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There is nothing wrong with donkey sentences: they are grammatically correct, they are well-formed and meaningful, and their syntax is regular. However, it is difficult to explain how donkey sentences produce their semantic results, and how those results generalize consistently with all other
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For example, in "Every farmer who owns a donkey beats it.", the donkey pronoun "it" can be expanded as a definite description to yield "Every farmer who owns a donkey beats the donkey he/she owns." This expanded sentence can be interpreted along the lines of
Russell's
211:
The prototypical donkey sentence, "Every farmer who owns a donkey beats it.", requires careful consideration for adequate description (though reading "each" in place of "every" does simplify the formal analysis). The donkey pronoun in this case is the word
857:
Later authors have attributed an even larger role to definite descriptions, to the point of arguing that donkey pronouns have the semantics, and even the syntax, of definite descriptions. Approaches of the latter kind are usually called
799:, and they model donkey anaphora – and anaphora in general – on the assumption that the meaning of a sentence lies in its potential to change the context (understood as the information shared by the participants in a conversation).
206:
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955:, which is in turn available for the binding of anaphoric expressions. No quantifiers are introduced into the representation, thus overcoming the scope problem that the logical translations had.
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It is usual to distinguish two main kinds of theories about the semantics of donkey pronouns. The most classical proposals fall within the so-called
51:
equivalents. In order to explain how speakers are able to understand them, semanticists have proposed a variety of formalisms including systems of
791:, a label that is meant to encompass all the theories that treat the semantics of these pronouns as akin to, or derivative from, the semantics of
842:
Description-theoretic approaches are theories of donkey pronouns in which definite descriptions play an important role. They were pioneered by
554:
This translation is incorrect since it is already true if there exists any object that is not a donkey: Given any object to be substituted for
150:
936:(DRT). During that time, an effort was made to settle the inconsistencies which arose from the attempts to translate donkey sentences into
741:{\displaystyle \forall x\,\forall y\,(({\text{FARMER}}(x)\land {\text{DONKEY}}(y)\land {\text{OWNS}}(x,y))\rightarrow {\text{BEAT}}(x,y))}
400:{\displaystyle \forall x\,({\text{FARMER}}(x)\land \exists y\,({\text{DONKEY}}(y)\land {\text{OWNS}}(x,y))\rightarrow {\text{BEAT}}(x,y))}
2103:
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language use. If such an analysis were successful, it might allow a computer program to accurately translate natural language forms into
3623:
3290:
1798:
544:{\displaystyle \forall x\,\exists y\,({\text{FARMER}}(x)\land {\text{DONKEY}}(y)\land {\text{OWNS}}(x,y)\rightarrow {\text{BEAT}}(x,y))}
116:
36:
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1413:
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1201:
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1472:"Formal Semantics and Current Problems of Semantics, Lecture 6. Kamp-Heim I. Anaphora with Indefinite Antecedents; Donkey Anaphora"
846:'s E-type approach, which holds that donkey pronouns can be understood as referring terms whose reference is fixed by description.
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indicating that indefinites must sometimes be interpreted as existential quantifiers, and other times as universal quantifiers.
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760:. It is unknown how natural language users agree – apparently effortlessly – on the meaning of sentences such as the examples.
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provides for the donkey sentence problem can be roughly outlined as follows: The common semantic function of non-anaphoric
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could be translated into a formal logical language, and so would then be amenable to mathematical analysis. Following
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1920:
Kanazawa, Makoto. 'Weak vs. Strong
Readings of Donkey Sentences and Monotonicity Inference in a Dynamic Setting'.
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1866:. 'Comprehending Quantified Sentences: The Relation between Sentencepicture and Semantic Memory Verification'.
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59:. Their name comes from the example sentence "Every farmer who owns a donkey beats it", in which "it" acts as
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3906:
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2484:
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2167:
2086:
2014:
Moltmann, Friederike. 'Unbound
Anaphoric Pronouns: E-Type, Dynamic and Structured Propositions Approaches'.
1335:
Burchardt, Aljoscha; Walter, Stephan; Koller, Alexander; Kohlhase, Michael; Blackburn, Patrick; Bos, Johan.
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Government and
Binding Theory and the Minimalist Program: Principles and Parameters in Syntactic Theory
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1998:
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1257:. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press – via philosophieweb0.001.free.fr/GeachRandG.pdf.
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The naive first attempt at translation given below is not a well-formed sentence, since the variable
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1020:, a medieval scholastic philosopher, introduced donkey sentences in the context of the theory of
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771:(1982) independently proposed very similar accounts in different terminology, which they called
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1968:
1952:
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1500:
Cooper, Robin (1979). "The interpretation of pronouns". In Frank Heny; Helmut
Schnelle (eds.).
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for the indefinite noun phrase "a donkey", rather than the expected existential quantifier.
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1074: – Sentence that starts in a way that a reader's likely interpretation will be wrong
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2345:
Functional
Structure(s), Form and Interpretation: Perspectives from East Asian Languages
3921:
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1080: – Representatives of classes in a situation in which gender is typically unknown
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and Shan define a donkey pronoun as "a pronoun that lies outside the restrictor of a
2152:
2119:
Weak and Strong
Interpretations of Quantifiers and Definite NPs in English and Korean
2047:
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132:
1432:
Evans, Gareth (September 1977). "Pronouns, Quantifiers and
Relative Clauses (I)".
1191:
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A correct translation into first-order logic for the donkey sentence seems to be
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1906:
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1670:
1553:
1364:"An Algorithmic Framework for Specifying the Semantics of Discourse Relations"
1268:
1117:
768:
1950:
Lappin, Shalom. 'An
Intensional Parametric Semantics for Vague Quantifiers'.
1169:
3745:
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2096:
2055:
1935:. 'Pragmatic Strengthening in Plural Predications and Donkey Sentences'. In
1895:
1878:
Just, MA and PA Carpenter. 'Comprehension of
Negation with Quantification'.
1382:
929:
764:
20:
2266:'Donkey Pluralities: Plural Information States vs. Non-Atomic Individuals'.
2199:
In 2007, Adrian Brasoveanu published studies of donkey pronoun analogs in
763:
There may be several equivalent ways of describing this process. In fact,
3658:
3447:
3227:
3222:
1824:
63:
because it is semantically but not syntactically bound by the indefinite
3212:
2928:
2533:
2449:
1849:
1764:
1612:
1502:
Syntax and Semantics 10: Selections from the third Gröningen roundtable
900: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
28:
201:{\displaystyle \exists x\,({\text{WOMAN}}(x)\land {\text{SMOKES}}(x))}
3190:
2875:
2567:
2547:
1056:(1977) and many others, and is still quoted in recent publications.
1890:
Formal Pragmatics: Semantics, Pragmatics, Presupposition, and Focus
1160:
3523:
2381:
Proceedings of the 1970 Stanford Workshop on Grammar and Semantics
2200:
1637:(1975). "Adverbs of quantification". In Keenan, Edward L. (ed.).
602:
is false), and so existential clause is true for every choice of
2513:
2426:
2024:
Moltmann, Friederike. 'Presuppositions and Quantifier Domains'.
1833:. 'Anaphoric Pronouns as Bound Variables: Syntax or Semantics?'
1789:
Conway, L. and S. Crain. 'Donkey Anaphora in Child Grammar'. In
3263:
2390:
1696:
Barker, Chris. 'Presuppositions for Proportional Quantifiers'.
1068: – Extension of a formal language by the epsilon operator
962:
869:
806:
2377:'The Proper Treatment of Quantification in Ordinary English'.
2061:
Neale, Stephen. 'Descriptive Pronouns and Donkey Anaphora'.
414:
of the existential quantifier to bind the free instance of
216:. Correctly translating this sentence will require using a
106:
Every police officer who arrested a murderer insulted him."
1280:(PhD). University of Massachusetts Amherst. pp. 11–12
79:
The following sentences are examples of donkey sentences.
1725:'Uniqueness Effects in Donkey Sentences and Correlatives'
1299:
Burchardt, Aljoscha; Walter, Stephan; Koller, Alexander;
47:
and yet defy straightforward attempts to generate their
2247:'A Presuppositional Account of Proportional Ambiguity'.
2147:
Emar Maier describes donkey pronouns as "bound but not
1040:'s proposal for a generalized formal representation of
979:
823:
795:. The second main family of proposals goes by the name
2285:. 'Pronouns, Quantifiers, and Relative Clauses (I)'.
1907:'Singular Donkey Pronouns Are Semantically Singular'.
1274:
The Semantics of Definite and Indefinite Noun Phrases
634:
608:
580:
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420:
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35:
but syntactically free. They are a classic puzzle in
1086: – Mathematical-logic system based on functions
434:, but it still does not give a correct translation.
139:, as in the following simple example from Burchardt
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2425:
1684:Barker, Chris. 'Individuation and Quantification'.
928:Donkey sentences became a major force in advancing
1966:. 'E-type Pronouns, i-Sums, and Donkey Anaphora'.
740:
614:
586:
566:
543:
426:
399:
276:
235:
200:
1791:Proceedings of the North East Linguistics Society
1651:– via users.ox.ac.uk/~sfop0776/LewisQA.pdf.
3756:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)
2330:'A Theory of Truth and Semantic Representation'.
2318:edited by Gert Webelhuth. Oxford and Cambridge:
1937:Proceedings from Semantics and Linguistic Theory
1118:"Situations and Individuals by Paul D. Elbourne"
932:research in the 1980s, with the introduction of
2231:Introduction to Discourse Representation Theory
1026:, the medieval equivalent of reference theory.
2241:Archive of CSI 5386 Donkey Sentence Discussion
1880:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
1092: – Approach to natural language semantics
3275:
2402:
2251:Proceedings of Semantic and Linguistic Theory
8:
2275:. Edited by E. Puig-WaldmĂĽller. Barcelona:
1978:Lappin, Shalom. 'Donkey Pronouns Unbound'.
1330:
1328:
1326:
1193:De puritate artis logicae tractatus longior
998:Dynamic Predicate Logic models pronouns as
95:De puritate artis logicae tractatus longior
93:
83:
3685:
3382:
3282:
3268:
3260:
2518:
2409:
2395:
2387:
2347:. Edited by Yen-hui Audrey Li and others.
88:("Every man who owns a donkey sees it") —
16:Sentence that resists simple formalization
2383:. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1973. Pages 212–242.
1641:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1159:
916:Learn how and when to remove this message
715:
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574:, substituting any non-donkey object for
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152:
2365:. Edited by Edward L Keenan. Cambridge:
2076:. 'Opacity, Coreference, and Pronouns'.
1481:. University of Massachusetts. p. 9
1427:
1425:
100:Every farmer who owns a donkey beats it.
2334:Formal Methods in the Study of Language
2207:versions of donkey pronouns in English.
2140:
1245:
1243:
1108:
103:If a farmer owns a donkey, he beats it.
67:"a donkey". The phenomenon is known as
2336:. Amsterdam: Mathematics Center, 1981.
1850:'E-Type Pronouns and Donkey Anaphora'.
1710:Structured Nominal and Modal Reference
1098: – Gender-neutral English pronoun
3711:Discourse representation theory (DRT)
2332:In J. Groenendijk and others (eds.).
2104:'Free Choice Counterfactual Donkeys'.
1892:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2001.
1144:"Donkey anaphora is in-scope binding"
1009:to bind variables in other formulae.
7:
2363:Formal Semantics of Natural Language
1639:Formal Semantics of Natural Language
898:adding citations to reliable sources
85:Omne homo habens asinum videt illum.
3983:Formal semantics (natural language)
3624:Quantificational variability effect
3291:Formal semantics (natural language)
2221:The Handbook of Philosophical Logic
2004:Lewis, David. 'General Semantics'.
1799:University of Massachusetts Amherst
1479:RGGU: Formal Semantics and Anaphora
1142:; Shan, Chung-chieh (9 June 2008).
1032:reintroduced donkey sentences as a
147:"A woman smokes." is translated as
2379:In KJJ Hintikka and others (eds).
1303:; Blackburn, Patrick; Bos, Johan.
642:
635:
451:
444:
410:It may be attempted to extend the
321:
294:
277:{\displaystyle {\text{BEAT}}(x,y)}
154:
14:
2270:Proceedings of Sinn und Bedeutung
1223:Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics
1765:'Two Types of Donkey Sentences'.
1746:: Plural Logic and Set Theory',
966:
874:
810:
803:Description-theoretic approaches
2226:Discourse Representation Theory
1562:Semantics in Generative Grammar
934:discourse representation theory
885:needs additional citations for
866:Discourse representation theory
773:discourse representation theory
57:Discourse representation theory
3706:Combinatory categorial grammar
2287:Canadian Journal of Philosophy
2203:, and analysis of complex and
2186:element inside it, usually an
1446:10.1080/00455091.1977.10717030
1434:Canadian Journal of Philosophy
1341:Computational Semantics 11.1.2
1309:Computational Semantics 11.1.1
1005:, but allows quantifiers in a
789:description-theoretic approach
735:
732:
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119:is to show how sentences of a
1:
3484:Antecedent-contained deletion
2123:University of Texas at Austin
951:is the introduction of a new
131:, it is typical to translate
2359:'Adverbs of Quantification'.
2095:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
1821:Presuppositions and Pronouns
1048:. His example was reused by
111:Analysis of donkey sentences
1190:Gualterus Burlaeus (1988).
1116:Maier, Emar (20 Nov 2006).
783:Theories of donkey anaphora
27:is a sentence containing a
3999:
3365:Syntax–semantics interface
3244:Syntax–semantics interface
2367:Cambridge University Press
2301:Linguistics and Philosophy
2160:Situations and Individuals
1969:Linguistics and Philosophy
1953:Linguistics and Philosophy
1923:Linguistics and Philosophy
1911:Linguistics and Philosophy
1902:. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1993.
1854:Linguistics and Philosophy
1769:Natural Language Semantics
1699:Natural Language Semantics
1675:Natural Language Semantics
1601:Linguistics and Philosophy
1406:Situations and individuals
1371:Computational Intelligence
3857:Question under discussion
3807:Conversational scoreboard
3584:Intersective modification
3569:Homogeneity (linguistics)
1594:"Dynamic Predicate Logic"
3912:Distributional semantics
2664:Exceptional case-marking
2087:Quine, Willard Van Orman
1671:'Donkey Demonstratives'.
1362:Knott, Alistair (2000).
1255:Reference and Generality
1148:Semantics and Pragmatics
3907:Computational semantics
3649:Subsective modification
3453:Propositional attitudes
2277:Pompeu Fabra University
2037:. 'Universal Grammar'.
1981:Theoretical Linguistics
1900:From Discourse to Logic
1748:Philosophia Mathematica
1404:Elbourne, Paul (2005).
1383:10.1111/0824-7935.00123
959:Dynamic Predicate Logic
133:indefinite noun phrases
43:because they are fully
3937:Philosophy of language
3579:Inalienable possession
3559:Free choice inferences
3554:Faultless disagreement
3325:Generalized quantifier
2470:Initial-stress-derived
2322:, 1995. Pages 127–177.
2279:, 2007. Pages 106–120.
2174:or the if-clause of a
2158:of Paul D. Elbourne's
1947:, 1996. Pages 136–153.
1782:Stanford, California:
852:theory of descriptions
742:
616:
588:
568:
545:
428:
401:
278:
237:
202:
137:existential quantifier
94:
84:
41:philosophy of language
31:which is semantically
3837:Plural quantification
3731:Inquisitive semantics
3696:Alternative semantics
2981:Inclusive / Exclusive
2339:Kitagawa, Yoshihisa.
2064:Journal of Philosophy
1343:. Saarland University
1311:. Saarland University
793:definite descriptions
779:(FCS), respectively.
777:file change semantics
743:
617:
589:
569:
546:
429:
402:
279:
238:
203:
3822:Function application
3629:Responsive predicate
3619:Privative adjectives
2351:, 2003. Pages 28–64.
2341:'Copying Variables'.
2320:Blackwell Publishing
2264:Brasoveanu, Adrian.
2257:. Ithaca, New York:
2108:Journal of Semantics
1999:Blackwell Publishing
1943:. Ithaca, New York:
1869:Cognitive Psychology
1723:Brasoveanu, Adrian.
1708:Brasoveanu, Adrian.
1305:"Anaphoric Pronouns"
1072:Garden-path sentence
894:improve this article
632:
606:
596:material conditional
578:
558:
441:
418:
291:
251:
227:
218:universal quantifier
151:
3902:Cognitive semantics
3817:Existential closure
3761:Situation semantics
3664:Temperature paradox
3634:Rising declaratives
3599:Modal subordination
3574:Hurford disjunction
3534:Discourse relations
2861:Relative subsective
2754:Regular / Irregular
2599:Andative / Venitive
2435:Abstract / Concrete
2369:, 1975. Pages 3–15.
2261:, 1993. Pages 1–18.
2102:Rooij, Robert van.
1962:Lappin, Shalom and
1586:Groenendijk, Jeroen
3973:Quantifier (logic)
3947:Semantics of logic
3872:Strict conditional
3847:Quantifier raising
3812:Downward entailing
3792:Autonomy of syntax
3721:Generative grammar
3701:Categorial grammar
3639:Scalar implicature
3544:Epistemic modality
3519:De dicto and de re
2420:and their features
2418:Lexical categories
2310:Huang, C-T James.
2297:'Donkey Business'.
2259:Cornell University
1945:Cornell University
1905:Kanazawa, Makoto.
1810:Linguistic Inquiry
1730:Sinn und Bedeutung
1714:Rutgers University
1687:Linguistic Inquiry
1613:10.1007/BF00628304
1504:. Academic Press.
1468:Partee, Barbara H.
1337:"Donkey Sentences"
1078:Generic antecedent
978:. You can help by
953:discourse referent
943:The solution that
822:. You can help by
738:
612:
584:
564:
541:
424:
397:
274:
233:
198:
3955:
3954:
3927:Logic translation
3890:
3889:
3882:Universal grinder
3867:Squiggle operator
3827:Meaning postulate
3766:Supervaluationism
3736:Intensional logic
3716:Dynamic semantics
3677:
3676:
3509:Crossover effects
3458:Tense–aspect–mood
3438:Lexical semantics
3257:
3256:
3062:Casally modulated
2967:Formal / Informal
2856:Pure intersective
2806:Anti-intersective
2792:
2791:
2739:Preterite-present
2373:Montague, Richard
2074:Partee, Barbara H
2035:Montague, Richard
1784:CSLI Publications
1761:C.-T. James Huang
1558:Kratzer, Angelika
1532:. The MIT Press.
1470:(18 March 2008).
1301:Kohlhase, Michael
1196:. Meiner Verlag.
1000:first-order logic
996:
995:
938:first-order logic
926:
925:
918:
840:
839:
718:
692:
675:
658:
615:{\displaystyle x}
587:{\displaystyle y}
567:{\displaystyle x}
521:
498:
481:
464:
427:{\displaystyle y}
377:
351:
334:
307:
257:
247:in the predicate
236:{\displaystyle y}
184:
167:
53:dynamic semantics
3990:
3932:Linguistics wars
3862:Semantic parsing
3751:Montague grammar
3686:
3529:Deontic modality
3383:
3370:Truth conditions
3305:Compositionality
3298:Central concepts
3284:
3277:
3270:
3261:
2836:Non-intersective
2519:
2411:
2404:
2397:
2388:
2307:(2002): 129–156.
2292:(1977): 467–536.
2208:
2197:
2191:
2184:quantificational
2145:
2114:(2006): 383–402.
2083:(1970): 359–385.
2070:(1990): 113–150.
2044:(1970): 373–398.
2031:(2006): 179–224.
2021:(2006): 199–260.
1995:Parts of Classes
1987:(1989): 263–286.
1975:(1994): 391–428.
1959:(2000): 599–620.
1929:(1994): 109–158.
1917:(2001): 383–403.
1885:(1971): 244–253.
1875:(1974): 216–236.
1860:(1990): 137–177.
1816:(1980): 337–362.
1775:(1996): 121–163.
1753:(2004): 193–221.
1740:Burgess, John P.
1705:(1996): 237–259.
1693:(1999): 683–691.
1681:(2002): 285–298.
1653:
1652:
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1187:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1163:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1113:
1090:Montague grammar
1066:Epsilon calculus
1046:natural language
1038:Richard Montague
991:
988:
970:
963:
921:
914:
910:
907:
901:
878:
870:
835:
832:
814:
807:
797:dynamic theories
747:
745:
744:
739:
719:
716:
693:
690:
676:
673:
659:
656:
621:
619:
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613:
598:true (since its
593:
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519:
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398:
378:
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308:
305:
283:
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258:
255:
242:
240:
239:
234:
207:
205:
204:
199:
185:
182:
168:
165:
121:natural language
117:formal semantics
97:
87:
61:a donkey pronoun
37:formal semantics
3998:
3997:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3988:
3987:
3958:
3957:
3956:
3951:
3886:
3780:
3741:Lambda calculus
3673:
3644:Sloppy identity
3604:Opaque contexts
3539:Donkey anaphora
3504:Counterfactuals
3472:
3374:
3293:
3288:
3258:
3253:
3152:
3114:
3076:
3048:
2976:Gender-specific
2923:
2870:
2788:
2674:Germanic strong
2582:
2508:
2421:
2415:
2312:'Logical Form'.
2245:Barker, Chris.
2217:
2212:
2211:
2198:
2194:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2092:Word and Object
1933:Krifka, Manfred
1831:Harman, Gilbert
1744:E Pluribus Unum
1662:
1660:Further reading
1657:
1656:
1649:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1596:
1590:Stokhof, Martin
1584:
1583:
1579:
1572:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1540:
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1519:
1512:
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1398:
1366:
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1314:
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1298:
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1277:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1249:
1248:
1241:
1234:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1174:
1172:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1084:Lambda calculus
1062:
1015:
992:
986:
983:
976:needs expansion
961:
922:
911:
905:
902:
891:
879:
868:
836:
830:
827:
820:needs expansion
805:
785:
630:
629:
604:
603:
576:
575:
556:
555:
439:
438:
416:
415:
289:
288:
249:
248:
225:
224:
149:
148:
113:
77:
69:donkey anaphora
49:formal language
25:donkey sentence
17:
12:
11:
5:
3996:
3994:
3986:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3960:
3959:
3953:
3952:
3950:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3922:Inferentialism
3919:
3917:Formal grammar
3914:
3909:
3904:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3842:Possible world
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3788:
3786:
3782:
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3779:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3726:Glue semantics
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3692:
3690:
3689:Formal systems
3683:
3679:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3614:Polarity items
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3499:Conservativity
3496:
3491:
3486:
3480:
3478:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3470:
3465:
3463:Quantification
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3389:
3387:
3380:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3340:Presupposition
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3294:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3279:
3272:
3264:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3220:
3218:Procedure word
3215:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3176:Complementizer
3173:
3172:
3171:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3124:
3122:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3086:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3058:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2972:Gender-neutral
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2937:Bound variable
2933:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
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2858:
2853:
2848:
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2818:
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2808:
2802:
2800:
2794:
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2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
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2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2594:Ambitransitive
2590:
2588:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2536:
2531:
2525:
2523:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2431:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2406:
2399:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2370:
2352:
2337:
2323:
2308:
2295:Geurts, Bart.
2293:
2280:
2262:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2216:
2215:External links
2213:
2210:
2209:
2192:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2130:
2115:
2100:
2084:
2071:
2059:
2048:Neale, Stephen
2045:
2032:
2022:
2012:
2011:(1970): 18–27.
2002:
1988:
1976:
1964:Nissim Francez
1960:
1948:
1930:
1918:
1903:
1898:and Reyle, U.
1893:
1886:
1876:
1861:
1843:
1842:(1976): 78–81.
1828:
1819:Geurts, Bart.
1817:
1807:. 'Pronouns'.
1802:
1787:
1780:Think Generic!
1778:Cohen, Ariel.
1776:
1757:Cheng, Lisa LS
1754:
1737:
1721:
1706:
1694:
1682:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1647:
1626:
1577:
1570:
1545:
1538:
1526:Neale, Stephen
1517:
1510:
1492:
1459:
1440:(3): 467–536.
1421:
1414:
1396:
1377:(4): 501–510.
1354:
1322:
1291:
1260:
1239:
1232:
1209:
1202:
1182:
1161:10.3765/sp.1.1
1131:
1107:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1069:
1061:
1058:
1042:quantification
1034:counterexample
1014:
1011:
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993:
973:
971:
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923:
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6:
4:
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3995:
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3963:
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3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
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3840:
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3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3783:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3687:
3684:
3680:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3609:Performatives
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3589:Logophoricity
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3475:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3423:Evidentiality
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3377:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3285:
3280:
3278:
3273:
3271:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3155:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3133:Interrogative
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3100:Interrogative
3098:
3096:
3095:Demonstrative
3093:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3045:
3044:Prepositional
3041:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3031:Strong / Weak
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2996:Interrogative
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2942:Demonstrative
2940:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2909:Prepositional
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2899:Interrogative
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2821:Demonstrative
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2679:Germanic weak
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2669:Frequentative
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2609:Autocausative
2607:
2605:
2604:Anticausative
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2573:Transgressive
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2412:
2407:
2405:
2400:
2398:
2393:
2392:
2389:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2346:
2343:Chapter 2 in
2342:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2314:Chapter 3 in
2313:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2283:Evans, Gareth
2281:
2278:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2206:
2202:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2153:Linguist List
2150:
2144:
2141:
2134:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2057:
2054:. Cambridge:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1806:
1805:Evans, Gareth
1803:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1650:
1648:9780511897696
1644:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1573:
1567:
1564:. Blackwell.
1563:
1559:
1555:
1549:
1546:
1541:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1518:
1513:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1493:
1480:
1473:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1415:9780262550611
1411:
1408:. MIT Press.
1407:
1400:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1355:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1295:
1292:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1264:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1233:9780080959696
1229:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1203:9783787307173
1199:
1195:
1194:
1186:
1183:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1140:Barker, Chris
1135:
1132:
1127:
1123:
1122:LINGUIST List
1119:
1112:
1109:
1102:
1097:
1096:Singular they
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1018:Walter Burley
1012:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1001:
990:
981:
977:
974:This section
972:
969:
965:
964:
958:
956:
954:
950:
946:
941:
939:
935:
931:
920:
917:
909:
899:
895:
889:
888:
883:This section
881:
877:
872:
871:
865:
863:
861:
855:
853:
847:
845:
834:
825:
821:
818:This section
816:
813:
809:
808:
802:
800:
798:
794:
790:
782:
780:
778:
774:
770:
766:
761:
759:
753:
729:
726:
723:
703:
700:
697:
686:
680:
669:
663:
645:
638:
628:
627:
626:
623:
609:
601:
597:
581:
561:
532:
529:
526:
509:
506:
503:
492:
486:
475:
469:
454:
447:
437:
436:
435:
421:
413:
388:
385:
382:
362:
359:
356:
345:
339:
324:
318:
312:
297:
287:
286:
285:
268:
265:
262:
246:
230:
221:
219:
215:
189:
178:
172:
157:
146:
145:
144:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
110:
105:
102:
99:
96:
91:
90:Walter Burley
86:
82:
81:
80:
74:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3877:Type shifter
3852:Quantization
3802:Continuation
3669:Veridicality
3549:Exhaustivity
3514:Cumulativity
3433:Indexicality
3413:Definiteness
3408:Conditionals
3335:Logical form
3232:Pro-sentence
3206:Onomatopoeia
3196:Interjection
3169:Measure word
2956:
2952:Distributive
2846:Postpositive
2826:Intersective
2779:Unaccusative
2724:Performative
2694:Intransitive
2654:Ditransitive
2480:Noun adjunct
2380:
2362:
2355:Lewis, David
2344:
2333:
2315:
2304:
2299:
2289:
2286:
2272:
2269:
2254:
2250:
2195:
2159:
2143:
2127:dissertation
2118:
2111:
2106:
2090:
2080:
2077:
2067:
2062:
2052:Descriptions
2051:
2041:
2038:
2028:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2008:
2005:
1994:
1991:Lewis, David
1984:
1979:
1972:
1967:
1956:
1951:
1940:
1936:
1926:
1921:
1914:
1909:
1899:
1889:
1882:
1879:
1872:
1867:
1857:
1852:
1839:
1834:
1820:
1813:
1808:
1794:
1790:
1779:
1772:
1767:
1750:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1728:
1718:dissertation
1709:
1702:
1697:
1690:
1685:
1678:
1673:
1638:
1635:Lewis, David
1629:
1604:
1600:
1580:
1561:
1548:
1530:Descriptions
1529:
1520:
1501:
1495:
1483:. Retrieved
1478:
1462:
1437:
1433:
1405:
1399:
1374:
1370:
1357:
1345:. Retrieved
1340:
1313:. Retrieved
1308:
1294:
1282:. Retrieved
1273:
1263:
1254:
1226:. Elsevier.
1222:
1212:
1192:
1185:
1173:. Retrieved
1151:
1147:
1134:
1125:
1121:
1111:
1054:Gareth Evans
1028:
1021:
1016:
997:
984:
980:adding to it
975:
949:noun phrases
942:
927:
912:
906:January 2023
903:
892:Please help
887:verification
884:
859:
856:
848:
844:Gareth Evans
841:
828:
824:adding to it
819:
796:
788:
786:
762:
758:logical form
754:
751:
624:
553:
409:
222:
213:
210:
140:
115:The goal of
114:
78:
68:
60:
24:
18:
3797:Context set
3771:Type theory
3654:Subtrigging
3418:Disjunction
3345:Proposition
3181:Conjunction
2947:Disjunctive
2884:Conjunctive
2831:Nominalized
2734:Predicative
2578:Verbal noun
2529:Attributive
2176:conditional
2149:c-commanded
2117:Yoon, Y-E.
1888:Kadmon, N.
1846:Heim, Irene
1669:, Barbara.
1554:Heim, Irene
1485:29 December
1347:29 December
1315:29 December
1284:29 December
1269:Heim, Irene
1251:Peter Geach
1218:Keith Allan
1175:29 December
1154:(1): 1–46.
1050:David Lewis
1030:Peter Geach
767:(1981) and
65:noun phrase
45:grammatical
3962:Categories
3942:Pragmatics
3594:Mirativity
3360:Speech act
3315:Entailment
3310:Denotation
3249:Yes and no
3164:Classifier
3148:Possessive
3110:Quantifier
3105:Possessive
3082:Determiner
3054:Adposition
3026:Resumptive
3011:Reciprocal
3006:Possessive
2986:Indefinite
2914:Pronominal
2866:Subsective
2841:Possessive
2811:Collateral
2784:Unergative
2774:Transitive
2689:Inchoative
2684:Impersonal
2624:Catenative
2563:Participle
2558:Infinitive
2490:Relational
2460:Collective
2440:Adjectival
2326:Kamp, Hans
2188:indefinite
2182:with some
2172:quantifier
1997:, Oxford:
1896:Kamp, Hans
1823:. Oxford:
1607:: 39–100.
1571:0631197133
1539:0262640317
1511:012613510X
1124:(review).
1103:References
1023:suppositio
987:March 2020
831:March 2020
775:(DRT) and
769:Irene Heim
600:antecedent
594:makes the
3978:Semantics
3746:Mereology
3682:Formalism
3564:Givenness
3489:Cataphora
3477:Phenomena
3468:Vagueness
3398:Ambiguity
3350:Reference
3330:Intension
3320:Extension
3239:Prop-word
3201:Ideophone
3128:Discourse
3067:Inflected
3016:Reflexive
2991:Intensive
2798:Adjective
2769:Stretched
2759:Separable
2749:Reflexive
2644:Denominal
2639:Defective
2619:Captative
2614:Auxiliary
2553:Gerundive
2543:Nonfinite
2465:Countable
2349:Routledge
2236:SEP Entry
2166:, 2006).
2164:MIT Press
2097:MIT Press
2056:MIT Press
1736:(2007):1.
1454:146125231
1170:1937-8912
1003:variables
765:Hans Kamp
713:→
687:∧
670:∧
643:∀
636:∀
516:→
493:∧
476:∧
452:∃
445:∀
372:→
346:∧
322:∃
319:∧
295:∀
179:∧
155:∃
135:using an
21:semantics
3968:Pronouns
3895:See also
3785:Concepts
3659:Telicity
3494:Coercion
3448:Negation
3443:Modality
3393:Anaphora
3228:Pro-verb
3223:Pro-form
3120:Particle
3072:Stranded
3021:Relative
3001:Personal
2919:Relative
2904:Locative
2894:Genitive
2719:Negative
2649:Deponent
2629:Compound
2180:covaries
2078:Synthese
2026:Synthese
2016:Synthese
2006:Synthese
1864:Just, MA
1836:Language
1825:Elsevier
1621:62551132
1592:(1991).
1560:(1998).
1528:(1990).
1271:(1982).
1253:(1962).
1220:(2010).
1060:See also
1052:(1975),
930:semantic
243:is left
123:such as
92:(1328),
75:Examples
55:such as
3403:Binding
3213:Preverb
3090:Article
3036:Subject
2929:Pronoun
2764:Stative
2729:Phrasal
2704:Lexical
2659:Dynamic
2634:Copular
2534:Converb
2450:Animacy
2253:(SALT)
2151:" in a
2129:, 1994.
2099:, 1970.
2058:, 1990.
2039:Theoria
2001:, 1991.
1939:(SALT)
1827:, 1999.
1801:, 1995.
1793:(NELS)
1786:, 1999.
1720:, 2007.
1391:1295252
1128:(3393).
1013:History
1007:formula
129:Russell
125:English
29:pronoun
3832:Monads
3379:Topics
3191:Coverb
3186:Copula
3040:Object
2957:Donkey
2876:Adverb
2851:Proper
2816:Common
2699:Labile
2568:Supine
2548:Gerund
2539:Finite
2504:Verbal
2495:Strong
2485:Proper
2178:, yet
2168:Barker
2156:review
1667:Abbott
1645:
1619:
1568:
1536:
1508:
1452:
1412:
1389:
1230:
1200:
1168:
860:D-type
674:DONKEY
657:FARMER
480:DONKEY
463:FARMER
333:DONKEY
306:FARMER
183:SMOKES
3524:De se
3428:Focus
3386:Areas
3355:Scope
3157:Other
3138:Modal
2962:Dummy
2714:Modal
2709:Light
2587:Types
2522:Forms
2445:Agent
2205:modal
2201:Hindi
2135:Notes
1617:S2CID
1597:(PDF)
1475:(PDF)
1450:S2CID
1387:S2CID
1367:(PDF)
1278:(PDF)
412:scope
166:WOMAN
141:et al
33:bound
3143:Noun
2889:Flat
2744:Pure
2514:Verb
2499:Weak
2475:Mass
2455:Bare
2427:Noun
2125:PhD
1759:and
1716:PhD
1643:ISBN
1566:ISBN
1534:ISBN
1506:ISBN
1487:2020
1410:ISBN
1349:2020
1317:2020
1286:2020
1228:ISBN
1198:ISBN
1177:2020
1166:ISSN
717:BEAT
691:OWNS
520:BEAT
497:OWNS
376:BEAT
350:OWNS
256:BEAT
245:free
39:and
23:, a
3776:TTR
2361:In
2268:In
2249:In
2029:149
2019:153
1609:doi
1442:doi
1379:doi
1156:doi
1044:in
1036:to
982:.
945:DRT
896:by
826:.
19:In
3964::
3230:/
3042:/
3038:/
2974:/
2541:/
2497:/
2375:.
2357:.
2328:.
2305:25
2273:11
2190:."
2121:.
2112:23
2089:.
2081:21
2068:87
2050:.
2042:26
2009:22
1993:.
1985:15
1973:17
1957:23
1927:17
1915:24
1883:10
1858:13
1848:.
1840:52
1814:11
1797:.
1795:25
1763:.
1751:12
1742:'
1734:12
1712:.
1691:30
1679:10
1615:.
1605:14
1603:.
1599:.
1588:;
1556:;
1477:.
1448:.
1436:.
1424:^
1385:.
1375:16
1373:.
1369:.
1339:.
1325:^
1307:.
1242:^
1164:.
1150:.
1146:.
1126:17
1120:.
940:.
862:.
854:.
622:.
284:.
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1727:.
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1206:.
1179:.
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