400:. Mercury is used because of its high vapor pressure and low ionization potential. Mercury mixed with an inert gas is used where the energy losses in the tube have to be low and the tube lifetime should be long. In mercury-inert gas mixtures, the discharge is initially carried primarily by the inert gas; the released heat then serves to evaporate enough mercury to reach the desired vapor pressure. Low-voltage (hundreds volts) rectifiers use saturated mercury vapor in combination with a small amount of inert gas, allowing cold start of the tubes. High-voltage (kilovolts and more) rectifiers use pure mercury vapor at low pressure, requiring maintenance of maximum temperature of the tube. The liquid mercury serves as a reservoir of mercury, replenishing the vapors that are used up during the discharge. Unsaturated mercury vapor can be used, but as it can not be replenished, the lifetime of such tubes is lower. The strong dependence of vapor pressure on mercury temperature limits the environments the mercury-based tubes can operate in. In low-pressure mercury lamps, there is an optimum mercury pressure for the highest efficiency. Photons emitted by ionized mercury atoms can be absorbed by nearby nonionized atoms and either reradiated or the atom is deexcited nonradiatively, too high mercury pressure therefore causes losses of light. Too low mercury pressure leads to too few atoms present to get ionized and radiate photons. The optimum temperature for low-pressure mercury lamps is at about 42 °C, when the saturated vapor pressure of mercury (present as a drop of about 1 mg of liquid mercury in the tube, as a reservoir compensating for losses by clean-up) reaches this optimum. In lamps intended for operation at higher ambient temperatures, and at a wider temperature range, mercury is present in the form of an
220:). It has higher breakdown voltage than hydrogen. In fast switching tubes it is used instead of hydrogen where high voltage operation is required. For a comparison, the hydrogen-filled CX1140 thyratron has anode voltage rating of 25 kV, while the deuterium-filled and otherwise identical CX1159 has 33 kV. Also, at the same voltage the pressure of deuterium can be higher than of hydrogen, allowing higher rise rates of current before it causes excessive anode dissipation. Significantly higher peak powers are achievable. Its recovery time is however about 40% slower than for hydrogen.
561:
229:
686:
pressure in the tube. The metal filament acts as a hydrogen storage. This approach is used in e.g. hydrogen thyratrons or neutron tubes. Usage of saturated mercury vapor allows using a pool of liquid mercury as a large storage of material; the atoms lost by clean-up are automatically replenished by evaporation of more mercury. The pressure in the tube is however strongly dependent on the mercury temperature, which has to be controlled carefully.
457:
44:
702:
glow color of the gas. Air leaking into the tube introduces oxygen, which is highly electronegative and inhibits the production of electron avalanches. This makes the discharge look pale, milky, or reddish. Traces of mercury vapors glow bluish, obscuring the original gas color. Magnesium vapor colors the discharge green. To prevent
420:; in that application it is usually used together with argon, or in some cases with krypton or neon. Mercury ions deionize slowly, limiting the switching speed of mercury-filled thyratrons. Ion bombardment with mercury ions of even relatively low energies also gradually destroys oxide-coated cathodes.
616:
The fundamental mechanism is the
Townsend discharge, which is the sustained multiplication of electron flow by ion impact when a critical value of electric field strength for the density of the gas is reached. As the electric field is increased various phases of discharge are encountered as shown in
310:
can be used in fluorescent lamps instead of argon; in that application it reduces the total energy losses on electrodes from about 15% to 7%. The voltage drop per lamp length is however lower than with argon, which can be compensated by smaller tube diameter. Krypton-filled lamps also require higher
685:
are employed. Most commonly, replenishers are used with hydrogen; a filament made from a hydrogen-absorbing metal (e.g. zirconium or titanium) is present in the tube, and by controlling its temperature the ratio of absorbed and desorbed hydrogen is adjusted, resulting in controlling of the hydrogen
292:
with high power and short length, e.g. industrial lighting tubes. Has higher voltage drop in comparison with argon and krypton. Its low atomic mass provides only a little protection to the electrodes against accelerated ions; additional screening wires or plates can be used for prolonging the anode
261:
are frequently used in tubes for many purposes, from lighting to switching. Pure noble gases are employed in switching tubes. Noble-gas-filled thyratrons have better electrical parameters than mercury-based ones. The electrodes undergo damage by high-velocity ions. The neutral atoms of the gas slow
692:
The mercury arc valve current-voltage characteristics are highly dependent on the temperature of the liquid mercury. The voltage drop in forward bias decreases from about 60 volts at 0 °C to somewhat above 10 volts at 50 °C and then stays constant; the reverse bias breakdown ("arc-back")
673:
on the surfaces of the electrodes. In high voltage tubes, the accelerated ions can penetrate into the electrode materials. New surfaces, formed by sputtering of the electrodes and deposited on e.g. the inner surfaces of the tube, also readily adsorb gases. Non-inert gases can also chemically react
701:
The gas in the tube has to be kept pure to maintain the desired properties; even small amount of impurities can dramatically change the tube values. The presence of non-inert gases generally increases the breakdown and burning voltages. The presence of impurities can be observed by changes in the
710:
is required before filling with gas and sealing. Thorough degassing is required for high-quality tubes; even as little as 10 torr (≈1 μPa) of oxygen is sufficient for covering the electrodes with monomolecular oxide layer in few hours. Non-inert gases can be removed by suitable
662:
pressure increases, reignition of the discharge requires either significantly higher voltage or reducing the internal pressure by cooling down the lamp. For example, many sodium vapor lamps cannot be re-lit immediately after being shut off; they must cool down before they can be lit up again.
661:
Above a certain value, the higher the gas pressure, the higher the ignition voltage. High-pressure lighting tubes can require a few kilovolts impulse for ignition when cold, when the gas pressure is low. After warming up, when the volatile compound used for light emission is vaporized and the
338:
becomes significant in such mixtures, as most of xenon ionization occurs by collision with excited atoms of the other noble gas; at more than few percents of xenon, the discharge ionizes xenon directly due to most energy of the electrons being spent on direct ionization of
734:
Pure inert gases are used where the difference between the ignition voltage and the burning voltage has to be high, e.g. in switching tubes. Tubes for indication and stabilization, where the difference has to be lower, tend to be filled with
279:
has low ignition voltage and is frequently used in low-voltage tubes. Discharge in neon emits relatively bright red light; neon-filled switching tubes therefore also act as indicators, shining red when switched on. This is exploited in the
189:, where very steep edges are required. The build-up and recovery times of hydrogen are much shorter than in other gases. Hydrogen thyratrons are usually hot-cathode. Hydrogen (and deuterium) can be stored in the tube in the form of a metal
299:
was the first gas used in fluorescent tubes and is still frequently used due to its low cost, high efficiency, and very low striking voltage. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury. It was also used in early
193:, heated with an auxiliary filament; hydrogen by heating such storage element can be used to replenish cleaned-up gas, and even to adjust the pressure as needed for a thyratron operation at a given voltage.
317:
in pure state has high breakdown voltage, making it useful in higher-voltage switching tubes. Xenon is also used as a component of gas mixtures when production of ultraviolet radiation is required, e.g. in
262:
the ions down by collisions, and reduce the energy transferred to the electrodes by the ion impact. Gases with high molecular weight, e.g. xenon, protect the electrodes better than lighter ones, e.g. neon.
693:
voltage drops dramatically with temperature, from 36 kV at 60 °C to 12 kV at 80 °C to even less at higher temperatures. The operating range is therefore usually between 18–65 °C.
617:
the accompanying plot. The gas used dramatically influences the parameters of the tube. The breakdown voltage depends on the gas composition and electrode distance; the dependencies are described by
1016:
made the output temperature-dependent. Their burning voltage was under 200 V, but they needed optical priming by an incandescent 2-watt lamp and a voltage surge in the 5-kV range for ignition.
273:
and in some thyratrons rated for high currents and high voltages. Helium provides about as short deionization time as hydrogen, but can withstand lower voltage, so it is used much less often.
629:
The gas pressure may range between 0.001 and 1,000 Torr (0.13–130,000 Pa); most commonly, pressures between 1–10 torr are used. The gas pressure influences the following factors:
326:. The wavelength produced is longer than with argon and krypton and penetrates the phosphors better. To lower the ionization voltage, neon-xenon or helium-xenon are used; above 350
610:
The F-H region is a region of glow discharge; the plasma emits a faint glow that occupies almost all the volume of the tube; most of the light is emitted by excited neutral atoms.
1357:
603:
The A-D region is called a dark discharge; there is some ionization, but the current is below 10 microamperes and there is no significant amount of radiation produced.
1651:
816:
Since the ignition voltage depends on the ion concentration which may drop to zero after a long period of inactivity, many tubes are primed for ion availability:
612:
The I-K region is a region of arc discharge; the plasma is concentrated in a narrow channel along the center of the tube; a great amount of radiation is produced.
941:
early tuning indicator, a glass tube with a short wire anode and a long wire cathode that glows partially; the glow length is proportional to the tube current
1392:
2525:
30:
This article is about tubes producing visible discharges or used for switching purposes. For the use of gas-filled tubes for radiation detection, see
1441:
507:
vapors absorb ultraviolet radiation and have high electron affinity. When added to inert gases, they quench the discharge; this is exploited in e.g.
2166:
311:
starting voltage; this can be alleviated by using e.g. 25%–75% argon-krypton mixture. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury.
564:
Voltage-current characteristics of electrical discharge in neon at 1 Torr (130 Pa), with two planar electrodes separated by 50 cm.
689:
Large rectifiers use saturated mercury vapor with a small amount of an inert gas. The inert gas supports the discharge when the tube is cold.
1543:
1463:
2083:
1503:
526:
In special cases (e.g., high-voltage switches), gases with good dielectric properties and very high breakdown voltages are needed. Highly
1864:
1644:
1112:, a trade name for a gas-filled shunt regulator, usually contains small quantities of radioactive materials to set the regulated voltage
1374:
739:; the lower difference between ignition and burning voltages allows using lower power supply voltages and smaller series resistances.
1051:-based elapsed time meter where the sputtered metal is deposited on a collector element whose resistance therefore decreases slowly.
1847:
1743:
1451:
1403:
1987:
1714:
1607:
2035:
1834:
1615:
2694:
1637:
534:, are favored as they rapidly recombine with the ions present in the discharge channel. One of the most popular choices is
149:
and composition of the fill gas and geometry of the tube. Although the envelope is typically glass, power tubes often use
1355:
Keller, Cornelius; Wolf, Walter; Shani, Jashovam. "Radionuclides, 2. Radioactive
Elements and Artificial Radionuclides".
2066:
1818:
727:) have to be used. Cathode sputtering may be used intentionally for gettering non-inert gases; some reference tubes use
2699:
1870:
1807:
87:
31:
1342:
560:
2530:
2077:
1514:
508:
364:
2689:
2284:
1998:
1841:
1726:
2151:
1586:
1260:
2293:
2003:
1859:
751:
334:), helium has lower breakdown voltage than neon and vice versa. At concentrations of 1% and less of xenon, the
209:
48:
2304:
2024:
1823:
2473:
2040:
1905:
1881:
1163:
1032:
820:
optically, by ambient light or by a 2-watt incandescent lamp, or by a glow discharge in the same envelope,
270:
2542:
2494:
2315:
2131:
2046:
1977:
1813:
884:
99:
859:
tubes, which are used to switch high-voltage currents. A specialized type of gas-filled tube called a
2616:
2360:
2255:
2029:
1922:
1776:
1737:
1668:
1660:
998:
986:
919:
1023:
found an additional use as a noise source, when operated as a diode in a transverse magnetic field.
2336:
2244:
2136:
1972:
1949:
1284:
888:
880:
716:
606:
535:
504:
401:
2641:
2501:
2209:
2176:
1992:
1876:
1854:
1558:
1554:
1478:
955:
755:
574:
555:
107:
103:
38:
1518:
1415:
1101:
1095:
665:
The gas tends to be used up during the tube operation, by several phenomena collectively called
228:
1186:
1153:
1147:
1141:
1125:
1121:
1087:
1075:
2636:
2557:
2448:
2400:
2229:
2156:
2118:
1447:
1399:
1370:
1212:
1168:
1109:
1071:
763:
759:
650:
tube lifetime (lower pressure tubes tend to have shorter lifetimes due to using up of the gas)
633:
477:
427:
393:
389:
368:
213:
123:
119:
65:
1135:
918:
by operating them below their ignition voltage, allowing them to amplify analog signals as a
2352:
2299:
2161:
2126:
1765:
1362:
790:
747:
618:
581:
567:
413:
289:
115:
456:
2629:
2562:
2146:
2056:
1900:
1619:
1590:
1264:
1013:
978:
876:
864:
860:
736:
639:
527:
412:; the vapor pressure above amalgam is lower than above liquid mercury. Mercury is used in
356:
43:
1608:
Pulse Power
Switching Devices – An Overview (both vacuum and gas-filled switching tubes)
497:, due to its short build-up time, giving the tubes fast response time to voltage surges.
371:. A classical combination is about 98–99.5% of neon with 0.5–2% of argon, used in, e.g.
2604:
2385:
2375:
2141:
1944:
1299:
586:
521:
494:
376:
335:
319:
111:
1624:
538:, used in special high-voltage applications. Other common options are dry pressurized
2683:
2666:
2489:
2405:
2224:
2051:
2019:
1317:
990:
923:
776:(most of which is not neon based these days) are also low-pressure gas-filled tubes.
346:
331:
353:
of less than four days. Consequently, it is not commonly used in electronic devices.
2547:
2535:
2423:
2390:
2219:
2204:
1787:
1771:
1612:
798:
773:
597:
285:
158:
2589:
2331:
2280:
2186:
2171:
1954:
1916:
982:
974:
805:
437:
205:
154:
1329:
2661:
2651:
2584:
2458:
2428:
2395:
2370:
2365:
2342:
2214:
2194:
2072:
1934:
1911:
1797:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1443:
Reference Data for
Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computers and Communications
1206:
1200:
1196:
1159:
1115:
1048:
908:
780:
728:
703:
670:
654:
543:
284:
tubes, which act as both counters and displays. Its red light is exploited in
217:
127:
91:
79:
17:
1366:
2624:
2468:
2463:
2453:
2380:
2260:
2094:
2089:
2014:
1939:
1180:
1174:
1020:
1002:
892:
848:
769:
720:
465:
443:
Vapors of many metals, alone or together with a noble gas, are used in many
372:
360:
350:
301:
258:
232:
201:
178:
135:
71:
145:
The voltage required to initiate and sustain discharge is dependent on the
2646:
2594:
2574:
2552:
2438:
2433:
2321:
2310:
2239:
2009:
1583:
1474:
1257:
1192:
1144:, a hot cathode rectifier with anode current controlled by magnetic field
1081:
1065:
944:
904:
856:
784:
707:
539:
490:
469:
461:
417:
397:
323:
281:
182:
174:
146:
139:
83:
27:
Assembly of electrodes at either end of an insulated tube filled with gas
1629:
1345:, Defense Technical Information Center Compilation Part Notice ADP011307
787:(used to count or divide pulses, with display as a secondary function).
2506:
2443:
2265:
2250:
2104:
2061:
1709:
1423:. Vol. 28. Institute of Radio Engineers. February 1940. p. 52
1218:
1162:, a cold cathode tube designed for high current narrow pulses, used in
994:
852:
824:
531:
500:
405:
307:
248:
190:
186:
150:
131:
95:
779:
Specialized historic low-pressure gas-filled tube devices include the
293:
lifetime. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury.
2579:
2270:
2234:
2199:
1759:
1731:
1704:
1679:
1129:
915:
794:
724:
712:
678:
473:
433:
423:
409:
266:
236:
674:
with the tube components. Hydrogen may diffuse through some metals.
1446:
by Wendy
Middleton, Mac E. Van Valkenburg, pp. 16–42, Newnes, 2002
2656:
2567:
2326:
2099:
1892:
1754:
1749:
951:
559:
455:
444:
342:
314:
296:
252:
244:
227:
42:
867:, to limit voltage surges in electrical and electronic circuits.
392:
vapors are used for applications with high current, e.g. lights,
359:
are used where lower ionization voltage is required, e.g. in the
2599:
1982:
1928:
1829:
1782:
1720:
1098:, a trade name for a mercury pool tube used in electric welders
1009:
327:
276:
240:
1633:
484:
416:
as a source of visible and ultraviolet light for exciting the
75:
304:; first thyratrons were derived from such argon-filled tubes.
1171:, a cold cathode rectifier for low currents at high voltages
1398:
by John Dakin, Robert G. W. Brown, p. 52, CRC Press, 2006
950:
Luminescent trigger tube, used as latching indicators, or
715:. For mercury-containing tubes, getters that do not form
177:
is used in tubes used for very fast switching, e.g. some
1343:"Gas Discharge and Experiments for Plasma Display Panel"
1215:, a low-noise thyratron with interruptible current flow
153:, and military tubes often use glass-lined metal. Both
1287:, Marconi Applied Technologies Ltd, Chelmsford, U.K.
681:
are used. For resupplying gas for gas-filled tubes,
460:
Other gases in discharge tubes; from left to right:
2615:
2515:
2482:
2414:
2351:
2279:
2185:
2117:
1963:
1891:
1796:
1678:
1667:
1258:
Chapter 2: The construction of a gas-discharge tube
934:There were special neon lamps besides nixie tubes:
142:are used as switching devices in electric devices.
1209:, a hot cathode tube with controlled anode current
1189:, a form of ionization tube for measuring vacuum
1043:Cathode sputtering is taken advantage of in the
493:at relatively high pressure tends to be used in
86:. Gas-filled tubes exploit phenomena related to
1008:They were filled with a pure inert gas such as
487:can be used in some low-demanding applications.
51:is a household application of a gas-filled tube
1358:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1183:, a high-current switch similar to a spark gap
989:, and as long, thin glass tubes with a normal
827:to the gas, or by coating the envelope inside,
1645:
1613:Measurement of Radiation, Gas-Filled Detector
1300:"Pulse Power Switching Devices – An Overview"
8:
883:-region can be exploited to realize timers,
766:are all gas-filled tubes used for lighting.
345:, despite being a noble gas, is dangerously
706:of the tube components during operation, a
1675:
1652:
1638:
1630:
1388:
1386:
1320:. Lamptech.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-05-17.
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1001:frequencies and diagonal insertion into a
1417:Surface-Controlled Mercury-pool Rectifier
1295:
1293:
1285:"The Evolution of the Hydrogen Thyratron"
1279:
1277:
1275:
1156:, a grid-controlled mercury-arc rectifier
920:self-quenching superregenerative detector
130:. Specialized gas-filled tubes such as
1332:. Cdvandt.org. Retrieved on 2011-05-17.
1230:
594:I: unstable region: glow-arc transition
384:Elemental vapors (metals and nonmetals)
114:using a gas-filled tube; these include
985:glass envelopes for frequencies up to
1594:1964 Philips Gas-Discharge Tubes book
1318:"The Fluorescent Lamp – Gas Fillings"
1268:1964 Philips Gas-Discharge Tubes book
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
743:Lighting and display gas-filled tubes
235:discharge tubes; from left to right:
7:
2084:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
1221:, a fast cold-cathode switching tube
847:Some important examples include the
808:are also gas-filled tubes when hot.
801:to produce bright flashes of light.
677:For removal of gas in vacuum tubes,
578:D: self-sustained Townsend discharge
1865:Programmable unijunction transistor
783:(used to display numerals) and the
102:by the underlying phenomena of the
1766:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
349:and its most stable isotope has a
216:tubes, and in special tubes (e.g.
25:
1744:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
1466:Subminiature gas triode type RK61
669:. The gas atoms or molecules are
1988:Heterostructure barrier varactor
1715:Chemical field-effect transistor
1546:7414 Subminiature Time Totalizer
881:negative differential resistance
607:negative differential resistance
2036:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
1557:. 14 March 1959. Archived from
914:Thyratrons can also be used as
812:Gas-filled tubes in electronics
550:Gas-tube physics and technology
1506:6D4 Miniature triode thyratron
1341:Po-Cheng Chen, Yu-Ting Chien,
1177:, a hot cathode switching tube
993:for the filament and an anode
636:(also called ignition voltage)
161:type devices are encountered.
1:
1132:with grid outside of the tube
793:are gas-filled tubes used in
657:, reduced at higher pressures
2067:Silicon controlled rectifier
1929:Organic light-emitting diode
1819:Diffused junction transistor
1195:, a counting tube (see also
1871:Static induction transistor
1808:Bipolar junction transistor
1760:MOS field-effect transistor
1732:Fin field-effect transistor
1394:Handbook of optoelectronics
1283:C. A. Pirrie and H. Menown
1256:Hajo Lorens van der Horst,
1128:, a hot cathode gas-filled
731:cathodes for this purpose.
88:electric discharge in gases
59:, also commonly known as a
32:Gaseous ionization detector
2716:
2078:Static induction thyristor
1582:Hajo Lorens van der Horst
605:The D-G region exhibits a
592:H: abnormal glow discharge
553:
519:
36:
29:
2247:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
1999:Hybrid integrated circuit
1842:Light-emitting transistor
1078:, a mercury arc pool tube
1031:In the mid-20th century,
981:were available in normal
863:is fabricated for use as
823:radioactively, by adding
2294:Backward-wave oscillator
2004:Light emitting capacitor
1860:Point-contact transistor
1830:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
1584:Chapter 8: Special tubes
1367:10.1002/14356007.o22_o15
1039:Elapsed-time measurement
991:bayonet light bulb mount
960:Direct-glow trigger tube
861:Gas Discharge Tube (GDT)
590:G: normal glow discharge
210:ultraviolet spectroscopy
94:the gas with an applied
82:, temperature-resistant
49:compact fluorescent bulb
2305:Crossed-field amplifier
1824:Field-effect transistor
1361:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
1033:voltage-regulator tubes
1027:Voltage-regulator tubes
963:Phosphored trigger tube
804:The recently developed
70:, is an arrangement of
2474:Voltage-regulator tube
2041:MOS integrated circuit
1906:Constant-current diode
1882:Unijunction transistor
1164:high-speed photography
885:relaxation oscillators
760:sodium discharge lamps
613:
480:
322:, usually to excite a
255:
52:
2695:Electrical components
2543:Electrolytic detector
2316:Inductive output tube
2132:Low-dropout regulator
2047:Organic semiconductor
1978:Printed circuit board
1814:Darlington transistor
1661:Electronic components
1104:, a mercury pool tube
1090:, a mercury pool tube
1084:, a mercury pool tube
1068:, a mercury pool tube
830:electrically, with a
571:B: saturation current
563:
459:
367:and other gas-filled
231:
100:electrical conduction
46:
2361:Beam deflection tube
2030:Metal oxide varistor
1923:Light-emitting diode
1777:Thin-film transistor
1738:Floating-gate MOSFET
1035:were commonly used.
748:Fluorescent lighting
580:E: unstable region:
566:A: random pulses by
98:sufficient to cause
2337:Traveling-wave tube
2137:Switching regulator
1973:Printed electronics
1950:Step recovery diode
1727:Depletion-load NMOS
1625:Gas discharge tubes
1138:, a pulse generator
1062:Mercury pool tubes
1055:List of -tron tubes
956:dot-matrix displays
719:with mercury (e.g.
536:sulfur hexafluoride
509:Geiger–Müller tubes
436:vapors are used in
426:vapors are used in
365:Geiger–Müller tubes
2700:Glass applications
2642:Crystal oscillator
2502:Variable capacitor
2177:Switched capacitor
2119:Voltage regulators
1993:Integrated circuit
1877:Tetrode transistor
1855:Pentode transistor
1848:Organic LET (OLET)
1835:Organic FET (OFET)
1618:2011-12-16 at the
1589:2010-12-25 at the
1555:Bendix Corporation
1263:2010-12-25 at the
1118:, a modulator tube
614:
575:Townsend discharge
556:Townsend discharge
481:
428:sodium-vapor lamps
394:mercury-arc valves
375:and in monochrome
369:particle detectors
271:helium–neon lasers
256:
124:sodium-vapor lamps
120:metal-halide lamps
108:gas-discharge lamp
104:Townsend discharge
53:
39:Gas-discharge lamp
2677:
2676:
2637:Ceramic resonator
2449:Mercury-arc valve
2401:Video camera tube
2353:Cathode-ray tubes
2113:
2112:
1721:Complementary MOS
1330:Thyratron various
791:Xenon flash lamps
644:operating voltage
634:breakdown voltage
414:fluorescent tubes
290:fluorescent tubes
214:neutron generator
116:fluorescent lamps
90:, and operate by
63:or formerly as a
16:(Redirected from
2707:
2690:Gas-filled tubes
2531:electrical power
2416:Gas-filled tubes
2300:Cavity magnetron
2127:Linear regulator
1676:
1654:
1647:
1640:
1631:
1596:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1563:
1552:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1524:on 20 March 2017
1523:
1517:. Archived from
1512:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1484:on 20 March 2017
1483:
1477:. Archived from
1475:Raytheon Company
1472:
1460:
1454:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1422:
1412:
1406:
1390:
1381:
1380:
1352:
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1339:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1302:
1297:
1288:
1281:
1270:
1254:
1047:, a metal-vapor
977:, gas-discharge
889:digital circuits
865:surge protectors
737:Penning mixtures
647:backfire voltage
582:corona discharge
568:cosmic radiation
530:elements, e.g.,
516:Insulating gases
357:Penning mixtures
21:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2673:
2611:
2526:audio and video
2511:
2478:
2410:
2347:
2275:
2256:Photomultiplier
2181:
2109:
2057:Quantum circuit
1965:
1959:
1901:Avalanche diode
1887:
1799:
1792:
1681:
1670:
1663:
1658:
1620:Wayback Machine
1604:
1599:
1591:Wayback Machine
1581:
1577:
1567:
1565:
1564:on 18 July 2019
1561:
1550:
1542:
1541:
1537:
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1391:
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1349:
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1328:
1324:
1316:
1305:
1298:
1291:
1282:
1273:
1265:Wayback Machine
1255:
1232:
1228:
1057:
1041:
1029:
972:
932:
877:Schmitt trigger
873:
871:Computing tubes
845:
814:
745:
699:
640:current density
627:
611:
609:
604:
602:
601:K: electric arc
600:
595:
593:
591:
589:
584:
579:
577:
572:
570:
565:
558:
552:
528:electronegative
524:
518:
495:surge arresters
454:
386:
377:plasma displays
320:plasma displays
302:rectifier tubes
226:
199:
172:
167:
57:gas-filled tube
41:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2713:
2711:
2703:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2682:
2681:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2671:
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2654:
2649:
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2639:
2634:
2633:
2632:
2621:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2605:Wollaston wire
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2555:
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2545:
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2426:
2420:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2386:Selectron tube
2383:
2378:
2376:Magic eye tube
2373:
2368:
2363:
2357:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2308:
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2297:
2290:
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2222:
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2207:
2202:
2197:
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2164:
2159:
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2139:
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2129:
2123:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2108:
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2087:
2081:
2075:
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2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2038:
2033:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1969:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1945:Schottky diode
1942:
1937:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1886:
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1659:
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1656:
1649:
1642:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1610:
1603:
1602:External links
1600:
1598:
1597:
1575:
1535:
1495:
1455:
1434:
1407:
1382:
1376:978-3527306732
1375:
1347:
1334:
1322:
1303:
1289:
1271:
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1227:
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1107:
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1093:
1092:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1069:
1056:
1053:
1045:Time Totalizer
1040:
1037:
1028:
1025:
1019:One miniature
971:
968:
967:
966:
965:
964:
961:
948:
942:
931:
928:
879:effect of the
872:
869:
844:
841:
840:
839:
828:
821:
813:
810:
744:
741:
698:
695:
659:
658:
651:
648:
645:
642:
637:
626:
623:
587:glow discharge
585:F: sub-normal
551:
548:
522:Dielectric gas
520:Main article:
517:
514:
513:
512:
498:
488:
453:
450:
449:
448:
441:
431:
421:
385:
382:
381:
380:
354:
340:
336:Penning effect
312:
305:
294:
274:
225:
222:
198:
195:
171:
168:
166:
163:
112:electric light
61:discharge tube
26:
24:
18:Discharge tube
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2712:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2668:
2667:mercury relay
2665:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
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2500:
2496:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2490:Potentiometer
2488:
2487:
2485:
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2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
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2460:
2457:
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2435:
2432:
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2413:
2407:
2406:Williams tube
2404:
2402:
2399:
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2379:
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2249:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
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2228:
2226:
2225:Fleming valve
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
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2178:
2175:
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2055:
2053:
2052:Photodetector
2050:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2020:Memtransistor
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
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1698:
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1674:
1672:
1669:Semiconductor
1666:
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1632:
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1499:
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1480:
1476:
1469:
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1459:
1456:
1453:
1452:0-7506-7291-9
1449:
1445:
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1438:
1435:
1419:
1418:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1404:0-7503-0646-7
1401:
1397:
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1182:
1179:
1176:
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1167:
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1158:
1155:
1152:
1150:, a rectifier
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1103:
1100:
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1077:
1073:
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1038:
1036:
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996:
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988:
984:
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962:
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958:
957:
953:
949:
946:
943:
940:
937:
936:
935:
929:
927:
925:
924:radio control
921:
917:
912:
910:
906:
902:
898:
897:trigger tubes
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
870:
868:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
843:Power devices
842:
837:
833:
829:
826:
822:
819:
818:
817:
811:
809:
807:
802:
800:
799:strobe lights
796:
792:
788:
786:
782:
777:
775:
771:
767:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
742:
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738:
732:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
709:
705:
696:
694:
690:
687:
684:
680:
675:
672:
668:
663:
656:
652:
649:
646:
643:
641:
638:
635:
632:
631:
630:
624:
622:
620:
619:Paschen's law
608:
599:
588:
583:
576:
573:C: avalanche
569:
562:
557:
549:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
523:
515:
510:
506:
502:
499:
496:
492:
489:
486:
483:
482:
479:
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467:
463:
458:
451:
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435:
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429:
425:
422:
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374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
355:
352:
348:
344:
341:
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329:
325:
321:
316:
313:
309:
306:
303:
298:
295:
291:
287:
283:
278:
275:
272:
268:
265:
264:
263:
260:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
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230:
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221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
196:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
169:
164:
162:
160:
156:
152:
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
67:
62:
58:
50:
45:
40:
33:
19:
2424:Cold cathode
2415:
2391:Storage tube
2281:Vacuum tubes
2230:Neutron tube
2205:Beam tetrode
2187:Vacuum tubes
1772:Power MOSFET
1593:
1578:
1566:. Retrieved
1559:the original
1545:
1538:
1526:. Retrieved
1519:the original
1505:
1498:
1486:. Retrieved
1479:the original
1465:
1458:
1442:
1437:
1425:. Retrieved
1416:
1410:
1393:
1356:
1350:
1337:
1325:
1267:
1058:
1044:
1042:
1030:
1018:
1007:
979:noise diodes
973:
970:Noise diodes
938:
933:
913:
900:
896:
874:
846:
835:
831:
815:
806:sulfur lamps
803:
789:
778:
774:neon signage
768:
746:
733:
700:
691:
688:
683:replenishers
682:
676:
666:
664:
660:
628:
625:Gas pressure
615:
598:electric arc
525:
438:sulfur lamps
286:neon signage
257:
200:
173:
165:Gases in use
159:cold cathode
144:
64:
60:
56:
54:
2590:Transformer
2332:Sutton tube
2172:Charge pump
2025:Memory cell
1955:Zener diode
1917:Laser diode
1800:transistors
1682:transistors
1548:data sheet"
1508:data sheet"
1468:data sheet"
975:Hot-cathode
926:receivers.
909:nixie tubes
901:relay tubes
544:halocarbons
452:Other gases
347:radioactive
269:is used in
259:Noble gases
224:Noble gases
206:ultraviolet
204:is used in
155:hot cathode
128:neon lights
2684:Categories
2662:reed relay
2652:Parametron
2585:Thermistor
2563:resettable
2522:Connector
2483:Adjustable
2459:Nixie tube
2429:Crossatron
2396:Trochotron
2371:Iconoscope
2366:Charactron
2343:X-ray tube
2215:Compactron
2195:Acorn tube
2152:Buck–boost
2073:Solaristor
1935:Photodiode
1912:Gunn diode
1908:(CLD, CRD)
1690:Transistor
1568:23 October
1396:, Volume 1
1226:References
1207:Plasmatron
1201:neon light
1197:nixie tube
1160:Strobotron
1116:Crossatron
1102:Capacitron
1096:Trignitron
1049:coulometer
983:radio tube
945:Phosphored
930:Indicators
893:neon lamps
832:keep-alive
781:Nixie tube
770:Neon lamps
729:molybdenum
723:, but not
704:outgassing
697:Gas purity
655:sputtering
554:See also:
404:with e.g.
373:neon bulbs
361:neon lamps
288:. Used in
218:crossatron
208:lamps for
179:thyratrons
136:thyratrons
80:insulating
78:within an
72:electrodes
37:See also:
2625:Capacitor
2469:Trigatron
2464:Thyratron
2454:Neon lamp
2381:Monoscope
2261:Phototube
2245:Pentagrid
2210:Barretter
2095:Trancitor
2090:Thyristor
2015:Memristor
1940:PIN diode
1717:(ChemFET)
1187:Alphatron
1181:Trigatron
1175:Thyratron
1154:Plomatron
1148:Phanotron
1142:Permatron
1126:cathetron
1122:Kathetron
1088:Sendytron
1076:gausitron
1021:thyratron
1003:waveguide
947:neon lamp
905:dekatrons
849:thyratron
838:electrode
764:HID lamps
752:CFL lamps
721:zirconium
466:deuterium
398:ignitrons
351:half-life
330:(47
233:Noble gas
202:Deuterium
197:Deuterium
183:dekatrons
140:ignitrons
2647:Inductor
2617:Reactive
2595:Varistor
2575:Resistor
2553:Antifuse
2439:Ignitron
2434:Dekatron
2322:Klystron
2311:Gyrotron
2240:Nuvistor
2157:Split-pi
2043:(MOS IC)
2010:Memistor
1768:(MuGFET)
1762:(MOSFET)
1734:(FinFET)
1616:Archived
1587:Archived
1515:Sylvania
1488:20 March
1427:July 16,
1261:Archived
1213:Tacitron
1193:Dekatron
1169:Takktron
1110:Corotron
1082:Ignitron
1072:Gusetron
1066:Excitron
1014:mixtures
1012:because
857:ignitron
785:Decatron
717:amalgams
708:bake-out
671:adsorbed
667:clean-up
653:cathode
540:nitrogen
532:halogens
501:Halogens
491:Nitrogen
470:nitrogen
462:hydrogen
418:phosphor
324:phosphor
282:decatron
187:krytrons
175:Hydrogen
170:Hydrogen
151:ceramics
147:pressure
132:krytrons
92:ionizing
84:envelope
2548:Ferrite
2516:Passive
2507:Varicap
2495:digital
2444:Krytron
2266:Tetrode
2251:Pentode
2105:Varicap
2086:(3D IC)
2062:RF CMOS
1966:devices
1740:(FGMOS)
1671:devices
1219:Krytron
1136:Neotron
995:top cap
916:triodes
853:krytron
825:tritium
795:cameras
756:mercury
713:getters
679:getters
505:alcohol
478:mercury
406:bismuth
402:amalgam
390:Mercury
308:Krypton
249:krypton
191:hydride
96:voltage
66:Plücker
2580:Switch
2271:Triode
2235:Nonode
2200:Audion
2080:(SITh)
1964:Other
1931:(OLED)
1893:Diodes
1844:(LET)
1826:(FET)
1798:Other
1746:(IGBT)
1723:(CMOS)
1710:BioFET
1705:BiCMOS
1528:25 May
1450:
1402:
1373:
1130:triode
997:, for
952:pixels
939:Tuneon
855:, and
836:primer
725:barium
474:oxygen
445:lasers
434:Sulfur
424:Sodium
410:indium
339:xenon.
267:Helium
237:helium
185:, and
138:, and
126:, and
110:is an
2657:Relay
2630:types
2568:eFUSE
2339:(TWT)
2327:Maser
2318:(IOT)
2307:(CFA)
2296:(BWO)
2220:Diode
2167:SEPIC
2147:Boost
2100:TRIAC
2069:(SCR)
2032:(MOV)
2006:(LEC)
1925:(LED)
1884:(UJT)
1873:(SIT)
1867:(PUT)
1810:(BJT)
1779:(TFT)
1755:LDMOS
1750:ISFET
1562:(PDF)
1551:(PDF)
1522:(PDF)
1511:(PDF)
1482:(PDF)
1471:(PDF)
1421:(PDF)
891:with
343:Radon
315:Xenon
297:Argon
253:xenon
245:argon
212:, in
106:. A
74:in a
2600:Wire
2558:Fuse
2142:Buck
1995:(IC)
1983:DIAC
1919:(LD)
1788:UMOS
1783:VMOS
1700:PMOS
1695:NMOS
1680:MOS
1570:2017
1530:2013
1490:2017
1448:ISBN
1429:2023
1400:ISBN
1371:ISBN
1199:and
1010:neon
907:and
887:and
875:The
797:and
772:and
762:and
758:and
542:and
503:and
408:and
328:Torr
277:Neon
241:neon
157:and
68:tube
2162:Ćuk
1363:doi
1124:or
1074:or
999:SHF
987:UHF
954:of
922:in
834:or
596:J:
485:Air
332:kPa
76:gas
2686::
2536:RF
2285:RF
1553:.
1513:.
1473:.
1385:^
1369:.
1306:^
1292:^
1274:^
1233:^
1005:.
911:.
903:,
899:,
895:,
851:,
754:,
750:,
621:.
546:.
476:,
472:,
468:,
464:,
396:,
363:,
251:,
247:,
243:,
239:,
181:,
134:,
122:,
118:,
55:A
47:A
2287:)
2283:(
1653:e
1646:t
1639:v
1572:.
1544:"
1532:.
1504:"
1492:.
1464:"
1431:.
1379:.
1365::
1203:)
511:.
447:.
440:.
430:.
379:.
34:.
20:)
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