247:. SRP and SSRM are both contact based methods that measure spreading resistance. DHEM carrier concentration profiles were in better agreement with the average carrier concentration values to a greater extent than the calibrated SSRM carrier profile. DHEM also measured surface features and the junction interface (between the n-type epi-layers and the p-type substrate). The technique also provided data profiles with correct depth scales when compared with SIMS or cross-sectional TEM data. It was found that SRP underestimated near-surface carrier concentration values and could not resolve near-junction carrier concentration profile sharpness. DHEM provided dependable results through the thickness of the samples measured. It is possible to integrate the DHEM carrier profiles and calculate sheet values, like sheet resistance, which are also measured routinely using four-point probe techniques providing an in-built check. Such a comparison showed sheet values calculated from DHEM profiles came within a few percent of four-point probe measurements, adding to the verifiability of DHEM data.
198:
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39:
not been widely used in the semiconductor industry. Since the contact region is also affected by the material removal process, the traditional DHE approach requires that contacts be newly and repeatedly be made to collect data on the coupon. This introduces contact related noise and reduces the repeatability and stability of the data. The speed, accuracy and, depth resolution of DHE has been generally limited because of its manual nature. The DHEM technique is an improvement over the traditional DHE method in terms of automation, speed, data stability and, resolution (≤1nm depth resolution). DHEM technique had been deployed in a semi-automated or automated tools.
182:
square to 2mm square. At this point in the process, the electrically active thickness of the layer at the test region can be reduced in a step-wise or digitized manner using highly controllable chemical and/or electrochemical means. DHEM leverages two ways to achieve controlled removal of the material. The first method is to etch away material. The second method is to convert a portion of the material into an insulating oxide thereby removing it from the electrical circuit. As either process is carried out, measurements are collected from the remaining electrically active layer after each thickness reduction step using
54:
130:(like <14nm nodes) need to use a very wide range of process conditions that do not satisfy this requirement, for example, ohmic contact formation for source/drain regions of transistors necessitates introduction of very high concentration of dopants (as much as 4-8%) much of which may not be electrically active near the surface. In such cases, 4PP and Hall effect measurements, which provide average resistivity and effective mobility values provide incomplete information since both resistivity and mobility values change throughout the film or structure, especially after anneal steps.
194:
materials that form poor oxide layers (such as Ge) an etch-based approach can be deployed. In any case, the thickness reduction process needs to be calibrated, highly controllable, and repeatable so that the thickness of the material can be controlled and monitored. It is possible to achieve depth resolutions in the 3-5 Angstrom range, making true sub-nm profiling of such materials possible.
22:(DHEM) is an electrical depth profiling technique that measures all critical electrical parameters (resistivity, mobility and carriers) through an electrically active material at sub-nanometer depth resolution. DHEM is based on the previously developed Differential Hall Effect (DHE) method. In the traditional DHE method, successive sheet resistance and Hall effect measurements on a
142:
electrical effect of new processing technologies developed in recent years. The silicon mobility models are based on a 1981 publication, while the germanium models are mostly taken from a 1961 paper. These models may not be absolutely relevant to materials produced today using modern processes such as
193:
A highly controllable process is needed to achieve fine depth resolution. Electrochemical methods for both etching and oxidation are well suited for this purpose. In general, each new material needs a new recipe. For materials that form stable oxides, such as Si, oxidation approach is attractive. For
176:
electrical measurements on thin films including four-point-probe and the traditional Hall Effect). This insulating layer may be an oxide layer, as is the case with buried-oxide (BOX) semiconductors, or it can be a p-n junction, which will naturally have a depleted region at the electrical junction or
181:
mesa structure in addition to a nozzle (or chamber) that can deliver chemical solutions, DI water or gases to a well-defined test region. The test region is the center of the test pattern. The dimensions of the test region may be changed to suit application and currently can be as small as 0.2-0.5mm
1170:
Celano, Umberto; Wouters, Lennaert; Franquet, Alexis; Spampinato, Valentina; van der Heide, Paul; Schaekers, Marc; Joshi, Abhijeet; Basol, Bulent M (20 May 2022). "Dopant
Activation Depth Profiling for Highly Doped Si:P By Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy (SSRM) and Differential Hall Effect
38:
to remove material from the measurement circuit. This data can be used to determine the depth profiles of carrier concentration, resistivity and mobility. DHE is a manual laboratory technique requiring wet chemical processing for etching and cleaning the sample between each measurement, and it has
222:
The DHEM technique has been applied across various material and process conditions. Some exemplary work on highly-doped epi films can be found here. This publication demonstrates application to laser-based anneal techniques. Implant and RTA condition splits evaluated using DHEM can be found here.
66:
The first attempt at automating the DHE measurement were made by
Galloni, et al. However, reliability and depth resolution of this approach was not adequate. Recently, industry has shown renewed interest in high-resolution electrical data profiles (resistivity, mobility and carrier profiles) to
141:
techniques. Both there techniques measure either the resistivity or carrier concentration values, and without providing mobility depth profiles. This necessitates assuming a mobility and/or resistivity profile values for the material, which are based on limited datasets and do not capture the
121:
do not measure electrical depth profiles and are, by themselves, not adequate to characterize semiconductor layers with electrical properties that vary as a function of depth through the film (i.e.; surface activation levels may be different than activation in the deeper, or 'bulk', layers).
108:
Development of next-generation semiconductor technologies comes with escalated costs due to ever increasing technical challenges and extended development cycles needed to meet such challenges. Dependable, high-resolution electrical profiling techniques are crucial to accelerating film/device
171:
cross is used as a test pattern. The pattern is prepared on the coupon sample to be characterized such that the Van der Pauw cross or shape is on a mesa structure which isolates the top film to be characterized from its surroundings. An insulating barrier is important to fully isolate the
146:
and advanced epitaxial growth techniques, which can introduce very high concentrations of dopants in the films and utilize non-equilibrium approaches such as laser annealing. Furthermore, models do not directly expand to include new materials such as Si-Ge alloys with varying amounts of
805:
Lombardo, S.F.; Boninelli, S.; Cristiano, F.; Fisicaro, G.; Fortunato, G.; Grimaldi, M.G.; Impellizzeri, G.; Italia, M.; Marino, A.; Milazzo, R.; Napolitani, E.; Privitera, V.; La Magna, A. (May 2017). "Laser annealing in Si and Ge: Anomalous physical aspects and modeling approaches".
1049:
Tabata, Toshiyuki; Rozé, Fabien; Thuries, Louis; Halty, Sebastien; Raynal, Pierre-Edouard; Huet, Karim; Mazzamuto, Fulvio; Joshi, Abhijeet; Basol, Bulent M.; Alba, Pablo Acosta; Kerdilès, Sébastien (June 2022). "Microsecond non-melt UV laser annealing for future 3D-stacked CMOS".
1226:
K-L Lin et al. "Comparison of Dopant
Activation in Si as Characterized by Spreading Resistance Profiling (SRP) and Differential Hall Effect Metrology (DHEM)", The 2022 International Conference on Frontiers of Characterization and Metrology for Nanoelectronics (FCMN). June 20-23,
765:
W. R. Thurber, R. L. Mattis, Y. M. Liu, and J. J. Filliben: "The
Relationship Between Resistivity and Dopant Density for Phosphorus and Boron Doped Silicon," National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 400-64, 1981, NBS Special Publication 400-64, US Department of Commerce,
99:
industries. Active Layer
Parametrics (ALP) Inc. was established in 2014 to commercialize the technology and currently produces and deploys semi-automated and fully-automated DHEM equipment. ALP has successfully deployed the DHEM systems in the United States and Asia.
214:
such as silicon, silicon-germanium, germanium, etc. Directly measured carrier, resistivity and mobility depth profiles allow process engineers to correlate variations in electrical behavior of the material with process variations, both intentional or unintentional.
1216:
A Joshi et al. "Dopant
Activation Evaluation in Si:P by Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy and Differential Hall Effect Metrology", The 2022 International Conference on Frontiers of Characterization and Metrology for Nanoelectronics (FCMN). June 20-23,
341:
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Lin, Kun-Lin; Lee, Fa-Yan; Chen, Yi-Meng; Tseng, Yu-Jen; Yen, Hung-Wei (March 2024). "Complementary use of atom probe tomography (APT) and differential hall effect metrology (DHEM) for activation loss in phosphorus-implanted polycrystalline silicon".
1095:
Chang, Hung-Yuan; Wu, Yew-Chung Sermon; Chang, Chia-He; Lin, Kun-Lin; Joshi, Abhijeet; Basol, Bulent M. (August 2021). "Nano-Scale Depth
Profiles of Electrical Properties of Phosphorus Doped Silicon for Ultra-Shallow Junction Evaluation".
959:
Chang, Hung-Yuan; Wu, Yew-Chung Sermon; Chang, Chia-He; Lin, Kun-Lin; Joshi, Abhijeet; Basol, Bulent M. (August 2021). "Nano-Scale Depth
Profiles of Electrical Properties of Phosphorus Doped Silicon for Ultra-Shallow Junction Evaluation".
1025:
Joshi, Abhijeet; Rengo, Gianluca; Porret, Clement; Lin, Kun-Lin; Chang, Chia-He; Basol, Bulent M (30 May 2021). "(Invited) Characterization of Doping and
Activation Processes Using Differential Hall Effect Metrology (DHEM)".
125:
SIMS is widely used but provides only chemical composition profile data which may be translated into electrical property information for the limited process conditions where all the dopants are fully activated in the layer.
151:, grown by different approaches. Therefore, a technique that can directly measure depth profiles of carrier concentration, resistivity and mobility through layers in an integrated tool at high depth resolution is valuable.
833:
O'Leary, Stephen K.; Foutz, Brian E.; Shur, Michael S.; Eastman, Lester F. (February 2006). "Steady-State and
Transient Electron Transport Within the III–V Nitride Semiconductors, GaN, AlN, and InN: A Review".
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Eyben, P.; Xu, M.; Duhayon, N.; Clarysse, T.; Callewaert, S.; Vandervorst, W. (2002). "Scanning spreading resistance microscopy and spectroscopy for routine and quantitative two-dimensional carrier profiling".
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is often used to complement the DHEM dataset – SIMS provides the total dopant profile while DHEM provides the activated portion of the total dopant along with mobility and resistivity profiles.
197:
660:
De Wolf, P.; Clarysse, T.; Vandervorst, W.; Snauwaert, J.; Hellemans, L. (1996). "One- and two-dimensional carrier profiling in semiconductors by nanospreading resistance profiling".
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techniques. The thickness of the layer is reduced through successive processing steps in between measurements. This typically involves thermal, chemical or electrochemical etching or
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A Joshi and B Basol, "DHEM: Ohmic Contact and High-mobility channel engineering and characterization for ICs", 2020 Electronic Device Failure Analysis, vol. 22, no.4, pg10. (
407:
Daubriac, Richard; Scheid, Emmanuel; Rizk, Hiba; Monflier, Richard; Joblot, Sylvain; Beneyton, Rémi; Acosta Alba, Pablo; Kerdilès, Sébastien; Cristiano, Fuccio (July 2018).
409:"A differential Hall effect measurement method with sub-nanometre resolution for active dopant concentration profiling in ultrathin doped Si 1– x Ge x and Si layers"
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semiconductor layer of interest from the substrate below; otherwise the electrical measurements would be compromised by substrate effects (this is a requirement for
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Recently researchers presented data that demonstrated the robustness of the DHEM technique and compared the data collected with two other techniques:
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A. Joshi, S. W. Novak, and B. M. Basol: "Differential Hall Effect Metrology (DHEM) for Depth Profiling of Electrical Properties at High Resolution,"
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57:
Different Van Der Pauw patterns that are used to collect bulk mobility, sheet resistance data as used in the Differential Hall Effect technique.
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Peiner, E.; Schlachetzki, A.; KrĂĽger, D. (February 1995). "Doping Profile Analysis in Si by Electrochemical Capacitance-Voltage Measurements".
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Khaja, Fareen Adeni (October 2019). "Contact Resistance Improvement for Advanced Logic by Integration of Epi, Implant and Anneal Innovations".
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Joshi, Abhijeet; Basol, Bulent M. (November 2020). "DHEM: Ohmic Contact and High-Mobility Channel Engineering and Characterization for ICs".
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Schuetze, Andrew P.; Lewis, Wayne; Brown, Chris; Geerts, Wilhelmus J. (February 2004). "A laboratory on the four-point probe technique".
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it may even be a very high resistivity semi-insulating substrate. The DHEM system then applies four electrical contacts to the
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Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena
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Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena
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techniques. This data can then be plotted to yield depth profiles of resistivity, mobility, and carrier concentration.
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Process engineers have used the DHEM technique to profile activated semiconductor materials typically associated with
861:
Deen, M. J.; Pascal, F. (August 2006). "Electrical characterization of semiconductor materials and devices—review".
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development efforts as well as for prediction and determination of device failure. Traditional techniques such as
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A. Joshi and B. Basol: "ALPro System- An Electrical Profiling Tool for Ultra-Thin Film Characterization,"
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Boron PLAD implant profile example SIMS and Differential Hall Effect Metrology (DHEM) with mobility.
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This need for depth profiling electrical parameters gave rise to development of techniques such as
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928:"Study of Dopant Activation in Silicon Employing Differential Hall Effect Metrology (DHEM)"
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International Conference on Frontiers of Characterization and Metrology for Nanoelectronics
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International Conference on Frontiers of Characterization and Metrology for Nanoelectronics
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Ge. There is also limited electrical data for thin films of III-V materials, such as
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A method of measuring specific resistivity and Hall effect of discs of arbitrary shape
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Recently some work was published on using DHEM to complement data collected from the
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Typical Differential Hall Effect Metrology (DHEM) measurement process flow.
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understand the effects of various processes on semiconductor materials (
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Approaching the limits of low resistance contacts to n-type germanium
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602:"Dynamic Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS/DSIMS Analysis)"
485:"Strategies to deal with the semiconductor shortage | McKinsey"
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509:"Navigating the Costly Economics of Chip Making"
237:Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy (SSRM)
135:Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy (SSRM)
808:Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing
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932:IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society
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139:Electrochemical Capacitance-Voltage (E-CV)
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42:Since DHEM and DHE are both based on the
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697:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
217:Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)
115:secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)
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212:semiconductor device manufacturing
20:Differential Hall Effect Metrology
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323:10.1051/rphysap:0197800130208100
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104:Need for Electrical Profiling
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241:Scanning Probe Microscopy
167:In a DHEM measurement, a
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239:, which is based on the
155:DHEM Measurement Process
119:Hall effect measurements
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26:layer are made using
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