:
Atmospheric escape from impact erosion is concentrated in a cone (red dash-dotted line) centered at the impact site. The angle of this cone increases with impact energy to eject a maximum of all the atmosphere above a tangent plane (orange dotted
452:. Near the poles of a magnetosphere, the magnetic field lines are open, allowing a pathway for ions in the atmosphere to exhaust into space. The ambipolar electric field accelerates any ions in the ionosphere, launching along these lines.
568:
have atmospheres and are subject to atmospheric loss processes. They have no magnetic fields of their own, but orbit planets with powerful magnetic fields, which protects a given moon from the solar wind when its orbit is within the
1785:
Lecavelier des Etangs, A.; Ehrenreich, D.; Vidal-Madjar, A.; Ballester, G. E.; Désert, J.-M.; Ferlet, R.; Hébrard, G.; Sing, D. K.; Tchakoumegni, K.-O. (May 2010). "Evaporation of the planet HD 189733b observed in H I Lyman- α".
2050:
Zhang, Michael; Knutson, Heather A.; Wang, Lile; Dai, Fei; dos Santos, Leonardo A.; Fossati, Luca; Henry, Gregory W.; Ehrenreich, David; Alibert, Yann; Hoyer, Sergio; Wilson, Thomas G.; Bonfanti, Andrea (2022-01-17).
91:
A visualization of Jeans escape. Temperature defines a range of molecular energy. Above the exobase, molecules with enough energy escape, while in the lower atmosphere, molecules are trapped by collisions with other
1917:
Spake, J. J.; Sing, D. K.; Evans, T. M.; Oklopčić; A.; Bourrier, V.; Kreidberg, L.; Rackham, B. V.; Irwin, J.; Ehrenreich, D.; Wyttenbach, A.; Wakeford, H. R.; Zhou, Y.; Chubb, K. L.; Nikolov, N. (2018-05-01).
1041:
Gronoff, G.; Arras, P.; Baraka, S.; Bell, J. M.; Cessateur, G.; Cohen, O.; Curry, S. M.; Drake, J. J.; Elrod, M.; Erwin, J.; Garcia‐Sage, K.; Garraffo, C.; Glocer, A.; Heavens, N. G.; Lovato, K. (2020).
501:
In 1 billion years, the Sun will be 10% brighter than it is now, making it hot enough on Earth to dramatically increase the water vapor in the atmosphere where solar ultraviolet light will dissociate H
1726:
Vidal-Madjar, A.; des Etangs, A. Lecavelier; Désert, J.-M.; Ballester, G. E.; Ferlet, R.; Hébrard, G.; Mayor, M. (March 2003). "An extended upper atmosphere around the extrasolar planet HD209458b".
261:
520:
is almost entirely due to suprathermal mechanisms, primarily photochemical reactions and charge exchange with the solar wind. Oxygen escape is dominated by charge exchange and sputtering escape.
528:
on the rate of atmospheric escape of Venus, and researchers found a factor of 1.9 increase in escape rate during periods of increased coronal mass ejections compared with calmer space weather.
125:, but the velocities of individual molecules change as they collide with one another, gaining and losing kinetic energy. The variation in kinetic energy among the molecules is described by the
424:
The fast ion captures an electron from a slow neutral in a charge exchange collision. The new, fast neutral can escape the atmosphere, and the new, slow ion is trapped on magnetic field lines.
307:. Second, a planet with a larger mass tends to have more gravity, so the escape velocity tends to be greater, and fewer particles will gain the energy required to escape. This is why the
846:
397:. In the first case, these ions may undergo escape mechanisms described below. In the second case, the ion recombines with an electron, releases energy, and can escape.
498:
other atmospheric constituents is much smaller. A Japanese research team in 2017 found evidence of a small number of oxygen ions on the moon that came from the Earth.
413:
from a solid surface. This type of interaction is more pronounced in the absence of a planetary magnetosphere, as the electrically charged solar wind is deflected by
160:
477:
can lead to the loss of atmosphere. If a collision is sufficiently energetic, it is possible for ejecta, including atmospheric molecules, to reach escape velocity.
200:
180:
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Sequestration is not a form of escape from the planet, but a loss of molecules from the atmosphere and into the planet. It occurs on Earth when water vapor
860:
Vidal-Madjar, A.; Dsert, J.-M.; Etangs; Hbrard, G.; Ballester, G. E.; Ehrenreich, D.; Ferlet, R.; McConnell, J. C.; Mayor, M.; Parkinson, C. D. (2004).
338:
An atmosphere with high pressure and temperature can also undergo hydrodynamic escape. In this case, a large amount of thermal energy, usually through
84:
is sufficiently high. Thermal escape happens at all scales, from the molecular level (Jeans escape) to bulk atmospheric outflow (hydrodynamic escape).
288:
602:
Studies of exoplanets have measured atmospheric escape as a means of determining atmospheric composition and habitability. The most common method is
957:
Lundin, Rickard; Lammer, Helmut; Ribas, Ignasi (2007-08-17). "Planetary
Magnetic Fields and Solar Forcing: Implications for Atmospheric Evolution".
1991:
Zhang, Michael; Knutson, Heather A.; Dai, Fei; Wang, Lile; Ricker, George R.; Schwarz, Richard P.; Mann, Christopher; Collins, Karen (2022-07-01).
1311:
Edberg, N. J. T.; Nilsson, H.; Futaana, Y.; Stenberg, G.; Lester, M.; Cowley, S. W. H.; Luhmann, J. G.; McEnulty, T. R.; Opgenoorth, H. J. (2011).
611:
1628:
Wilson, J. K.; Mendillo, M.; Baumgardner, J.; Schneider, N. M.; Trauger, J. T.; Flynn, B. (2002). "The dual sources of Io's sodium clouds".
2231:
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Primordial Mars also suffered from the cumulative effects of multiple small impact erosion events, and recent observations with
1593:
Lammer, H.; Stumptner, W.; Bauer, S. J. (1998). "Dynamic escape of H from Titan as consequence of sputtering induced heating".
1017:
573:. However Titan spends roughly half of its orbital period outside of the bow-shock, subjected to unimpeded solar winds. The
205:
64:
can escape when it is moving faster than the escape velocity of its planet. Categorizing the rate of atmospheric escape in
271:
and leave the atmosphere, provided they can escape before undergoing another collision; this happens predominantly in the
906:
Shematovich, V I; Marov, M Ya (2018-03-31). "Escape of planetary atmospheres: physical processes and numerical models".
69:
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Lyman-alpha lines. The wavelength around the helium triplet has also the advantage that it is not severely affected by
2193:
2115:
544:
in the
Martian atmosphere has been lost over the last 4 billion years due to suprathermal escape, and the amount of CO
480:
In order to have a significant effect on atmospheric escape, the radius of the impacting body must be larger than the
394:
1421:
Alsaeed, N.; Stone, S.; Yelle, R.; Elrod, M.; Mahaffy, P.; Benna, M.; Slipski, M.; Jakosky, B. M. (2017-03-31).
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describes the amount of hydrogen present in a sphere around the exoplanet. This method indicates that the
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Atmospheric molecules can also escape from the polar regions on a planet with a magnetosphere, due to the
49:
840:
525:
385:
can break a molecule into smaller components and provide enough energy for those components to escape.
312:
1199:
Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (May 1, 2008), "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited",
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2014:
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Melosh, H.J.; Vickery, A.M. (April 1989). "Impact erosion of the primordial atmosphere of Mars".
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absorption. Much as exoplanets are discovered using the dimming of a distant star's brightness (
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around Saturn. Io, in its orbit around
Jupiter, encounters a plasma cloud. Interaction with the
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of the distribution (where a few particles have much higher speeds than the average) may reach
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Owen, James E. (2019-05-30). "Atmospheric Escape and the
Evolution of Close-In Exoplanets".
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Escape can also occur due to non-thermal interactions. Most of these processes occur due to
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283:. The number of particles able to escape depends on the molecular concentration at the
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planets still retain significant amounts of hydrogen, which escape more readily from
1833:
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2191:
Lammer, H.; Bauer, S. J. (1993). "Atmospheric mass-loss from Titan by sputtering".
1903:
1771:
1423:"Mars' atmospheric history derived from upper-atmosphere measurements of 38Ar/36Ar"
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triplet. This wavelength is much more accessible from ground-based high-resolution
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481:
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is necessary to determining whether an atmosphere persists, and so the exoplanet's
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1012:. Rutherford, P. H. (Paul Harding), 1938-. Bristol, UK: Institute of Physics Pub.
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264:
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17:
1969:
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1399:
1118:
Ahrens, T J (1993). "Impact
Erosion of Terrestrial Planetary Atmospheres".
832:
2152:
Hunten, D. M. (1993). "Atmospheric evolution of the terrestrial planets".
2145:
87:
1337:
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1069:
878:
730:
300:
118:
114:
109:, who first described this process of atmospheric loss. In a quantity of
61:
1879:
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can impart sufficient energy to eject atmospheric particles, similar to
698:
660:
284:
1347:
1180:"Moon's Been Getting Oxygen from Earth's Plants for Billions of Years"
787:
Catling, David C.; Zahnle, Kevin J. (2009). "The
Planetary Air Leak".
2053:"Detection of Ongoing Mass Loss from HD 63433c, a Young Mini-Neptune"
1391:
722:
640:
591:
587:
378:
343:
been observed for exoplanets close to their host star, including the
34:
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2009:
1936:
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1679:
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888:
861:
1800:
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1044:"Atmospheric Escape Processes and Planetary Atmospheric Evolution"
579:
537:
517:
488:
Dominant atmospheric escape and loss processes in the Solar System
459:
419:
317:
86:
610:), looking specifically at wavelengths corresponding to hydrogen
1993:"Detection of Atmospheric Escape from Four Young Mini Neptunes"
52:, and its distance from its star. Escape occurs when molecular
777:, Springer Science & Business Media, May 26, 2011, p. 879.
639:
that atmospheric escape can also be measured with the 1083 nm
594:-shaped charged sodium cloud along a part of the orbit of Io.
363:
110:
221:
218:
215:
1313:"Atmospheric erosion of Venus during stormy space weather"
548:
lost over the same time period is around 0.5 bar or more.
505:
O, allowing it to gradually escape into space until the
725:
rocks from Fe to Fe). Gases can also be sequestered by
80:
Thermal escape occurs if the molecular velocity due to
862:"Vidal-Madjar et al., Oxygen and Carbon in HD 209458b"
256:{\displaystyle E_{\mathit {kin}}={\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}}
389:
produces ions, which can get trapped in the planet's
208:
188:
168:
135:
733:
capture gas which adheres to the surface particles.
1920:"Helium in the eroding atmosphere of an exoplanet"
255:
194:
174:
154:
27:Loss of planetary atmospheric gases to outer space
1201:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
845:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
632:are experiencing significant atmospheric escape.
590:particles. The interaction produces a stationary
2114:Zahnle, Kevin J.; Catling, David C. (May 2009).
1252:
1250:
1092:"The curious case of Earth's leaking atmosphere"
2132:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
752:
750:
748:
746:
516:Recent models indicate that hydrogen escape on
1317:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics
1048:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics
1667:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
1120:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
8:
598:Observations of exoplanet atmospheric escape
303:escapes from an atmosphere more easily than
417:, which mitigates the loss of atmosphere.
101:One classical thermal escape mechanism is
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2026:
2008:
1935:
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1532:"Martian water escape and internal waves"
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667:. It has also been detected around some
764:May 2009, p. 26 (accessed 25 July 2012)
742:
381:can react more readily with molecules.
1113:
1111:
838:
775:Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Volume 3
756:David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle,
586:cloud induces sputtering, kicking off
374:In the upper atmosphere, high energy
7:
901:
899:
1697:10.1146/annurev-earth-053018-060246
1140:10.1146/annurev.ea.21.050193.002521
635:In 2018 it was discovered with the
25:
809:10.1038/scientificamerican0509-36
683:Other atmospheric loss mechanisms
354:Non-thermal (suprathermal) escape
1232:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x
717:(for example, by increasing the
2116:"Our Planet's Leaky Atmosphere"
405:Excess kinetic energy from the
279:is comparable in length to the
202:) of a molecule are related by
105:named after British astronomer
1010:Introduction to plasma physics
729:, where fine particles in the
299:same temperature. This is why
263:. Individual molecules in the
1:
2128:Ingersoll, Andrew P. (2013).
1615:10.1016/S0032-0633(98)00050-6
2215:10.1016/0032-0633(93)90049-8
2176:10.1126/science.259.5097.915
1501:10.1016/j.icarus.2018.05.030
2194:Planetary and Space Science
1818:10.1051/0004-6361/200913347
1595:Planetary and Space Science
1530:Yiğit, Erdal (2021-12-10).
1260:Planetary and Space Science
928:10.3367/ufne.2017.09.038212
2253:
1788:Astronomy and Astrophysics
686:
441:
395:dissociative recombination
331:
1954:10.1038/s41586-018-0067-5
1290:10.1016/j.pss.2006.04.022
979:10.1007/s11214-007-9176-4
866:The Astrophysical Journal
711:cycled through the oceans
121:is measured by the gas's
76:Thermal escape mechanisms
2232:Concepts in astrophysics
2088:10.3847/1538-3881/ac3f3b
2057:The Astronomical Journal
2028:10.3847/1538-3881/aca75b
1997:The Astronomical Journal
1008:Goldston, R. J. (1995).
540:suggest that 66% of the
72:and likelihood of life.
2207:1993P&SS...41..657L
1810:2010A&A...514A..72L
1607:1998P&SS...46.1207L
1556:10.1126/science.abg5893
1448:10.1126/science.aai7721
1272:2006P&SS...54.1445L
811:(inactive 2024-09-12).
653:interstellar absorption
647:, when compared to the
524:measured the effect of
155:{\displaystyle E_{kin}}
1652:10.1006/icar.2002.6821
758:The Planetary Air Leak
637:Hubble Space Telescope
526:coronal mass ejections
466:
429:Charge exchange escape
425:
324:
257:
196:
176:
156:
129:. The kinetic energy (
93:
50:atmosphere composition
959:Space Science Reviews
463:
423:
362:or charged particle (
321:
281:pressure scale height
258:
197:
177:
157:
90:
1338:10.1029/2011JA016749
1266:(13–14): 1445–1456.
1070:10.1029/2019JA027639
762:Scientific American,
713:, or when rocks are
689:Carbon sequestration
370:Photochemical escape
289:limited by diffusion
206:
186:
166:
133:
127:Maxwell distribution
60:; in other words, a
58:gravitational energy
2168:1993Sci...259..915H
2121:Scientific American
2079:2022AJ....163...68Z
2019:2023AJ....165...62Z
1946:2018Natur.557...68S
1880:10.1038/nature14501
1872:2015Natur.522..459E
1748:10.1038/nature01448
1740:2003Natur.422..143V
1689:2019AREPS..47...67O
1644:2002Icar..157..476W
1601:(9–10): 1207–1213.
1548:2021Sci...374.1323Y
1542:(6573): 1323–1324.
1493:2018Icar..315..146J
1439:2017Sci...355.1408J
1433:(6332): 1408–1410.
1384:1989Natur.338..487M
1329:2011JGRA..116.9308E
1223:2008MNRAS.386..155S
1132:1993AREPS..21..525A
971:2007SSRv..129..245L
920:2018PhyU...61..217S
801:2009SciAm.300e..36C
789:Scientific American
564:and Jupiter's moon
340:extreme ultraviolet
334:Hydrodynamic escape
328:Hydrodynamic escape
2130:Planetary climates
1188:. 30 January 2017.
467:
426:
325:
313:Earth's atmosphere
253:
192:
172:
152:
94:
31:Atmospheric escape
2162:(5097): 915–920.
1856:(7557): 459–461.
1734:(6928): 143–146.
1378:(6215): 487–489.
438:Polar wind escape
401:Sputtering escape
383:Photodissociation
238:
195:{\displaystyle v}
182:), and velocity (
175:{\displaystyle m}
16:(Redirected from
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879:astro-ph/0401457
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844:
836:
784:
778:
773:Muriel Gargaud,
771:
765:
754:
719:oxidation states
709:in sediments or
697:to form rain or
604:Lyman-alpha line
366:) interactions.
262:
260:
259:
254:
252:
251:
239:
231:
226:
225:
224:
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2190:
2151:
2113:
2110:
2108:Further reading
2105:
2104:
2049:
2048:
2044:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1930:(7703): 68–70.
1916:
1915:
1911:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1592:
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1472:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1281:10.1.1.484.5117
1256:
1255:
1248:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1117:
1116:
1109:
1100:
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1090:
1089:
1085:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1020:
1007:
1006:
1002:
956:
955:
951:
908:Physics-Uspekhi
905:
904:
897:
859:
858:
854:
837:
786:
785:
781:
772:
768:
755:
744:
739:
691:
685:
600:
558:
547:
534:
514:
504:
495:
490:
458:
446:
440:
431:
415:magnetic fields
403:
387:Photoionization
372:
356:
336:
330:
269:escape velocity
243:
209:
204:
203:
184:
183:
164:
163:
136:
131:
130:
107:Sir James Jeans
99:
78:
46:escape velocity
33:is the loss of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2250:
2248:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2224:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2201:(9): 657–663.
2188:
2149:
2126:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2042:
1983:
1909:
1839:
1777:
1718:
1657:
1638:(2): 476–489.
1620:
1585:
1522:
1470:
1413:
1362:
1303:
1246:
1191:
1171:
1126:(1): 525–555.
1107:
1083:
1033:
1018:
1000:
949:
914:(3): 217–246.
895:
889:10.1086/383347
852:
779:
766:
741:
740:
738:
735:
703:carbon dioxide
684:
681:
599:
596:
575:kinetic energy
560:Saturn's moon
557:
554:
545:
533:
530:
513:
510:
502:
494:
491:
489:
486:
457:
456:Impact erosion
454:
442:Main article:
439:
436:
430:
427:
402:
399:
371:
368:
360:photochemistry
355:
352:
329:
326:
305:carbon dioxide
277:mean free path
250:
246:
242:
237:
234:
229:
223:
220:
217:
212:
191:
171:
149:
146:
143:
139:
113:, the average
98:
95:
82:thermal energy
77:
74:
54:kinetic energy
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2249:
2238:
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2227:
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2157:
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2143:
2139:
2138:9781400848232
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2107:
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2062:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
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1951:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
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1253:
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1247:
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1233:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1207:(1): 155–63,
1206:
1202:
1195:
1192:
1187:
1186:
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1175:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1159:
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708:
704:
700:
696:
690:
682:
680:
678:
674:
670:
669:mini-Neptunes
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:spectrographs
642:
638:
633:
631:
628:
624:
620:
617:
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581:
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572:
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563:
555:
553:
549:
543:
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531:
529:
527:
523:
522:Venus Express
519:
511:
509:
508:
507:oceans dry up
499:
492:
487:
485:
483:
478:
476:
472:
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455:
453:
451:
445:
437:
435:
428:
422:
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412:
408:
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396:
392:
391:magnetosphere
388:
384:
380:
377:
369:
367:
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227:
210:
189:
169:
147:
144:
141:
137:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
103:Jeans escape,
96:
89:
85:
83:
75:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
36:
32:
19:
2198:
2192:
2159:
2153:
2129:
2119:
2060:
2056:
2045:
2000:
1996:
1986:
1927:
1923:
1912:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1673:(1): 67–90.
1670:
1666:
1660:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1598:
1594:
1588:
1539:
1535:
1525:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1430:
1426:
1416:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1320:
1316:
1306:
1263:
1259:
1204:
1200:
1194:
1183:
1174:
1123:
1119:
1099:. Retrieved
1095:
1086:
1051:
1047:
1036:
1009:
1003:
962:
958:
952:
911:
907:
869:
865:
855:
841:cite journal
795:(5): 36–43.
792:
788:
782:
774:
769:
761:
692:
634:
616:hot Jupiters
601:
559:
556:Titan and Io
550:
535:
515:
500:
496:
482:scale height
479:
468:
447:
432:
404:
373:
357:
337:
297:
293:thermosphere
291:through the
275:, where the
102:
100:
97:Jeans escape
79:
70:habitability
30:
29:
18:Jeans Escape
1487:: 146–157.
1323:(A9): n/a.
872:: L69–L72.
707:sequestered
699:glacial ice
649:ultraviolet
627:Hot Neptune
473:of a large
393:or undergo
376:ultraviolet
345:hot Jupiter
323:atmosphere.
287:, which is
123:temperature
117:of any one
42:outer space
38:atmospheric
2237:Atmosphere
2226:Categories
2070:2106.05273
2010:2207.13099
1937:1805.01298
1863:1506.07541
1680:1807.07609
1348:2381/20747
1101:2019-05-28
1061:2003.03231
1019:0750303255
737:References
727:adsorption
687:See also:
677:HD 63433 c
671:, such as
665:HD 189733b
612:absorption
450:polar wind
444:Polar wind
411:sputtering
407:solar wind
348:HD 209458b
332:See also:
92:molecules.
66:exoplanets
56:overcomes
2184:178360068
2146:855906548
2097:0004-6256
2063:(2): 68.
2037:251104690
2003:(2): 62.
1978:256768682
1962:0028-0836
1888:0028-0836
1826:0004-6361
1801:1003.2206
1756:0028-0836
1713:119333247
1705:0084-6597
1580:245012567
1564:0036-8075
1517:125410604
1509:0019-1035
1457:0036-8075
1357:2156-2202
1298:123628031
1276:CiteSeerX
1214:0801.4031
1185:Space.com
1166:130017139
1158:0084-6597
1078:2169-9380
995:122016496
987:0038-6308
944:125191082
936:1063-7869
817:0036-8733
695:condenses
673:TOI-560 b
657:WASP-107b
623:HD189733b
619:HD209458b
571:bow shock
475:meteoroid
309:gas giant
273:exosphere
265:high tail
162:), mass (
40:gases to
35:planetary
1970:29720632
1896:26108854
1834:53408874
1764:12634780
1572:34882460
1465:28360326
1400:11536608
1241:10073988
1096:phys.org
1028:33079555
833:19438047
825:26001341
731:regolith
715:oxidized
301:hydrogen
119:molecule
115:velocity
62:molecule
2203:Bibcode
2164:Bibcode
2155:Science
2075:Bibcode
2015:Bibcode
1942:Bibcode
1904:4388969
1868:Bibcode
1806:Bibcode
1794:: A72.
1772:4431311
1736:Bibcode
1685:Bibcode
1640:Bibcode
1603:Bibcode
1544:Bibcode
1536:Science
1489:Bibcode
1435:Bibcode
1427:Science
1408:4285528
1380:Bibcode
1325:Bibcode
1268:Bibcode
1219:Bibcode
1128:Bibcode
967:Bibcode
916:Bibcode
797:Bibcode
701:, when
661:WASP-69
608:transit
379:photons
285:exobase
2182:
2144:
2136:
2095:
2035:
1976:
1968:
1960:
1924:Nature
1902:
1894:
1886:
1850:Nature
1832:
1824:
1770:
1762:
1754:
1728:Nature
1711:
1703:
1631:Icarus
1578:
1570:
1562:
1515:
1507:
1481:Icarus
1463:
1455:
1406:
1398:
1372:Nature
1355:
1296:
1278:
1239:
1164:
1156:
1076:
1026:
1016:
993:
985:
942:
934:
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723:ferric
663:b and
641:Helium
630:GJ436b
592:banana
588:sodium
584:plasma
471:impact
465:line).
48:, its
2180:S2CID
2065:arXiv
2033:S2CID
2005:arXiv
1974:S2CID
1932:arXiv
1900:S2CID
1858:arXiv
1830:S2CID
1796:arXiv
1768:S2CID
1709:S2CID
1675:arXiv
1576:S2CID
1513:S2CID
1404:S2CID
1294:S2CID
1237:S2CID
1209:arXiv
1162:S2CID
1056:arXiv
1054:(8).
991:S2CID
940:S2CID
874:arXiv
821:JSTOR
580:torus
562:Titan
538:MAVEN
518:Venus
512:Venus
493:Earth
2142:OCLC
2134:ISBN
2093:ISSN
1966:PMID
1958:ISSN
1892:PMID
1884:ISSN
1822:ISSN
1760:PMID
1752:ISSN
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1560:ISSN
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1461:PMID
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1396:PMID
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1024:OCLC
1014:ISBN
983:ISSN
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847:link
829:PMID
813:ISSN
675:and
625:and
621:and
532:Mars
469:The
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2001:165
1950:doi
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1876:doi
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