67:
1180:
3416:
2384:
4809:
3123:
862:
3134:
6651:
2826:
57:
Diffusion-limited escape theory was first used by Donald Hunten in 1973 to describe hydrogen escape on one of Saturn's moons, Titan. The following year, in 1974, Hunten found that the diffusion-limited escape theory agreed with observations of hydrogen escape on Earth. Diffusion-limited escape theory
6672:
concentration. There are several important factors that we neglected in this calculation. The Earth likely had higher rates of hydrogen outgassing because the interior of the Earth was much warmer ~ 4 billion years ago. Additionally, there is geologic evidence that the mantle was more reducing
600:
Transport of gas molecules in the atmosphere occurs by two mechanisms: molecular and eddy diffusion. Molecular diffusion is the transport of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration due to thermal motion. Eddy diffusion is the transport of molecules by the turbulent
3673:
2135:
479:
4639:
2885:
4437:
6430:
1175:{\displaystyle {\vec {v}}_{1}-{\vec {v}}_{2}=-D_{12}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}\nabla \left({\frac {n_{1}}{n}}\right)+{\frac {m_{2}-m_{1}}{m}}\nabla (\ln {P})+\alpha _{T}\nabla (\ln {T})-{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{mkT}}({\vec {a}}_{1}-{\vec {a}}_{2})\right)}
2060:
Each variable is defined in table on right. The terms on the right hand side of the formula account for diffusion due to molecular concentration, pressure, temperature, and force gradients respectively. The expression above ultimately comes from the
3411:{\displaystyle \Phi _{1}=\Phi _{1}^{\text{mol}}+\Phi _{1}^{\text{eddy}}=-Kn{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}-D_{12}n_{1}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}+{\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}+{\frac {\alpha _{T}}{T}}{\frac {dT}{dz}}\right)}
5374:
6478:
5946:
2533:
6301:
2626:
4211:
3467:
4571:
685:
2615:
2379:{\displaystyle w_{1}-w_{2}=-D_{12}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {d}{dz}}\left({\frac {n_{1}}{n}}\right)+{\frac {m_{2}-m_{1}}{m}}{\frac {d}{dz}}(\ln {P})+\alpha _{T}{\frac {d}{dz}}(\ln {T})\right)}
762:
5265:
4915:
4963:
853:. The above formula for eddy diffusion is a simplification for how gases actually mix in the atmosphere. The eddy diffusion coefficient can only be empirically derived from atmospheric tracer studies.
4860:
5789:
2389:
We are interested in the diffusion of a lighter molecule (e.g. hydrogen) through a stationary heavier background gas (air). Therefore, we can take velocity of the heavy background gas to be zero:
1781:
7031:
Meadows, Victoria S.; Arney, Giada N.; Schwieterman, Edward W.; Lustig-Yaeger, Jacob; Lincowski, Andrew P.; Robinson, Tyler; Domagal-Goldman, Shawn D.; Deitrick, Russell; Barnes, Rory K. (2018).
4804:{\displaystyle b_{12}=b_{\mathrm {H} }{\frac {n_{\mathrm {H} }}{n_{\mathrm {H} }+n_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }}}+b_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }{\frac {n_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }}{n_{\mathrm {H} }+n_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }}}}
338:
5193:
3118:{\displaystyle \Phi _{1}^{\text{mol}}=w_{1}n_{1}=-D_{12}n_{1}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}+{\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}+{\frac {\alpha _{T}}{T}}{\frac {dT}{dz}}\right)}
588:
Note that hydrogen is the only gas in Earth's atmosphere that escapes at the diffusion-limit. Helium escape is not diffusion-limited and instead escapes by a suprathermal process known as the
5708:
5012:
2065:. We can simplify the above equation considerably with several assumptions. We will consider only vertical diffusion, and a neutral gas such that the accelerations are both equal to gravity (
2127:
234:
4270:
6316:
6022:
5571:
583:
5058:
3956:
5136:
5097:
1846:
521:
330:
145:
mechanisms. On Earth, the rate-limiting step or "bottleneck" for hydrogen escape is diffusion through the heterosphere. Therefore, hydrogen escape on Earth is diffusion-limited.
70:
A diagram showing that hydrogen diffusion in the upper atmosphere is the bottleneck for hydrogen escape on Earth, following from that given in
Catling and Kasting (2017), p. 147.
6470:
6063:
1431:
6141:
6104:
5486:
4486:
5604:
4262:
5519:
5450:
5417:
3459:
1949:
1913:
1265:
1229:
3852:
2877:
4623:
4104:
4030:
3723:
2017:
1560:
7489:
Bell, Jared M.; Bougher, Stephen W.; Waite, J. Hunter; Ridley, Aaron J.; Magee, Brian A.; Mandt, Kathleen E.; Westlake, Joseph; DeJong, Anna D.; Bar–Nun, Akiva (2010).
4057:
177:
7326:
292:
2420:
4597:
1394:
1358:
7330:
6646:{\displaystyle f_{T}(\mathrm {H_{2}} )\approx {\frac {\Phi _{volc}(H_{2})}{2.5\times 10^{13}}}={\frac {3.75\times 10^{9}}{2.5\times 10^{13}}}=1.5\times 10^{-4}=150}
3983:
3906:
3879:
3804:
3777:
3750:
1651:
1624:
1591:
1490:
1463:
1325:
1298:
831:
5273:
7491:"Simulating the one-dimensional structure of Titan's upper atmosphere: 1. Formulation of the Titan Global Ionosphere-Thermosphere Model and benchmark simulations"
6155:
must have been nearly absent in the prebiotic atmosphere. Photochemical models, which do more complicated versions of the calculations above, predict prebiotic O
4509:
2050:
1981:
1871:
1804:
1680:
1519:
851:
804:
784:
619:
256:
2821:{\displaystyle w_{1}=-D_{12}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}+{\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}+{\frac {\alpha _{T}}{T}}{\frac {dT}{dz}}\right)}
5843:
2436:
6232:
5146:
Every rocky body in the solar system with a substantial atmosphere, including Earth, Mars, Venus, and Titan, loses hydrogen at the diffusion-limited rate.
856:
The molecular diffusion flux, on the other hand, can be derived from theory. The general formula for the diffusion of gas 1 relative to gas 2 is given by
26:
to space is limited by the upward diffusion of escaping gases through the upper atmosphere, and not by escape mechanisms at the top of the atmosphere (the
3668:{\displaystyle \Phi _{1}=-Kn{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}-D_{12}n_{1}\left({\frac {n^{2}}{n_{1}n_{2}}}{\frac {df_{1}}{dz}}+{\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}\right)}
4112:
4514:
121:
O vapor that travels through it, preventing the upward mixing of some hydrogen. In the upper homosphere, hydrogen bearing molecules are split by
627:
6175:
concentrations in the prebiotic atmosphere were also controlled by its sources and sinks. In the prebiotic atmosphere, the main source of H
2544:
5455:
Observations of hydrogen escape on Venus and Titan are also at the diffusion-limit. On Venus, hydrogen escape was measured to be about
7683:
7446:
Hodges, R. Richard; Tinsley, Brian A. (1981). "Charge exchange in the Venus ionosphere as the source of the hot exospheric hydrogen".
7293:
The mathematical theory of non-uniform gases; an account of the kinetic theory of viscosity, thermal conduction and diffusion in gases
7265:
696:
6736:
5829:
If we assume that hydrogen escape occurred at the diffusion-limit in the prebiotic atmosphere, then we can estimate the amount of H
3128:
By adding the molecular diffusion flux and the eddy diffusion flux, we get the total flux of molecule 1 through the background gas
5198:
4865:
4920:
7403:
Anderson, Donald E. (1974). "Mariner 6, 7, and 9 Ultraviolet
Spectrometer Experiment: Analysis of hydrogen Lyman alpha data".
4817:
7302:
6827:
474:{\displaystyle f_{T}(\mathrm {H} )=f_{\mathrm {H} }+2f_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }+2f_{\mathrm {H_{2}O} }+4f_{\mathrm {CH_{4}} }+...}
1686:
5714:
5452:
H atoms cm⋅s. These observations suggest that Mars' atmosphere is losing hydrogen at roughly the diffusion limited value.
5152:
4968:
4432:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}={\frac {b_{12}g(m_{2}-m_{1})}{kT}}{\frac {n_{1}}{n}}={\frac {b_{12}g(m_{2}-m_{1})}{kT}}f_{1}}
5660:
2068:
152:
through a heavier background atmosphere, you can derive a formula for the upward diffusion-limited flux of hydrogen (
6425:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\text{volc}}(H_{2})\approx \Phi _{\text{esc}}(H_{2})=2.5\times 10^{13}f_{T}(\mathrm {H_{2}} )}
5138:
molecules cm⋅s. The above formula can be used to calculate the diffusion-limited flux of gases other than hydrogen.
185:
6677:) would have been outgassed by volcanos relative to oxidized volcanic gases. Other reduced volcanic gases, like CH
6752:
Catling, D. C. (2001-08-03). "Biogenic
Methane, Hydrogen Escape, and the Irreversible Oxidation of Early Earth".
7008:
6983:
6928:
6903:
5962:
5531:
542:
5017:
539:. Plugging these numbers into the formulas above gives a predicted diffusion-limited hydrogen escape rate of
7688:
89:
For a hydrogen atom to escape from the exobase, it must first travel upward through the atmosphere from the
51:
7164:
6199:(see the previous section). This is not the case in the modern atmosphere where the main sink of volcanic H
4629:
diffuse through the heterosphere, so we will use a diffusion parameter that is the weighted sum of H and H
3911:
5102:
5063:
1815:
487:
297:
7490:
5627:
content of the prebiotic atmosphere was controlled by its sources and sinks. If the potential sinks of O
332:
by summing all hydrogen bearing species weighted by the number of hydrogen atoms each species contains:
6442:
6035:
1403:
50:. Diffusion-limited hydrogen escape was likely important for the rise of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere (
6113:
6076:
5458:
4448:
7698:
7621:
7558:
7505:
7455:
7412:
7353:
7222:
7179:
7119:
7054:
6995:
6915:
6860:
6761:
5576:
4219:
2427:
58:
is now used widely to model the composition of exoplanet atmospheres and Earth's ancient atmosphere.
6106:
H atoms cm⋅s. If the prebiotic atmosphere had a similar volcanic hydrogen flux, then the potential O
5522:
5491:
5422:
5389:
3424:
1918:
1882:
1234:
1198:
7673:
7213:
Massie, S. T.; Hunten, D. M. (1981). "Stratospheric eddy diffusion coefficients from tracer data".
3809:
2834:
4602:
7590:
7385:
7320:
7145:
7044:
6884:
6793:
4062:
3988:
3681:
2062:
1995:
1808:
1525:
142:
23:
5521:
H atoms cm⋅s, which are in reasonable agreement. On Titan, hydrogen escape was measured by the
4511:
is a constant. For hydrogen (gas 1) diffusion through air (gas 2) in the heterosphere on Earth
4035:
155:
54:) and can be used to estimate the oxygen and hydrogen content of Earth's prebiotic atmosphere.
7678:
7649:
7582:
7574:
7531:
7471:
7428:
7377:
7369:
7308:
7298:
7271:
7261:
7238:
7195:
7137:
7088:
7070:
7033:"The Habitability of Proxima Centauri b: Environmental States and Observational Discriminants"
7013:
6933:
6876:
6833:
6823:
6785:
6777:
6732:
5833:
that escaped due to water photolysis. If the prebiotic atmosphere had a modern stratospheric H
523:
cm⋅s, and, the concentration of hydrogen bearing gases above the tropopause is 1.8 ppmv (
261:
5837:
O mixing ratio of 3 ppmv which is equivalent to 6 ppmv of H after photolysis, then
5369:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}^{mars}=C_{\text{Mars}}f_{T}(\mathrm {H} )=(3.3\pm 1.1)\times 10^{8}}
2392:
601:
mixing of a gas. The sum of molecular and eddy diffusion fluxes give the total flux of a gas
7639:
7629:
7566:
7523:
7513:
7463:
7420:
7361:
7230:
7187:
7127:
7078:
7062:
7003:
6923:
6868:
6769:
6724:
4576:
1372:
1336:
294:
is the total hydrogen mixing ratio in all its forms above the tropopause. You can calculate
6472:
H atoms cm⋅s, then we can estimate the total hydrogen content of the prebiotic atmosphere.
3961:
3884:
3857:
3782:
3755:
3728:
1629:
1602:
1569:
1468:
1441:
1303:
1276:
809:
66:
7693:
5380:
5267:. Multiplying these numbers together gives the diffusion-limited rate escape of hydrogen:
524:
83:
7344:
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2001). "Detection of
Molecular Hydrogen in the Atmosphere of Mars".
585:
H atoms cm⋅s. This calculated hydrogen flux agrees with measurements of hydrogen escape.
7625:
7562:
7509:
7459:
7416:
7357:
7226:
7183:
7165:"Observed variations of the exospheric hydrogen density with the exospheric temperature"
7123:
7058:
6999:
6919:
6864:
6765:
5941:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}(H)=(2.5\times 10^{13})\cdot (6\times 10^{-6})=1.5\times 10^{8}}
7291:
7083:
7032:
6951:
6816:
4494:
2528:{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dz}}\ln {P}={\frac {1}{P}}{\frac {dP}{dz}}={\frac {-mg}{kT}}}
2035:
1966:
1856:
1789:
1665:
1504:
836:
789:
769:
604:
241:
6296:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\text{volc}}(H_{2})\approx \Phi _{\text{esc}}(\mathrm {H_{2}} )}
6073:
would have been reactions with volcanic hydrogen. The modern volcanic H flux is about
5631:
greatly outweighed the sources, then the atmosphere would have been nearly devoid of O
7667:
7149:
7132:
7107:
6888:
5952:
7610:"Evidence for a reducing Archean ambient mantle and its effects on the carbon cycle"
7594:
7389:
6797:
5802:
photolysis remain in the atmosphere, then they will eventually recombine to make CO
5623:
on the Earth's atmosphere before the rise of life (the prebiotic atmosphere). The O
3752:
must decrease with altitude in order to contribute to the upward flux of gas 1. If
138:
134:
47:
4491:
This is the diffusion-limited flux of a molecule. For any particular atmosphere,
5814:
O photolysis remain in the atmosphere, then they will eventually react to form H
122:
90:
7297:. Cowling, T. G. (Thomas George) (3rd ed.). : Cambridge University Press.
6851:
Walker, James C. G. (1978). "Oxygen and hydrogen in the primitive atmosphere".
5643:
4206:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}=D_{12}n_{1}\left({\frac {(m_{2}-m_{1})g}{kT}}\right)}
2538:
The chain rule can also be used to simplify the derivative in the third term.
2423:
589:
114:
110:
106:
7653:
7578:
7535:
7475:
7432:
7373:
7275:
7242:
7199:
7141:
7074:
7017:
6937:
6880:
6837:
6781:
6668:
This estimate should be considered as a lower bound on the actual prebiotic H
6310:
was escaping at the diffusion-limited rate as it is on the modern Earth then
4032:, see Walker 1977, p. 160. The maximum flux of gas 1 relative to gas 2 (
82:) where gases are collisionless. Hydrogen atoms at the exobase exceeding the
7467:
7424:
7365:
7234:
7191:
6773:
5195:
molecules cm⋅s. Spectroscopic measurements of Mars' atmosphere suggest that
4566:{\displaystyle m_{\text{air}}-m_{\text{hydrogen}}\approx 4.8\times 10^{-26}}
79:
75:
7586:
7381:
7092:
6789:
7066:
6728:
7527:
7518:
7312:
5149:
For Mars, the constant governing diffusion-limited escape of hydrogen is
7644:
6661:
concentration in the modern atmosphere is 0.55 ppmv, so prebiotic H
5619:
We can use diffusion-limited hydrogen escape to estimate the amount of O
680:{\displaystyle \Phi _{i}=\Phi _{i}^{\text{mol}}+\Phi _{i}^{\text{eddy}}}
30:). The escape of any atmospheric gas can be diffusion-limited, but only
7570:
7549:
Kasting, James F. (1984). "The evolution of the prebiotic atmosphere".
6872:
6159:
mixing ratios below 10, which is extremely low compared to the modern O
27:
7634:
7609:
2610:{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dz}}\ln {T}={\frac {1}{T}}{\frac {dT}{dz}}}
258:
is a constant for a particular background atmosphere and planet, and
5386:
spacecraft indirectly observed hydrogen escape flux on Mars between
7049:
5488:
H atoms cm⋅s, while the calculated diffusion limited rate is about
6151:
sinks were ~50 times greater than the abiotic source. Therefore, O
3985:
isn't physically possible. For a mathematical explanation for why
43:
35:
7108:"A coupled atmosphere-ecosystem model of the early Archean Earth"
6673:
in the distant past, meaning that even more reduced gases (e.g. H
6952:"Donald M. Hunten (1925 - 2010) | American Astronomical Society"
6147:
molecules cm⋅s. These calculated values predict that potential O
74:
Hydrogen escape on Earth occurs at ~500 km altitude at the
39:
3421:
Temperature gradients are fairly small in the heterosphere, so
757:{\displaystyle \Phi _{i}^{\text{eddy}}=-Kn{\frac {df_{i}}{dz}}}
6191:
to form water, but this was very likely a negligible sink of H
5099:
molecules cm⋅s. In more detailed calculations the constant is
86:
escape to space without colliding into another gas particle.
6665:
was likely several hundred times higher than today's value.
6110:
sink would have been a fourth of the hydrogen volcanism, or
5260:{\displaystyle f_{T}(\mathrm {H} )=(30\pm 10)\times 10^{-6}}
4910:{\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {H_{2}} }\approx 5.2\times 10^{7}}
806:
is the number density of the atmosphere (molecules cm), and
7009:
10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031<0305:paeoth>2.0.co;2
6929:
10.1175/1520-0469(1973)030<0726:TEOHFT>2.0.CO;2
5955:
says that every mol of H escape produced 0.25 mol of O
5573:
H atoms cm⋅s, and the calculated diffusion-limited rate is
6179:
was volcanic outgassing, and the main sink of outgassing H
4958:{\displaystyle b_{\mathrm {H} }\approx 2.73\times 10^{19}}
3908:
in order to drive a constant upward flux of gas 1 (recall
6000:
5981:
5767:
5729:
5675:
6218:
concentration was at a steady-state, then the volcanic H
4855:{\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {H} }\approx 1.8\times 10^{7}}
148:
By considering one dimensional molecular diffusion of H
6721:
Atmospheric
Evolution on Inhabited and Lifeless Worlds
5747:
6481:
6445:
6319:
6235:
6116:
6079:
6038:
5965:
5846:
5784:{\displaystyle {\ce {H_2O + h\nu -> 1/2O_2 + 2H}}}
5717:
5663:
5579:
5534:
5494:
5461:
5425:
5392:
5276:
5201:
5155:
5105:
5066:
5020:
4971:
4923:
4868:
4820:
4642:
4605:
4579:
4517:
4497:
4451:
4273:
4222:
4115:
4065:
4038:
3991:
3964:
3914:
3887:
3860:
3812:
3785:
3758:
3731:
3684:
3470:
3427:
3137:
2888:
2837:
2629:
2547:
2439:
2395:
2138:
2071:
2038:
1998:
1969:
1921:
1885:
1859:
1818:
1792:
1776:{\displaystyle (n_{1}m_{1}+n_{1}m_{2})/(n_{1}+n_{2})}
1689:
1668:
1632:
1605:
1572:
1528:
1507:
1471:
1444:
1406:
1375:
1339:
1306:
1279:
1237:
1201:
865:
839:
812:
792:
772:
699:
630:
607:
545:
490:
341:
300:
264:
244:
188:
158:
6222:
flux was approximately equal to the escape flux of H
5794:
These reactions aren't necessarily a net source of O
117:(known as the "cold trap") freezes out most of the H
109:
through turbulent mixing, which dominates up to the
137:to the exobase where they escape the atmosphere by
7290:
6815:
6645:
6464:
6424:
6295:
6135:
6098:
6057:
6016:
5940:
5783:
5702:
5598:
5565:
5513:
5480:
5444:
5411:
5368:
5259:
5187:
5130:
5091:
5052:
5006:
4957:
4909:
4854:
4803:
4617:
4591:
4565:
4503:
4480:
4431:
4256:
4205:
4098:
4051:
4024:
3977:
3950:
3900:
3873:
3846:
3798:
3771:
3744:
3717:
3667:
3453:
3410:
3117:
2871:
2820:
2609:
2527:
2414:
2378:
2121:
2044:
2011:
1975:
1943:
1907:
1865:
1840:
1798:
1775:
1674:
1645:
1618:
1585:
1554:
1513:
1484:
1457:
1425:
1388:
1352:
1319:
1292:
1259:
1223:
1174:
845:
825:
798:
778:
756:
679:
613:
577:
515:
473:
324:
286:
250:
228:
171:
6183:would have been escape to space. Some outgassed H
5188:{\displaystyle C_{\text{Mars}}=1.1\times 10^{13}}
3806:must decrease rapidly with altitude (recall that
5703:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO_2 + h\nu -> CO + O}}}
5007:{\displaystyle b_{H2}\approx 1.46\times 10^{19}}
7106:Kharecha, P.; Kasting, J.; Siefert, J. (2005).
6984:"Production and Escape of Terrestrial Hydrogen"
6982:Hunten, Donald M.; Strobel, Darrell F. (1974).
2122:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}_{1}={\vec {a}}_{2}=g}
7448:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics
6685:S should also contribute to this calculation.
2879:. The flux of molecular diffusion is given by
2430:to rewrite the derivative in the second term.
229:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}=Cf_{T}(\mathrm {H} )}
93:. Near ground level, hydrogen in the form of H
6719:Catling, David C.; Kasting, James F. (2017).
2831:Note that we have also made the substitution
2129:) so the last term cancels. We are left with
690:The vertical eddy diffusion flux is given by
62:Diffusion-Limited Escape of Hydrogen on Earth
8:
7325:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6203:is its reaction with plentiful atmospheric O
6167:Hydrogen content of the prebiotic atmosphere
5142:Diffusion-limited escape in the Solar System
6017:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H_2O -> O_2 +4H}}}
7329:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
5615:Oxygen content of the prebiotic atmosphere
5610:Applications to Earth's ancient atmosphere
5566:{\displaystyle (2.0\pm 2.1)\times 10^{10}}
578:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}=4.3\times 10^{8}}
34:has been observed in our solar system, on
7643:
7633:
7608:Aulbach, Sonja; Stagno, Vincenzo (2016).
7517:
7131:
7082:
7048:
7007:
6927:
6723:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6628:
6606:
6588:
6575:
6563:
6542:
6520:
6513:
6500:
6495:
6486:
6480:
6456:
6444:
6412:
6407:
6398:
6388:
6366:
6353:
6337:
6324:
6318:
6283:
6278:
6269:
6253:
6240:
6234:
6127:
6115:
6090:
6078:
6049:
6037:
6009:
5999:
5994:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5966:
5964:
5932:
5907:
5882:
5851:
5845:
5776:
5766:
5761:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5716:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5662:
5590:
5578:
5557:
5533:
5505:
5493:
5472:
5460:
5436:
5424:
5403:
5391:
5360:
5327:
5318:
5308:
5286:
5281:
5275:
5248:
5215:
5206:
5200:
5179:
5160:
5154:
5122:
5104:
5083:
5065:
5044:
5025:
5019:
4998:
4976:
4970:
4949:
4929:
4928:
4922:
4901:
4879:
4874:
4873:
4867:
4846:
4826:
4825:
4819:
4789:
4784:
4783:
4769:
4768:
4754:
4749:
4748:
4742:
4733:
4728:
4727:
4708:
4703:
4702:
4688:
4687:
4675:
4674:
4668:
4661:
4660:
4647:
4641:
4604:
4578:
4554:
4535:
4522:
4516:
4496:
4472:
4456:
4450:
4423:
4399:
4386:
4370:
4363:
4349:
4343:
4323:
4310:
4294:
4287:
4278:
4272:
4246:
4240:
4227:
4221:
4176:
4163:
4153:
4143:
4133:
4120:
4114:
4079:
4073:
4064:
4043:
4037:
4005:
3999:
3990:
3969:
3963:
3942:
3932:
3919:
3913:
3892:
3886:
3865:
3859:
3836:
3830:
3817:
3811:
3790:
3784:
3763:
3757:
3736:
3730:
3698:
3692:
3683:
3637:
3624:
3614:
3594:
3584:
3575:
3565:
3554:
3548:
3537:
3527:
3503:
3493:
3475:
3469:
3434:
3426:
3383:
3372:
3366:
3340:
3327:
3317:
3297:
3287:
3278:
3268:
3257:
3251:
3240:
3230:
3206:
3196:
3178:
3173:
3160:
3155:
3142:
3136:
3090:
3079:
3073:
3047:
3034:
3024:
3004:
2994:
2985:
2975:
2964:
2958:
2947:
2937:
2921:
2911:
2898:
2893:
2887:
2863:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2793:
2782:
2776:
2750:
2737:
2727:
2707:
2697:
2688:
2678:
2667:
2661:
2650:
2634:
2628:
2587:
2577:
2569:
2548:
2546:
2502:
2479:
2469:
2461:
2440:
2438:
2400:
2394:
2363:
2339:
2333:
2318:
2294:
2282:
2269:
2262:
2244:
2238:
2219:
2210:
2200:
2189:
2183:
2172:
2156:
2143:
2137:
2107:
2096:
2095:
2085:
2074:
2073:
2070:
2037:
2003:
1997:
1968:
1935:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1899:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1858:
1829:
1817:
1791:
1764:
1751:
1739:
1730:
1720:
1707:
1697:
1688:
1667:
1637:
1631:
1610:
1604:
1577:
1571:
1546:
1533:
1527:
1506:
1476:
1470:
1449:
1443:
1417:
1405:
1380:
1374:
1344:
1338:
1311:
1305:
1284:
1278:
1251:
1240:
1239:
1236:
1215:
1204:
1203:
1200:
1158:
1147:
1146:
1136:
1125:
1124:
1100:
1090:
1083:
1072:
1054:
1039:
1015:
1002:
995:
977:
971:
955:
945:
934:
928:
917:
901:
890:
889:
879:
868:
867:
864:
838:
817:
811:
791:
771:
737:
727:
709:
704:
698:
671:
666:
653:
648:
635:
629:
606:
569:
550:
544:
507:
489:
450:
442:
441:
419:
414:
413:
394:
389:
388:
371:
370:
355:
346:
340:
314:
305:
299:
269:
263:
243:
218:
209:
193:
187:
163:
157:
113:. At about 17 km altitude, the cold
5053:{\displaystyle b_{12}=1.8\times 10^{19}}
5014:cm⋅s, the binary diffusion parameter is
1184:
65:
6694:
5826:only if the hydrogen escapes to space.
7318:
3678:The maximum flux of gas 1 occurs when
6187:would have reacted with atmospheric O
6024:), so the abiotic net production of O
1329:vertical velocity of gas 1, 2 (cm s)
7:
7289:Chapman, Sydney, 1888-1970. (1970).
6977:
6975:
6973:
6971:
6809:
6807:
6714:
6712:
6710:
6708:
6706:
6704:
6702:
6700:
6698:
4633:number densities at the tropopause.
3951:{\displaystyle \Phi _{1}=w_{1}n_{1}}
1955:from gravity, electric fields, etc.
32:diffusion-limited escape of hydrogen
6988:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
6908:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
6814:Walker, James Callan Gray. (1977).
6069:molecules cm⋅s. The main sinks of O
5131:{\displaystyle C=2.5\times 10^{13}}
5092:{\displaystyle C=2.9\times 10^{13}}
1841:{\displaystyle 1.38\times 10^{-23}}
786:is the eddy diffusion coefficient,
516:{\displaystyle C=2.5\times 10^{13}}
325:{\displaystyle f_{T}(\mathrm {H} )}
16:Escape of gases from the atmosphere
6517:
6497:
6409:
6350:
6321:
6280:
6266:
6237:
5848:
5798:. If the CO and O produced from CO
5609:
5328:
5278:
5216:
4930:
4876:
4827:
4786:
4770:
4751:
4730:
4705:
4689:
4676:
4662:
4453:
4275:
4117:
4040:
3916:
3472:
3170:
3152:
3139:
2890:
1060:
1027:
964:
833:is the volume mixing ratio of gas
701:
663:
645:
632:
547:
447:
443:
425:
416:
391:
372:
356:
315:
219:
190:
160:
14:
6465:{\displaystyle 3.75\times 10^{9}}
6306:Additionally, if we assume that H
6214:If we assume that the prebiotic H
6058:{\displaystyle 3.75\times 10^{7}}
3881:would require rapidly increasing
3725:. Qualitatively, this is because
2620:Making these substitutions gives
1426:{\displaystyle 2.6\times 10^{19}}
7133:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2005.00049.x
6136:{\displaystyle 1.9\times 10^{9}}
6099:{\displaystyle 7.5\times 10^{9}}
5481:{\displaystyle 1.7\times 10^{7}}
4481:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}=Cf_{1}}
7498:Journal of Geophysical Research
7405:Journal of Geophysical Research
7215:Journal of Geophysical Research
7172:Journal of Geophysical Research
5599:{\displaystyle 3\times 10^{10}}
4257:{\displaystyle D_{12}=b_{12}/n}
6904:"The Escape of H 2 from Titan"
6548:
6535:
6507:
6492:
6419:
6404:
6372:
6359:
6343:
6330:
6290:
6275:
6259:
6246:
5987:
5916:
5894:
5888:
5869:
5863:
5857:
5744:
5687:
5638:In the prebiotic atmosphere, O
5547:
5535:
5514:{\displaystyle 3\times 10^{7}}
5445:{\displaystyle 2\times 10^{8}}
5412:{\displaystyle 1\times 10^{8}}
5350:
5338:
5332:
5324:
5238:
5226:
5220:
5212:
4405:
4379:
4329:
4303:
4182:
4156:
3779:decreases with altitude, then
3643:
3617:
3454:{\displaystyle dT/dz\approx 0}
3346:
3320:
3053:
3027:
2756:
2730:
2368:
2354:
2323:
2309:
2101:
2079:
1944:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}_{2}}
1929:
1908:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}_{1}}
1893:
1770:
1744:
1736:
1690:
1655:molecular mass of gas 1 and 2
1494:number densities of gas 1 and
1260:{\displaystyle {\vec {v}}_{2}}
1245:
1224:{\displaystyle {\vec {v}}_{1}}
1209:
1164:
1152:
1130:
1120:
1077:
1063:
1044:
1030:
895:
873:
360:
352:
319:
311:
281:
275:
223:
215:
1:
6439:flux was the modern value of
3847:{\displaystyle f_{1}=n_{1}/n}
2872:{\displaystyle n_{1}/n=f_{1}}
1362:binary diffusion coefficient
4618:{\displaystyle T\approx 208}
2063:Boltzmann transport equation
1953:acceleration of gas 1 and 2
1269:velocity of gas 1, 2 (cm s)
125:photons leaving only H and H
6853:Pure and Applied Geophysics
6818:Evolution of the atmosphere
4099:{\displaystyle df_{1}/dz=0}
4025:{\displaystyle df_{1}/dz=0}
3718:{\displaystyle df_{1}/dz=0}
2012:{\displaystyle \alpha _{T}}
1985:gravitational acceleration
1555:{\displaystyle n_{1}+n_{2}}
1398:binary diffusion parameter
525:parts per million by volume
133:diffuse upward through the
7715:
5806:. Likewise, if the H and O
7684:Meteorological hypotheses
4052:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}}
172:{\displaystyle \Phi _{l}}
78:(the lower border of the
52:the Great Oxidation Event
621:through the atmosphere:
484:For Earth's atmosphere,
287:{\displaystyle f_{T}(H)}
22:occurs when the rate of
20:Diffusion-limited escape
7468:10.1029/ja086ia09p07649
7425:10.1029/ja079i010p01513
7366:10.1126/science.1065569
7235:10.1029/jc086ic10p09859
7192:10.1029/ja080i004p00639
7163:Bertaux, J. L. (1975).
6774:10.1126/science.1061976
3461:, which leaves us with
2415:{\displaystyle w_{2}=0}
535:O, and 0.55 ppmv H
6902:Hunten, D. M. (1973).
6647:
6466:
6426:
6297:
6163:mixing ratio of 0.21.
6137:
6100:
6059:
6018:
5942:
5822:O is a net source of O
5818:O. The photolysis of H
5785:
5704:
5600:
5567:
5515:
5482:
5446:
5413:
5370:
5261:
5189:
5132:
5093:
5054:
5008:
4959:
4911:
4856:
4805:
4619:
4593:
4592:{\displaystyle g=9.81}
4567:
4505:
4482:
4433:
4258:
4207:
4100:
4053:
4026:
3979:
3958:). Rapidly increasing
3952:
3902:
3875:
3854:). Rapidly decreasing
3848:
3800:
3773:
3746:
3719:
3669:
3455:
3412:
3119:
2873:
2822:
2611:
2529:
2422:. We can also use the
2416:
2380:
2123:
2046:
2013:
1977:
1945:
1909:
1867:
1842:
1800:
1777:
1676:
1647:
1620:
1595:mixing ratio of gas 1
1587:
1556:
1515:
1486:
1459:
1427:
1390:
1389:{\displaystyle b_{12}}
1354:
1353:{\displaystyle D_{12}}
1321:
1294:
1261:
1225:
1176:
847:
827:
800:
780:
758:
681:
615:
579:
517:
475:
326:
288:
252:
230:
173:
105:travels upward in the
71:
7256:Banks, P. M. (2013).
7067:10.1089/ast.2016.1589
6729:10.1017/9781139020558
6648:
6467:
6427:
6298:
6138:
6101:
6060:
6019:
5943:
5786:
5705:
5654:O in the atmosphere:
5601:
5568:
5516:
5483:
5447:
5414:
5371:
5262:
5190:
5133:
5094:
5060:. These numbers give
5055:
5009:
4960:
4912:
4857:
4806:
4625: K. Both H and H
4620:
4594:
4568:
4506:
4483:
4434:
4259:
4208:
4101:
4054:
4027:
3980:
3978:{\displaystyle w_{1}}
3953:
3903:
3901:{\displaystyle w_{1}}
3876:
3874:{\displaystyle n_{1}}
3849:
3801:
3799:{\displaystyle n_{1}}
3774:
3772:{\displaystyle f_{1}}
3747:
3745:{\displaystyle f_{1}}
3720:
3670:
3456:
3413:
3120:
2874:
2823:
2612:
2530:
2417:
2381:
2124:
2047:
2014:
1978:
1946:
1910:
1868:
1843:
1801:
1778:
1677:
1648:
1646:{\displaystyle m_{2}}
1621:
1619:{\displaystyle m_{1}}
1588:
1586:{\displaystyle f_{1}}
1557:
1516:
1487:
1485:{\displaystyle n_{2}}
1460:
1458:{\displaystyle n_{1}}
1428:
1391:
1355:
1322:
1320:{\displaystyle w_{2}}
1295:
1293:{\displaystyle w_{1}}
1262:
1226:
1177:
848:
828:
826:{\displaystyle f_{i}}
801:
781:
759:
682:
616:
580:
518:
476:
327:
289:
253:
231:
174:
69:
7519:10.1029/2010je003636
7260:. Elsevier Science.
6479:
6443:
6317:
6233:
6114:
6077:
6036:
5963:
5844:
5715:
5661:
5642:was produced by the
5577:
5532:
5492:
5459:
5423:
5390:
5274:
5199:
5153:
5103:
5064:
5018:
4969:
4921:
4866:
4818:
4640:
4603:
4577:
4515:
4495:
4449:
4271:
4220:
4113:
4063:
4059:, which occurs when
4036:
3989:
3962:
3912:
3885:
3858:
3810:
3783:
3756:
3729:
3682:
3468:
3425:
3135:
2886:
2835:
2627:
2545:
2437:
2428:hydrostatic equation
2393:
2136:
2069:
2036:
2021:thermal diffusivity
1996:
1987:(9.81 m s on Earth)
1967:
1919:
1883:
1857:
1816:
1790:
1687:
1666:
1630:
1603:
1570:
1526:
1505:
1469:
1442:
1404:
1373:
1337:
1304:
1277:
1235:
1199:
863:
837:
810:
790:
770:
697:
628:
605:
543:
488:
339:
298:
262:
242:
186:
156:
139:Jeans thermal escape
7626:2016Geo....44..751A
7563:1984OrLi...14...75K
7510:2010JGRE..11512002B
7460:1981JGR....86.7649H
7417:1974JGR....79.1513A
7358:2001Sci...294.1914K
7352:(5548): 1914–1917.
7227:1981JGR....86.9859M
7184:1975JGR....80..639B
7124:2005Gbio....3...53K
7059:2018AsBio..18..133M
7000:1974JAtS...31..305H
6920:1973JAtS...30..726H
6865:1978PApGe.116..222W
6766:2001Sci...293..839C
6195:because of scarce O
6002:
5983:
5769:
5731:
5677:
5300:
3183:
3165:
2903:
714:
676:
658:
141:and/or a number of
129:behind. The H and H
7571:10.1007/bf00933642
6873:10.1007/bf01636879
6643:
6462:
6422:
6293:
6133:
6096:
6055:
6014:
5990:
5971:
5938:
5781:
5757:
5756:
5719:
5700:
5665:
5596:
5563:
5511:
5478:
5442:
5409:
5366:
5277:
5257:
5185:
5128:
5089:
5050:
5004:
4955:
4907:
4852:
4801:
4615:
4589:
4563:
4501:
4478:
4429:
4254:
4203:
4096:
4049:
4022:
3975:
3948:
3898:
3871:
3844:
3796:
3769:
3742:
3715:
3665:
3451:
3408:
3169:
3151:
3115:
2889:
2869:
2818:
2607:
2525:
2412:
2376:
2119:
2054:air pressure (Pa)
2042:
2023:(~-0.25 for H or H
2009:
1973:
1941:
1905:
1863:
1838:
1809:Boltzmann constant
1796:
1773:
1672:
1643:
1616:
1583:
1552:
1511:
1482:
1455:
1423:
1386:
1350:
1317:
1290:
1257:
1221:
1172:
843:
823:
796:
776:
754:
700:
677:
662:
644:
611:
575:
513:
471:
322:
284:
248:
226:
169:
72:
24:atmospheric escape
7454:(A9): 7649–7656.
7411:(10): 1513–1518.
6760:(5531): 839–843.
6613:
6570:
6435:If the volcanic H
6356:
6327:
6272:
6243:
6032:O photolysis was
6012:
5993:
5986:
5974:
5779:
5760:
5755:
5740:
5734:
5722:
5698:
5692:
5683:
5668:
5311:
5163:
4799:
4718:
4538:
4525:
4504:{\displaystyle C}
4417:
4358:
4341:
4197:
3658:
3609:
3582:
3518:
3401:
3381:
3361:
3312:
3285:
3221:
3181:
3163:
3108:
3088:
3068:
3019:
2992:
2901:
2811:
2791:
2771:
2722:
2695:
2605:
2585:
2561:
2523:
2497:
2477:
2453:
2352:
2307:
2292:
2253:
2232:
2217:
2104:
2082:
2058:
2057:
2045:{\displaystyle P}
1976:{\displaystyle g}
1932:
1896:
1866:{\displaystyle T}
1799:{\displaystyle k}
1675:{\displaystyle m}
1657:(in kg molecule)
1514:{\displaystyle n}
1496:2 (molecules cm)
1364:(cm s molecules)
1248:
1212:
1155:
1133:
1118:
1025:
986:
962:
898:
876:
846:{\displaystyle i}
799:{\displaystyle n}
779:{\displaystyle K}
752:
712:
674:
656:
614:{\displaystyle i}
251:{\displaystyle C}
7706:
7658:
7657:
7647:
7637:
7635:10.1130/g38070.1
7605:
7599:
7598:
7546:
7540:
7539:
7521:
7495:
7486:
7480:
7479:
7443:
7437:
7436:
7400:
7394:
7393:
7341:
7335:
7334:
7324:
7316:
7296:
7286:
7280:
7279:
7258:Aeronomy: Part B
7253:
7247:
7246:
7210:
7204:
7203:
7169:
7160:
7154:
7153:
7135:
7103:
7097:
7096:
7086:
7052:
7028:
7022:
7021:
7011:
6979:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6962:
6948:
6942:
6941:
6931:
6899:
6893:
6892:
6859:(2–3): 222–231.
6848:
6842:
6841:
6821:
6811:
6802:
6801:
6749:
6743:
6742:
6716:
6657:By comparison, H
6652:
6650:
6649:
6644:
6636:
6635:
6614:
6612:
6611:
6610:
6594:
6593:
6592:
6576:
6571:
6569:
6568:
6567:
6551:
6547:
6546:
6534:
6533:
6514:
6506:
6505:
6504:
6491:
6490:
6471:
6469:
6468:
6463:
6461:
6460:
6431:
6429:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6417:
6416:
6403:
6402:
6393:
6392:
6371:
6370:
6358:
6357:
6354:
6342:
6341:
6329:
6328:
6325:
6302:
6300:
6299:
6294:
6289:
6288:
6287:
6274:
6273:
6270:
6258:
6257:
6245:
6244:
6241:
6142:
6140:
6139:
6134:
6132:
6131:
6105:
6103:
6102:
6097:
6095:
6094:
6064:
6062:
6061:
6056:
6054:
6053:
6023:
6021:
6020:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6001:
5998:
5991:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5972:
5947:
5945:
5944:
5939:
5937:
5936:
5915:
5914:
5887:
5886:
5856:
5855:
5790:
5788:
5787:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5768:
5765:
5758:
5748:
5738:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5720:
5709:
5707:
5706:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5690:
5681:
5676:
5673:
5666:
5605:
5603:
5602:
5597:
5595:
5594:
5572:
5570:
5569:
5564:
5562:
5561:
5520:
5518:
5517:
5512:
5510:
5509:
5487:
5485:
5484:
5479:
5477:
5476:
5451:
5449:
5448:
5443:
5441:
5440:
5418:
5416:
5415:
5410:
5408:
5407:
5375:
5373:
5372:
5367:
5365:
5364:
5331:
5323:
5322:
5313:
5312:
5309:
5299:
5285:
5266:
5264:
5263:
5258:
5256:
5255:
5219:
5211:
5210:
5194:
5192:
5191:
5186:
5184:
5183:
5165:
5164:
5161:
5137:
5135:
5134:
5129:
5127:
5126:
5098:
5096:
5095:
5090:
5088:
5087:
5059:
5057:
5056:
5051:
5049:
5048:
5030:
5029:
5013:
5011:
5010:
5005:
5003:
5002:
4984:
4983:
4964:
4962:
4961:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4935:
4934:
4933:
4916:
4914:
4913:
4908:
4906:
4905:
4887:
4886:
4885:
4884:
4883:
4861:
4859:
4858:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4832:
4831:
4830:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4802:
4800:
4798:
4797:
4796:
4795:
4794:
4793:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4759:
4758:
4743:
4741:
4740:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4719:
4717:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4713:
4712:
4694:
4693:
4692:
4681:
4680:
4679:
4669:
4667:
4666:
4665:
4652:
4651:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4598:
4596:
4595:
4590:
4572:
4570:
4569:
4564:
4562:
4561:
4540:
4539:
4536:
4527:
4526:
4523:
4510:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4487:
4485:
4484:
4479:
4477:
4476:
4461:
4460:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4428:
4427:
4418:
4416:
4408:
4404:
4403:
4391:
4390:
4375:
4374:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4353:
4344:
4342:
4340:
4332:
4328:
4327:
4315:
4314:
4299:
4298:
4288:
4283:
4282:
4263:
4261:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4244:
4232:
4231:
4212:
4210:
4209:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4196:
4188:
4181:
4180:
4168:
4167:
4154:
4148:
4147:
4138:
4137:
4125:
4124:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4097:
4083:
4078:
4077:
4058:
4056:
4055:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4031:
4029:
4028:
4023:
4009:
4004:
4003:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3976:
3974:
3973:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3937:
3936:
3924:
3923:
3907:
3905:
3904:
3899:
3897:
3896:
3880:
3878:
3877:
3872:
3870:
3869:
3853:
3851:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3834:
3822:
3821:
3805:
3803:
3802:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3778:
3776:
3775:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3751:
3749:
3748:
3743:
3741:
3740:
3724:
3722:
3721:
3716:
3702:
3697:
3696:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3666:
3664:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3649:
3642:
3641:
3629:
3628:
3615:
3610:
3608:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3579:
3570:
3569:
3559:
3558:
3549:
3542:
3541:
3532:
3531:
3519:
3517:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3494:
3480:
3479:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3438:
3417:
3415:
3414:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3392:
3384:
3382:
3377:
3376:
3367:
3362:
3360:
3352:
3345:
3344:
3332:
3331:
3318:
3313:
3311:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3273:
3272:
3262:
3261:
3252:
3245:
3244:
3235:
3234:
3222:
3220:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3197:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3147:
3146:
3124:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3114:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3099:
3091:
3089:
3084:
3083:
3074:
3069:
3067:
3059:
3052:
3051:
3039:
3038:
3025:
3020:
3018:
3010:
3009:
3008:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2980:
2979:
2969:
2968:
2959:
2952:
2951:
2942:
2941:
2926:
2925:
2916:
2915:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2868:
2867:
2852:
2847:
2846:
2827:
2825:
2824:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2802:
2794:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2777:
2772:
2770:
2762:
2755:
2754:
2742:
2741:
2728:
2723:
2721:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2692:
2683:
2682:
2672:
2671:
2662:
2655:
2654:
2639:
2638:
2616:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2596:
2588:
2586:
2578:
2573:
2562:
2560:
2549:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2514:
2503:
2498:
2496:
2488:
2480:
2478:
2470:
2465:
2454:
2452:
2441:
2421:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2405:
2404:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2353:
2351:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2322:
2308:
2306:
2295:
2293:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2274:
2273:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2248:
2239:
2233:
2231:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2205:
2204:
2194:
2193:
2184:
2177:
2176:
2161:
2160:
2148:
2147:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2097:
2090:
2089:
2084:
2083:
2075:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2043:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2008:
2007:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1950:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1925:
1914:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1897:
1889:
1875:Temperature (K)
1872:
1870:
1869:
1864:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1768:
1756:
1755:
1743:
1735:
1734:
1725:
1724:
1712:
1711:
1702:
1701:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1652:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1642:
1641:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1592:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1582:
1581:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1538:
1537:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1491:
1489:
1488:
1483:
1481:
1480:
1464:
1462:
1461:
1456:
1454:
1453:
1432:
1430:
1429:
1424:
1422:
1421:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1316:
1315:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1289:
1288:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1249:
1241:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1213:
1205:
1185:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1148:
1141:
1140:
1135:
1134:
1126:
1119:
1117:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1095:
1094:
1084:
1076:
1059:
1058:
1043:
1026:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1007:
1006:
996:
991:
987:
982:
981:
972:
963:
961:
960:
959:
950:
949:
939:
938:
929:
922:
921:
906:
905:
900:
899:
891:
884:
883:
878:
877:
869:
852:
850:
849:
844:
832:
830:
829:
824:
822:
821:
805:
803:
802:
797:
785:
783:
782:
777:
763:
761:
760:
755:
753:
751:
743:
742:
741:
728:
713:
710:
708:
686:
684:
683:
678:
675:
672:
670:
657:
654:
652:
640:
639:
620:
618:
617:
612:
584:
582:
581:
576:
574:
573:
555:
554:
522:
520:
519:
514:
512:
511:
480:
478:
477:
472:
458:
457:
456:
455:
454:
430:
429:
428:
424:
423:
402:
401:
400:
399:
398:
377:
376:
375:
359:
351:
350:
331:
329:
328:
323:
318:
310:
309:
293:
291:
290:
285:
274:
273:
257:
255:
254:
249:
235:
233:
232:
227:
222:
214:
213:
198:
197:
178:
176:
175:
170:
168:
167:
7714:
7713:
7709:
7708:
7707:
7705:
7704:
7703:
7664:
7663:
7662:
7661:
7607:
7606:
7602:
7551:Origins of Life
7548:
7547:
7543:
7504:(E12): E12002.
7493:
7488:
7487:
7483:
7445:
7444:
7440:
7402:
7401:
7397:
7343:
7342:
7338:
7317:
7305:
7288:
7287:
7283:
7268:
7255:
7254:
7250:
7212:
7211:
7207:
7167:
7162:
7161:
7157:
7105:
7104:
7100:
7030:
7029:
7025:
6981:
6980:
6969:
6960:
6958:
6950:
6949:
6945:
6901:
6900:
6896:
6850:
6849:
6845:
6830:
6813:
6812:
6805:
6751:
6750:
6746:
6739:
6718:
6717:
6696:
6691:
6684:
6680:
6676:
6671:
6664:
6660:
6624:
6602:
6595:
6584:
6577:
6559:
6552:
6538:
6516:
6515:
6496:
6482:
6477:
6476:
6452:
6441:
6440:
6438:
6408:
6394:
6384:
6362:
6349:
6333:
6320:
6315:
6314:
6309:
6279:
6265:
6249:
6236:
6231:
6230:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6210:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6169:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6123:
6112:
6111:
6109:
6086:
6075:
6074:
6072:
6068:
6045:
6034:
6033:
6031:
6027:
5961:
5960:
5958:
5928:
5903:
5878:
5847:
5842:
5841:
5836:
5832:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5713:
5712:
5659:
5658:
5653:
5649:
5641:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5586:
5575:
5574:
5553:
5530:
5529:
5501:
5490:
5489:
5468:
5457:
5456:
5432:
5421:
5420:
5399:
5388:
5387:
5356:
5314:
5304:
5272:
5271:
5244:
5202:
5197:
5196:
5175:
5156:
5151:
5150:
5144:
5118:
5101:
5100:
5079:
5062:
5061:
5040:
5021:
5016:
5015:
4994:
4972:
4967:
4966:
4945:
4924:
4919:
4918:
4897:
4875:
4869:
4864:
4863:
4842:
4821:
4816:
4815:
4785:
4779:
4764:
4763:
4750:
4744:
4729:
4723:
4704:
4698:
4683:
4682:
4670:
4656:
4643:
4638:
4637:
4632:
4628:
4601:
4600:
4575:
4574:
4550:
4531:
4518:
4513:
4512:
4493:
4492:
4468:
4452:
4447:
4446:
4419:
4409:
4395:
4382:
4366:
4365:
4345:
4333:
4319:
4306:
4290:
4289:
4274:
4269:
4268:
4236:
4223:
4218:
4217:
4189:
4172:
4159:
4155:
4149:
4139:
4129:
4116:
4111:
4110:
4106:) is therefore
4069:
4061:
4060:
4039:
4034:
4033:
3995:
3987:
3986:
3965:
3960:
3959:
3938:
3928:
3915:
3910:
3909:
3888:
3883:
3882:
3861:
3856:
3855:
3826:
3813:
3808:
3807:
3786:
3781:
3780:
3759:
3754:
3753:
3732:
3727:
3726:
3688:
3680:
3679:
3650:
3633:
3620:
3616:
3601:
3590:
3586:
3571:
3561:
3560:
3550:
3547:
3543:
3533:
3523:
3510:
3499:
3495:
3471:
3466:
3465:
3423:
3422:
3393:
3385:
3368:
3353:
3336:
3323:
3319:
3304:
3293:
3289:
3274:
3264:
3263:
3253:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3226:
3213:
3202:
3198:
3138:
3133:
3132:
3100:
3092:
3075:
3060:
3043:
3030:
3026:
3011:
3000:
2996:
2981:
2971:
2970:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2943:
2933:
2917:
2907:
2884:
2883:
2859:
2838:
2833:
2832:
2803:
2795:
2778:
2763:
2746:
2733:
2729:
2714:
2703:
2699:
2684:
2674:
2673:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2630:
2625:
2624:
2597:
2589:
2553:
2543:
2542:
2515:
2504:
2489:
2481:
2445:
2435:
2434:
2396:
2391:
2390:
2344:
2329:
2299:
2278:
2265:
2264:
2240:
2234:
2224:
2206:
2196:
2195:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2168:
2152:
2139:
2134:
2133:
2094:
2072:
2067:
2066:
2034:
2033:
2026:
1999:
1994:
1993:
1965:
1964:
1922:
1917:
1916:
1886:
1881:
1880:
1855:
1854:
1825:
1814:
1813:
1788:
1787:
1760:
1747:
1726:
1716:
1703:
1693:
1685:
1684:
1664:
1663:
1633:
1628:
1627:
1606:
1601:
1600:
1573:
1568:
1567:
1562:(molecules cm)
1542:
1529:
1524:
1523:
1503:
1502:
1472:
1467:
1466:
1445:
1440:
1439:
1413:
1402:
1401:
1376:
1371:
1370:
1340:
1335:
1334:
1307:
1302:
1301:
1280:
1275:
1274:
1238:
1233:
1232:
1202:
1197:
1196:
1145:
1123:
1107:
1096:
1086:
1085:
1050:
1011:
998:
997:
973:
967:
951:
941:
940:
930:
927:
923:
913:
888:
866:
861:
860:
835:
834:
813:
808:
807:
788:
787:
768:
767:
744:
733:
729:
695:
694:
631:
626:
625:
603:
602:
598:
565:
546:
541:
540:
538:
534:
531:, 3 ppmv H
530:
503:
486:
485:
446:
437:
415:
409:
390:
384:
366:
342:
337:
336:
301:
296:
295:
265:
260:
259:
240:
239:
205:
189:
184:
183:
159:
154:
153:
151:
132:
128:
120:
104:
100:
96:
84:escape velocity
64:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7712:
7710:
7702:
7701:
7696:
7691:
7689:Origin of life
7686:
7681:
7676:
7666:
7665:
7660:
7659:
7620:(9): 751–754.
7600:
7557:(1–4): 75–82.
7541:
7481:
7438:
7395:
7336:
7303:
7281:
7267:978-1322254555
7266:
7248:
7205:
7178:(4): 639–642.
7155:
7098:
7043:(2): 133–189.
7023:
6994:(2): 305–317.
6967:
6943:
6914:(4): 726–732.
6894:
6843:
6828:
6803:
6744:
6737:
6693:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6669:
6662:
6658:
6655:
6654:
6642:
6639:
6634:
6631:
6627:
6623:
6620:
6617:
6609:
6605:
6601:
6598:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6580:
6574:
6566:
6562:
6558:
6555:
6550:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6532:
6529:
6526:
6523:
6519:
6512:
6509:
6503:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6485:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6448:
6436:
6433:
6432:
6421:
6415:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6397:
6391:
6387:
6383:
6380:
6377:
6374:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6352:
6348:
6345:
6340:
6336:
6332:
6323:
6307:
6304:
6303:
6292:
6286:
6282:
6277:
6268:
6264:
6261:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6239:
6223:
6219:
6215:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6165:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6119:
6107:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6082:
6070:
6066:
6052:
6048:
6044:
6041:
6029:
6025:
6008:
6005:
5997:
5989:
5978:
5969:
5956:
5950:
5949:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5924:
5921:
5918:
5913:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5899:
5896:
5893:
5890:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5874:
5871:
5868:
5865:
5862:
5859:
5854:
5850:
5834:
5830:
5823:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5792:
5791:
5775:
5772:
5764:
5754:
5751:
5746:
5743:
5737:
5726:
5710:
5695:
5689:
5686:
5680:
5672:
5651:
5647:
5639:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:H atoms cm⋅s.
5593:
5589:
5585:
5582:
5560:
5556:
5552:
5549:
5546:
5543:
5540:
5537:
5508:
5504:
5500:
5497:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5464:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5428:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5395:
5378:
5377:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5352:
5349:
5346:
5343:
5340:
5337:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5321:
5317:
5307:
5303:
5298:
5295:
5292:
5289:
5284:
5280:
5254:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5240:
5237:
5234:
5231:
5228:
5225:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5209:
5205:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5171:
5168:
5159:
5143:
5140:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5114:
5111:
5108:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5075:
5072:
5069:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5036:
5033:
5028:
5024:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4990:
4987:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4941:
4938:
4932:
4927:
4917:molecules cm,
4904:
4900:
4896:
4893:
4890:
4882:
4878:
4872:
4862:molecules cm,
4849:
4845:
4841:
4838:
4835:
4829:
4824:
4812:
4811:
4792:
4788:
4782:
4778:
4772:
4767:
4757:
4753:
4747:
4736:
4732:
4726:
4722:
4711:
4707:
4701:
4697:
4691:
4686:
4678:
4673:
4664:
4659:
4655:
4650:
4646:
4630:
4626:
4614:
4611:
4608:
4588:
4585:
4582:
4560:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4546:
4543:
4534:
4530:
4521:
4500:
4489:
4488:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4459:
4455:
4440:
4439:
4426:
4422:
4415:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4348:
4339:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4302:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4281:
4277:
4253:
4249:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4230:
4226:
4214:
4213:
4201:
4195:
4192:
4187:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4152:
4146:
4142:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4123:
4119:
4095:
4092:
4089:
4086:
4082:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4046:
4042:
4021:
4018:
4015:
4012:
4008:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3972:
3968:
3945:
3941:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3922:
3918:
3895:
3891:
3868:
3864:
3843:
3839:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3820:
3816:
3793:
3789:
3766:
3762:
3739:
3735:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3676:
3675:
3663:
3656:
3653:
3648:
3645:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3613:
3607:
3604:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3578:
3574:
3568:
3564:
3557:
3553:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3513:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3478:
3474:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3430:
3419:
3418:
3406:
3399:
3396:
3391:
3388:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3356:
3351:
3348:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3316:
3310:
3307:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3267:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3243:
3239:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3219:
3216:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3126:
3125:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3098:
3095:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3058:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3023:
3017:
3014:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2988:
2984:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2963:
2956:
2950:
2946:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2896:
2892:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2841:
2829:
2828:
2816:
2809:
2806:
2801:
2798:
2790:
2785:
2781:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2761:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2691:
2687:
2681:
2677:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2642:
2637:
2633:
2618:
2617:
2603:
2600:
2595:
2592:
2584:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2552:
2536:
2535:
2521:
2518:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2487:
2484:
2476:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2411:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2387:
2386:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2350:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2305:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2230:
2227:
2223:
2213:
2209:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2103:
2100:
2093:
2088:
2081:
2078:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2041:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2006:
2002:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1972:
1961:
1960:
1951:
1938:
1931:
1928:
1902:
1895:
1892:
1877:
1876:
1873:
1862:
1851:
1850:
1835:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1806:
1795:
1784:
1783:
1772:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1682:
1671:
1660:
1659:
1653:
1640:
1636:
1613:
1609:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1580:
1576:
1564:
1563:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1521:
1510:
1499:
1498:
1492:
1479:
1475:
1452:
1448:
1436:
1435:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1409:
1396:
1383:
1379:
1367:
1366:
1360:
1347:
1343:
1331:
1330:
1327:
1314:
1310:
1287:
1283:
1271:
1270:
1267:
1254:
1247:
1244:
1218:
1211:
1208:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1154:
1151:
1144:
1139:
1132:
1129:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1024:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1001:
994:
990:
985:
980:
976:
970:
966:
958:
954:
948:
944:
937:
933:
926:
920:
916:
912:
909:
904:
897:
894:
887:
882:
875:
872:
842:
820:
816:
795:
775:
765:
764:
750:
747:
740:
736:
732:
726:
723:
720:
717:
707:
703:
688:
687:
669:
665:
661:
651:
647:
643:
638:
634:
610:
597:
594:
572:
568:
564:
561:
558:
553:
549:
536:
532:
528:
510:
506:
502:
499:
496:
493:
482:
481:
470:
467:
464:
461:
453:
449:
445:
440:
436:
433:
427:
422:
418:
412:
408:
405:
397:
393:
387:
383:
380:
374:
369:
365:
362:
358:
354:
349:
345:
321:
317:
313:
308:
304:
283:
280:
277:
272:
268:
247:
237:
236:
225:
221:
217:
212:
208:
204:
201:
196:
192:
166:
162:
149:
130:
126:
118:
102:
98:
94:
63:
60:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7711:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7687:
7685:
7682:
7680:
7677:
7675:
7672:
7671:
7669:
7655:
7651:
7646:
7641:
7636:
7631:
7627:
7623:
7619:
7615:
7611:
7604:
7601:
7596:
7592:
7588:
7584:
7580:
7576:
7572:
7568:
7564:
7560:
7556:
7552:
7545:
7542:
7537:
7533:
7529:
7528:2027.42/94638
7525:
7520:
7515:
7511:
7507:
7503:
7499:
7492:
7485:
7482:
7477:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7449:
7442:
7439:
7434:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7418:
7414:
7410:
7406:
7399:
7396:
7391:
7387:
7383:
7379:
7375:
7371:
7367:
7363:
7359:
7355:
7351:
7347:
7340:
7337:
7332:
7328:
7322:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7300:
7295:
7294:
7285:
7282:
7277:
7273:
7269:
7263:
7259:
7252:
7249:
7244:
7240:
7236:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7221:(C10): 9859.
7220:
7216:
7209:
7206:
7201:
7197:
7193:
7189:
7185:
7181:
7177:
7173:
7166:
7159:
7156:
7151:
7147:
7143:
7139:
7134:
7129:
7125:
7121:
7117:
7113:
7109:
7102:
7099:
7094:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7076:
7072:
7068:
7064:
7060:
7056:
7051:
7046:
7042:
7038:
7034:
7027:
7024:
7019:
7015:
7010:
7005:
7001:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6978:
6976:
6974:
6972:
6968:
6957:
6953:
6947:
6944:
6939:
6935:
6930:
6925:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6909:
6905:
6898:
6895:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6874:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6858:
6854:
6847:
6844:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6825:
6822:. Macmillan.
6820:
6819:
6810:
6808:
6804:
6799:
6795:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6771:
6767:
6763:
6759:
6755:
6748:
6745:
6740:
6738:9781139020558
6734:
6730:
6726:
6722:
6715:
6713:
6711:
6709:
6707:
6705:
6703:
6701:
6699:
6695:
6688:
6686:
6666:
6640:
6637:
6632:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6618:
6615:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6596:
6589:
6585:
6581:
6578:
6572:
6564:
6560:
6556:
6553:
6543:
6539:
6530:
6527:
6524:
6521:
6510:
6501:
6487:
6483:
6475:
6474:
6473:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6446:
6413:
6399:
6395:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6378:
6375:
6367:
6363:
6346:
6338:
6334:
6313:
6312:
6311:
6284:
6262:
6254:
6250:
6229:
6228:
6227:
6212:
6166:
6164:
6128:
6124:
6120:
6117:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6080:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6039:
6006:
6003:
5995:
5976:
5967:
5954:
5953:Stoichiometry
5933:
5929:
5925:
5922:
5919:
5911:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5897:
5891:
5883:
5879:
5875:
5872:
5866:
5860:
5852:
5840:
5839:
5838:
5827:
5773:
5770:
5762:
5752:
5749:
5741:
5735:
5724:
5711:
5693:
5684:
5678:
5670:
5657:
5656:
5655:
5645:
5636:
5614:
5607:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5580:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5544:
5541:
5538:
5527:
5525:
5506:
5502:
5498:
5495:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5462:
5453:
5437:
5433:
5429:
5426:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5393:
5385:
5383:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5347:
5344:
5341:
5335:
5319:
5315:
5305:
5301:
5296:
5293:
5290:
5287:
5282:
5270:
5269:
5268:
5252:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5235:
5232:
5229:
5223:
5207:
5203:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5169:
5166:
5157:
5147:
5141:
5139:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5112:
5109:
5106:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5073:
5070:
5067:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5034:
5031:
5026:
5022:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4988:
4985:
4980:
4977:
4973:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4939:
4936:
4925:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4880:
4870:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4836:
4833:
4822:
4790:
4780:
4776:
4765:
4755:
4745:
4734:
4724:
4720:
4709:
4699:
4695:
4684:
4671:
4657:
4653:
4648:
4644:
4636:
4635:
4634:
4612:
4609:
4606:
4586:
4583:
4580:
4558:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4544:
4541:
4532:
4528:
4519:
4498:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4457:
4445:
4444:
4443:
4424:
4420:
4413:
4410:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4387:
4383:
4376:
4371:
4367:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4346:
4337:
4334:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4311:
4307:
4300:
4295:
4291:
4284:
4279:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4251:
4247:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4228:
4224:
4199:
4193:
4190:
4185:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4160:
4150:
4144:
4140:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4121:
4109:
4108:
4107:
4093:
4090:
4087:
4084:
4080:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4044:
4019:
4016:
4013:
4010:
4006:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3970:
3966:
3943:
3939:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3920:
3893:
3889:
3866:
3862:
3841:
3837:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3818:
3814:
3791:
3787:
3764:
3760:
3737:
3733:
3712:
3709:
3706:
3703:
3699:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3661:
3654:
3651:
3646:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3625:
3621:
3611:
3605:
3602:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3576:
3572:
3566:
3562:
3555:
3551:
3544:
3538:
3534:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3511:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3476:
3464:
3463:
3462:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3428:
3404:
3397:
3394:
3389:
3386:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3363:
3357:
3354:
3349:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3314:
3308:
3305:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3279:
3275:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3254:
3247:
3241:
3237:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3214:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3174:
3166:
3156:
3148:
3143:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3111:
3104:
3101:
3096:
3093:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3064:
3061:
3056:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3021:
3015:
3012:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2986:
2982:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2961:
2954:
2948:
2944:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2894:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2843:
2839:
2814:
2807:
2804:
2799:
2796:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2767:
2764:
2759:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2689:
2685:
2679:
2675:
2668:
2664:
2657:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2601:
2598:
2593:
2590:
2582:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2557:
2554:
2550:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2519:
2516:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2490:
2485:
2482:
2474:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2449:
2446:
2442:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2409:
2406:
2401:
2397:
2372:
2364:
2360:
2357:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2303:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2116:
2113:
2108:
2098:
2091:
2086:
2076:
2064:
2053:
2039:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2020:
2004:
2000:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1970:
1963:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1952:
1936:
1926:
1900:
1890:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1860:
1853:
1852:
1849:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1810:
1807:
1793:
1786:
1785:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1740:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1694:
1683:
1669:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1638:
1634:
1611:
1607:
1599:
1598:
1594:
1578:
1574:
1566:
1565:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1508:
1501:
1500:
1497:
1493:
1477:
1473:
1450:
1446:
1438:
1437:
1434:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1397:
1381:
1377:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1345:
1341:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1312:
1308:
1285:
1281:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1252:
1242:
1216:
1206:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1168:
1159:
1149:
1142:
1137:
1127:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1087:
1080:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1036:
1033:
1022:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1003:
999:
992:
988:
983:
978:
974:
968:
956:
952:
946:
942:
935:
931:
924:
918:
914:
910:
907:
902:
892:
885:
880:
870:
859:
858:
857:
854:
840:
818:
814:
793:
773:
748:
745:
738:
734:
730:
724:
721:
718:
715:
705:
693:
692:
691:
667:
659:
649:
641:
636:
624:
623:
622:
608:
595:
593:
591:
586:
570:
566:
562:
559:
556:
551:
526:
508:
504:
500:
497:
494:
491:
468:
465:
462:
459:
451:
438:
434:
431:
420:
410:
406:
403:
395:
385:
381:
378:
367:
363:
347:
343:
335:
334:
333:
306:
302:
278:
270:
266:
245:
210:
206:
202:
199:
194:
182:
181:
180:
164:
146:
144:
140:
136:
124:
116:
112:
108:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
68:
61:
59:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
7645:11573/908413
7617:
7613:
7603:
7554:
7550:
7544:
7501:
7497:
7484:
7451:
7447:
7441:
7408:
7404:
7398:
7349:
7345:
7339:
7292:
7284:
7257:
7251:
7218:
7214:
7208:
7175:
7171:
7158:
7118:(2): 53–76.
7115:
7111:
7101:
7040:
7037:Astrobiology
7036:
7026:
6991:
6987:
6959:. Retrieved
6955:
6946:
6911:
6907:
6897:
6856:
6852:
6846:
6817:
6757:
6753:
6747:
6720:
6667:
6656:
6434:
6305:
6213:
6170:
5951:
5948:H atoms cm⋅s
5828:
5793:
5637:
5618:
5523:
5454:
5381:
5379:
5376:H atoms cm⋅s
5148:
5145:
4813:
4490:
4441:
4215:
3677:
3420:
3127:
2830:
2619:
2537:
2388:
2059:
2022:
1986:
1957:
1954:
1811:
1656:
1495:
1433:cm s for H)
1399:
1363:
855:
766:
689:
599:
587:
483:
238:
147:
143:suprathermal
135:heterosphere
88:
73:
56:
31:
19:
18:
7699:Proterozoic
1191:Definition
123:ultraviolet
91:troposphere
7674:Atmosphere
7668:Categories
7304:0521075777
7112:Geobiology
7050:1608.08620
6961:2019-06-09
6829:0028543904
6689:References
5644:photolysis
5526:spacecraft
4965:cm⋅s, and
2424:chain rule
596:Derivation
590:polar wind
115:tropopause
107:homosphere
7654:0091-7613
7579:0302-1688
7536:0148-0227
7476:0148-0227
7433:0148-0227
7374:0036-8075
7321:cite book
7276:895251690
7243:0148-0227
7200:0148-0227
7150:128501605
7142:1472-4677
7075:1531-1074
7018:0022-4928
6938:0022-4928
6889:129027583
6881:0033-4553
6838:888673181
6782:0036-8075
6630:−
6622:×
6600:×
6582:×
6557:×
6518:Φ
6511:≈
6450:×
6382:×
6351:Φ
6347:≈
6322:Φ
6267:Φ
6263:≈
6238:Φ
6207:to form H
6121:×
6084:×
6043:×
5988:⟶
5926:×
5909:−
5901:×
5892:⋅
5876:×
5849:Φ
5745:⟶
5742:ν
5688:⟶
5685:ν
5584:×
5551:×
5542:±
5499:×
5466:×
5430:×
5397:×
5354:×
5345:±
5279:Φ
5250:−
5242:×
5233:±
5173:×
5116:×
5077:×
5038:×
4992:×
4986:≈
4943:×
4937:≈
4895:×
4889:≈
4840:×
4834:≈
4610:≈
4599:m⋅s, and
4556:−
4548:×
4542:≈
4529:−
4454:Φ
4393:−
4317:−
4276:Φ
4170:−
4118:Φ
4041:Φ
3917:Φ
3631:−
3521:−
3485:−
3473:Φ
3446:≈
3370:α
3334:−
3224:−
3188:−
3171:Φ
3153:Φ
3140:Φ
3077:α
3041:−
2931:−
2891:Φ
2780:α
2744:−
2644:−
2567:
2506:−
2459:
2361:
2331:α
2316:
2276:−
2166:−
2150:−
2102:→
2080:→
2001:α
1930:→
1894:→
1831:−
1823:×
1411:×
1246:→
1210:→
1188:Variable
1153:→
1143:−
1131:→
1081:−
1070:
1061:∇
1052:α
1037:
1028:∇
1009:−
965:∇
911:−
896:→
886:−
874:→
719:−
702:Φ
664:Φ
646:Φ
633:Φ
563:×
548:Φ
501:×
191:Φ
161:Φ
111:homopause
80:exosphere
7679:Hydrogen
7595:29721376
7587:11536587
7390:25856765
7382:11729314
7093:29431479
6798:37386726
6790:11486082
4537:hydrogen
2426:and the
2027:in air)
101:, and CH
7622:Bibcode
7614:Geology
7559:Bibcode
7506:Bibcode
7456:Bibcode
7413:Bibcode
7354:Bibcode
7346:Science
7223:Bibcode
7180:Bibcode
7120:Bibcode
7084:5820795
7055:Bibcode
6996:Bibcode
6956:aas.org
6916:Bibcode
6861:Bibcode
6762:Bibcode
6754:Science
5524:Cassini
5384:6 and 7
5382:Mariner
1958:(cm s)
76:exobase
28:exobase
7694:Oxygen
7652:
7593:
7585:
7577:
7534:
7474:
7431:
7388:
7380:
7372:
7311:
7301:
7274:
7264:
7241:
7198:
7148:
7140:
7091:
7081:
7073:
7016:
6936:
6887:
6879:
6836:
6826:
6796:
6788:
6780:
6735:
6028:from H
5959:(i.e.
5810:from H
5528:to be
4216:Since
7591:S2CID
7494:(PDF)
7386:S2CID
7313:74562
7168:(PDF)
7146:S2CID
7045:arXiv
6885:S2CID
6794:S2CID
6681:and H
5650:and H
5646:of CO
4264:,
1848:J K)
48:Titan
44:Venus
36:Earth
7650:ISSN
7583:PMID
7575:ISSN
7532:ISSN
7472:ISSN
7429:ISSN
7378:PMID
7370:ISSN
7331:link
7327:link
7309:OCLC
7299:ISBN
7272:OCLC
7262:ISBN
7239:ISSN
7196:ISSN
7138:ISSN
7089:PMID
7071:ISSN
7014:ISSN
6934:ISSN
6877:ISSN
6834:OCLC
6824:ISBN
6786:PMID
6778:ISSN
6733:ISBN
6653:ppmv
6579:3.75
6447:3.75
6326:volc
6242:volc
6040:3.75
5419:and
5310:Mars
5162:Mars
4989:1.46
4940:2.73
4814:For
4587:9.81
3180:eddy
1915:and
1820:1.38
1626:and
1465:and
711:eddy
673:eddy
527:) CH
97:O, H
46:and
40:Mars
7640:hdl
7630:doi
7567:doi
7524:hdl
7514:doi
7502:115
7464:doi
7421:doi
7362:doi
7350:294
7231:doi
7188:doi
7128:doi
7079:PMC
7063:doi
7004:doi
6924:doi
6869:doi
6857:116
6770:doi
6758:293
6725:doi
6641:150
6619:1.5
6597:2.5
6554:2.5
6379:2.5
6355:esc
6271:esc
6211:O.
6118:1.9
6081:7.5
5923:1.5
5873:2.5
5545:2.1
5539:2.0
5463:1.7
5348:1.1
5342:3.3
5170:1.1
5113:2.5
5074:2.9
5035:1.8
4892:5.2
4837:1.8
4613:208
4545:4.8
4524:air
4442:or
3162:mol
2900:mol
1408:2.6
655:mol
560:4.3
498:2.5
179:):
7670::
7648:.
7638:.
7628:.
7618:44
7616:.
7612:.
7589:.
7581:.
7573:.
7565:.
7555:14
7553:.
7530:.
7522:.
7512:.
7500:.
7496:.
7470:.
7462:.
7452:86
7450:.
7427:.
7419:.
7409:79
7407:.
7384:.
7376:.
7368:.
7360:.
7348:.
7323:}}
7319:{{
7307:.
7270:.
7237:.
7229:.
7219:86
7217:.
7194:.
7186:.
7176:80
7174:.
7170:.
7144:.
7136:.
7126:.
7114:.
7110:.
7087:.
7077:.
7069:.
7061:.
7053:.
7041:18
7039:.
7035:.
7012:.
7002:.
6992:31
6990:.
6986:.
6970:^
6954:.
6932:.
6922:.
6912:30
6910:.
6906:.
6883:.
6875:.
6867:.
6855:.
6832:.
6806:^
6792:.
6784:.
6776:.
6768:.
6756:.
6731:.
6697:^
6626:10
6608:13
6604:10
6586:10
6565:13
6561:10
6454:10
6390:13
6386:10
6226:.
6125:10
6088:10
6047:10
5930:10
5905:10
5884:13
5880:10
5691:CO
5667:CO
5635:.
5592:10
5588:10
5559:10
5555:10
5503:10
5470:10
5434:10
5401:10
5358:10
5246:10
5236:10
5230:30
5181:13
5177:10
5124:13
5120:10
5085:13
5081:10
5046:19
5042:10
5027:12
5000:19
4996:10
4951:19
4947:10
4899:10
4844:10
4649:12
4573:,
4559:26
4552:10
4372:12
4296:12
4242:12
4229:12
4135:12
3529:12
3232:12
2939:12
2652:12
2564:ln
2456:ln
2358:ln
2313:ln
2174:12
1834:23
1827:10
1419:19
1415:10
1382:12
1346:12
1300:,
1231:,
1067:ln
1034:ln
919:12
592:.
567:10
509:13
505:10
42:,
38:,
7656:.
7642::
7632::
7624::
7597:.
7569::
7561::
7538:.
7526::
7516::
7508::
7478:.
7466::
7458::
7435:.
7423::
7415::
7392:.
7364::
7356::
7333:)
7315:.
7278:.
7245:.
7233::
7225::
7202:.
7190::
7182::
7152:.
7130::
7122::
7116:3
7095:.
7065::
7057::
7047::
7020:.
7006::
6998::
6964:.
6940:.
6926::
6918::
6891:.
6871::
6863::
6840:.
6800:.
6772::
6764::
6741:.
6727::
6683:2
6679:4
6675:2
6670:2
6663:2
6659:2
6638:=
6633:4
6616:=
6590:9
6573:=
6549:)
6544:2
6540:H
6536:(
6531:c
6528:l
6525:o
6522:v
6508:)
6502:2
6498:H
6493:(
6488:T
6484:f
6458:9
6437:2
6420:)
6414:2
6410:H
6405:(
6400:T
6396:f
6376:=
6373:)
6368:2
6364:H
6360:(
6344:)
6339:2
6335:H
6331:(
6308:2
6291:)
6285:2
6281:H
6276:(
6260:)
6255:2
6251:H
6247:(
6224:2
6220:2
6216:2
6209:2
6205:2
6201:2
6197:2
6193:2
6189:2
6185:2
6181:2
6177:2
6173:2
6171:H
6161:2
6157:2
6153:2
6149:2
6145:2
6143:O
6129:9
6108:2
6092:9
6071:2
6067:2
6065:O
6051:7
6030:2
6026:2
6011:H
6007:4
6004:+
5996:2
5992:O
5985:O
5977:2
5973:H
5968:2
5957:2
5934:8
5920:=
5917:)
5912:6
5898:6
5895:(
5889:)
5870:(
5867:=
5864:)
5861:H
5858:(
5853:l
5835:2
5831:2
5824:2
5820:2
5816:2
5812:2
5808:2
5804:2
5800:2
5796:2
5778:H
5774:2
5771:+
5763:2
5759:O
5753:2
5750:1
5739:h
5736:+
5733:O
5725:2
5721:H
5697:O
5694:+
5682:h
5679:+
5671:2
5652:2
5648:2
5640:2
5633:2
5629:2
5625:2
5621:2
5581:3
5548:)
5536:(
5507:7
5496:3
5474:7
5438:8
5427:2
5405:8
5394:1
5362:8
5351:)
5339:(
5336:=
5333:)
5329:H
5325:(
5320:T
5316:f
5306:C
5302:=
5297:s
5294:r
5291:a
5288:m
5283:l
5253:6
5239:)
5227:(
5224:=
5221:)
5217:H
5213:(
5208:T
5204:f
5167:=
5158:C
5110:=
5107:C
5071:=
5068:C
5032:=
5023:b
4981:2
4978:H
4974:b
4931:H
4926:b
4903:7
4881:2
4877:H
4871:n
4848:7
4828:H
4823:n
4791:2
4787:H
4781:n
4777:+
4771:H
4766:n
4756:2
4752:H
4746:n
4735:2
4731:H
4725:b
4721:+
4710:2
4706:H
4700:n
4696:+
4690:H
4685:n
4677:H
4672:n
4663:H
4658:b
4654:=
4645:b
4631:2
4627:2
4607:T
4584:=
4581:g
4533:m
4520:m
4499:C
4474:1
4470:f
4466:C
4463:=
4458:l
4425:1
4421:f
4414:T
4411:k
4406:)
4401:1
4397:m
4388:2
4384:m
4380:(
4377:g
4368:b
4361:=
4356:n
4351:1
4347:n
4338:T
4335:k
4330:)
4325:1
4321:m
4312:2
4308:m
4304:(
4301:g
4292:b
4285:=
4280:l
4252:n
4248:/
4238:b
4234:=
4225:D
4200:)
4194:T
4191:k
4186:g
4183:)
4178:1
4174:m
4165:2
4161:m
4157:(
4151:(
4145:1
4141:n
4131:D
4127:=
4122:l
4094:0
4091:=
4088:z
4085:d
4081:/
4075:1
4071:f
4067:d
4045:l
4020:0
4017:=
4014:z
4011:d
4007:/
4001:1
3997:f
3993:d
3971:1
3967:w
3944:1
3940:n
3934:1
3930:w
3926:=
3921:1
3894:1
3890:w
3867:1
3863:n
3842:n
3838:/
3832:1
3828:n
3824:=
3819:1
3815:f
3792:1
3788:n
3765:1
3761:f
3738:1
3734:f
3713:0
3710:=
3707:z
3704:d
3700:/
3694:1
3690:f
3686:d
3662:)
3655:T
3652:k
3647:g
3644:)
3639:1
3635:m
3626:2
3622:m
3618:(
3612:+
3606:z
3603:d
3596:1
3592:f
3588:d
3577:2
3573:n
3567:1
3563:n
3556:2
3552:n
3545:(
3539:1
3535:n
3525:D
3515:z
3512:d
3505:1
3501:f
3497:d
3491:n
3488:K
3482:=
3477:1
3449:0
3443:z
3440:d
3436:/
3432:T
3429:d
3405:)
3398:z
3395:d
3390:T
3387:d
3379:T
3374:T
3364:+
3358:T
3355:k
3350:g
3347:)
3342:1
3338:m
3329:2
3325:m
3321:(
3315:+
3309:z
3306:d
3299:1
3295:f
3291:d
3280:2
3276:n
3270:1
3266:n
3259:2
3255:n
3248:(
3242:1
3238:n
3228:D
3218:z
3215:d
3208:1
3204:f
3200:d
3194:n
3191:K
3185:=
3175:1
3167:+
3157:1
3149:=
3144:1
3112:)
3105:z
3102:d
3097:T
3094:d
3086:T
3081:T
3071:+
3065:T
3062:k
3057:g
3054:)
3049:1
3045:m
3036:2
3032:m
3028:(
3022:+
3016:z
3013:d
3006:1
3002:f
2998:d
2987:2
2983:n
2977:1
2973:n
2966:2
2962:n
2955:(
2949:1
2945:n
2935:D
2928:=
2923:1
2919:n
2913:1
2909:w
2905:=
2895:1
2865:1
2861:f
2857:=
2854:n
2850:/
2844:1
2840:n
2815:)
2808:z
2805:d
2800:T
2797:d
2789:T
2784:T
2774:+
2768:T
2765:k
2760:g
2757:)
2752:1
2748:m
2739:2
2735:m
2731:(
2725:+
2719:z
2716:d
2709:1
2705:f
2701:d
2690:2
2686:n
2680:1
2676:n
2669:2
2665:n
2658:(
2648:D
2641:=
2636:1
2632:w
2602:z
2599:d
2594:T
2591:d
2583:T
2580:1
2575:=
2571:T
2558:z
2555:d
2551:d
2520:T
2517:k
2512:g
2509:m
2500:=
2494:z
2491:d
2486:P
2483:d
2475:P
2472:1
2467:=
2463:P
2450:z
2447:d
2443:d
2410:0
2407:=
2402:2
2398:w
2373:)
2369:)
2365:T
2355:(
2349:z
2346:d
2342:d
2335:T
2327:+
2324:)
2320:P
2310:(
2304:z
2301:d
2297:d
2290:m
2284:1
2280:m
2271:2
2267:m
2260:+
2256:)
2251:n
2246:1
2242:n
2236:(
2229:z
2226:d
2222:d
2212:2
2208:n
2202:1
2198:n
2191:2
2187:n
2180:(
2170:D
2163:=
2158:2
2154:w
2145:1
2141:w
2117:g
2114:=
2109:2
2099:a
2092:=
2087:1
2077:a
2040:P
2025:2
2005:T
1971:g
1937:2
1927:a
1901:1
1891:a
1861:T
1812:(
1794:k
1771:)
1766:2
1762:n
1758:+
1753:1
1749:n
1745:(
1741:/
1737:)
1732:2
1728:m
1722:1
1718:n
1714:+
1709:1
1705:m
1699:1
1695:n
1691:(
1670:m
1639:2
1635:m
1612:1
1608:m
1579:1
1575:f
1548:2
1544:n
1540:+
1535:1
1531:n
1509:n
1478:2
1474:n
1451:1
1447:n
1400:(
1378:b
1342:D
1313:2
1309:w
1286:1
1282:w
1253:2
1243:v
1217:1
1207:v
1169:)
1165:)
1160:2
1150:a
1138:1
1128:a
1121:(
1115:T
1112:k
1109:m
1102:2
1098:m
1092:1
1088:m
1078:)
1074:T
1064:(
1056:T
1048:+
1045:)
1041:P
1031:(
1023:m
1017:1
1013:m
1004:2
1000:m
993:+
989:)
984:n
979:1
975:n
969:(
957:2
953:n
947:1
943:n
936:2
932:n
925:(
915:D
908:=
903:2
893:v
881:1
871:v
841:i
819:i
815:f
794:n
774:K
749:z
746:d
739:i
735:f
731:d
725:n
722:K
716:=
706:i
668:i
660:+
650:i
642:=
637:i
609:i
571:8
557:=
552:l
537:2
533:2
529:4
495:=
492:C
469:.
466:.
463:.
460:+
452:4
448:H
444:C
439:f
435:4
432:+
426:O
421:2
417:H
411:f
407:2
404:+
396:2
392:H
386:f
382:2
379:+
373:H
368:f
364:=
361:)
357:H
353:(
348:T
344:f
320:)
316:H
312:(
307:T
303:f
282:)
279:H
276:(
271:T
267:f
246:C
224:)
220:H
216:(
211:T
207:f
203:C
200:=
195:l
165:l
150:2
131:2
127:2
119:2
103:4
99:2
95:2
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
