527:. The absences are striking. As far as can be perceived, in terms of civic architecture and urbanism, third-century Europos lacked a temple, gymnasium, theater, and a "Hippodamian" street plan. In terms of sociopolitical phenomena, it lacked a developed epigraphic habit, representative civic government, sophisticated bureaucracy, and its own mint (bar one short episode). The administrative center ("palace"), patterns of land ownership, royal cult, and state officials show, however, it was more than a fortified army community, isolated from its local and imperial environments. Its location and dependent territory gave Europos a dynamic and self-generating potential to expand and develop into the important, wealthier, and more complex settlement it would become.
1018:, and documents on papyrus and parchment. Greek was primarily the language of business and seems to have gained in importance, especially after the Roman occupation. It is believed that the upper class of the city, in particular, was still Greek in Parthian times. Palmyric is known, with certainty, from various inscriptions on monuments from 33 BC. It is believed that a small number of Palmyric traders lived in the city, and in Roman times there were also soldiers from Palmyra. Parthian is not well attested to, and the few Parthian inscriptions seem to date to Roman times. Middle Persian is attested primarily by two parchments and numerous graffiti in the synagogue. The texts must date from the short time when the city was ruled by the Sasanids.
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access to more functional rooms. In a first phase, the courtyard covered a space a little further south with three rooms to the north, the walls of which were subsequently leveled and found in the north corridor laid out in a second phase, when the palace was extended to the north. A new facade was then built projecting onto the southern slope of the inner wadi. This extension resulted in the addition of the U corridor, along the courtyard, and three new rooms at the back of the bossed facade. The oldest floor, found in the northwest room, contained a coin of
Antiochos III, which fixes around 200 BC. Dating of the first state could not be attested by the too eroded material; in relative chronology, it is dated to the course of the 3rd century.
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plateau. This depression is the meeting of two ravines: the first begins in the northeast of the site and runs along the western limit of the citadel, before joining the east–west ravine incised in the center of the plateau. The current shape of this interior wadi is the result of natural erosion but also of considerable exploitation as a stone quarry, as shown by the faces of cuts erected under the edge of the plateau to the west. The site also suffered from earthquakes, recurring since the antiquity, which caused the collapse of the eastern part of the citadel and the south-eastern quarter of the site. The enclosure, entirely cleared by the Yale excavators, is preserved in elevation, except for a few segments of the north and south ramparts.
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1496:) of the city, rebuilt and consecrated to the god. The inscription dates to 169/170 AD and tells of numerous construction works on the temple, perhaps after it was destroyed by an earthquake. Probably then the building received its final form. The founder, Seleukos, was practically a governor in Dura-Europos and belonged to a Greek family who held this office for several generations. The governor's family's house was right next to the temple. Other members of the governor's family, such as Lysias, are also mentioned in inscriptions, but no titles are mentioned, so there is a possibility that these are other people of the same name who did not belong to the governor's family.
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1322:. Otherwise, a striking number of inscriptions in the temple, some of which were scratched into the walls, were made by women. There is an inscription from the first half of the first century AD that mentions the consecration of a chapel. A number of other inscriptions date from 69 AD. Some of the women named in the inscriptions appear to have come from the family of the governors of Dura-Europos. One woman was the granddaughter of the governor Lysias, another woman the wife of the governor Seleucus. In a wall of the temple there was a cuneiform tablet with old Babylonian script, which names the place as
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incomplete—as can be seen, the last section was not carved, but the painted guiding lines are preserved. Whether his wife, Aurelia Arria, or the person she commissioned to create this, did not themselves survive to complete the memorial, we do not know. While it is incomplete, this shows a Roman tribune commemorated with a Greek inscription by his wife. Also, it is virtually unique at Dura, where no tradition of funerary commemoration was found: no funerary inscriptions, and, unlike its more famous Syrian neighbour
Palmyra, no funerary portraits. One more interesting example is an altar of the local god
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incense, was an act of worship common in both Near
Eastern and Roman sanctuaries. Here it takes place in the presence of divinities, all nimbate. The Tychai of Dura and Palmyra are shown in Hellenistic style incorporating some Near Eastern features. Three male statues of deities enigmatically combine Roman cuirasses and Palmyrene attributes (such as the peaked helmet). Their lack of identifying labels creates ambiguity as to whether they represent Palmyrene gods or deified Roman emperors. This may have been done intentionally, to appeal to viewers of different backgrounds.
1365:) of the city and of Palmyra. The building is located near the agora. The temple was built in the last years of Parthian rule. A propylaeon (monumental gateway) led into a courtyard; opposite the gateway was the cella with other rooms. On the right side, a hall with benches on the walls led to another courtyard, with another cella there. The exact age of the temple complex is unknown. It was expanded several times over time. Two consecration reliefs were found in the temple. One of them shows the female protective deity of Palmyra in a guise modelled on the
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could finish their work. The
Persians had already dug complex galleries along the wall by the time the Roman countermine reached them. They managed to fight off the Roman attack, and when the city defenders noticed the flight of soldiers from the countermine, it was quickly sealed. The wounded and stragglers were trapped inside, where they died. (It was the coins found with these Roman soldiers that dated the siege to AD 256.) The countermine was successful, for the Persians abandoned their operations at Tower 19.
1232:(also known as the Temple of the Palmyric Gods) was built in one corner of the city wall, in the third century BC. Several construction phases can be distinguished in the building. The plan consisted of various rooms ranged around a courtyard; the actual temple stood to the north and was later marked by four columns. This temple was once richly decorated with wall paintings. There was also a shrine here, which probably contained the cult image. A small sanctuary of Bel, consisted of a single hall, was also found.
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716:, sealed with a casing of mud brick to prevent erosion. As J.A. Baird writes, "the threat by the Sasanians was keenly felt by the Roman military, and what had been a walled city became a fortress—literally, in that it became a defensive place. A huge embankment was built against the interior of the city walls to hold back the Sasanian incursion, deliberately and with great effort involving the methodical destruction of buildings and the moving of many metric tonnes of earth, ruining a huge swathe of the site".
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successful — but to pass under it and penetrate the city. This tunnel was built to allow the
Persians four abreast to move through it. It eventually pierced the inner embankment and, when the ramp was completed, Dura's end had come. As Persian troops charged up the ramp, their counterparts in the tunnel would have invaded the city with little opposition, as nearly all the defenders would have been on the wall, attempting to repel the attack from the ramp. The city was then abandoned, its population deported.
2188:(central boss) is missing. The back of the shield should be provided with reinforcing strips of wood, but they weren't found. There appears to have been red skin covering the back; it is mentioned in the preliminary report of the excavation that later was lost. The surface of the front was covered with fabric and then with skin or parchment, with a painting on it. There are several decorative ribbons around the central hole. Decorations include an eagle with a laurel wreath, winged Victories, and a lion.
1247:. The temple was just outside the city and probably was maintained until the city's abandonment. Although the temple was located in the city's necropolis, it was built prior; and the cult there had no connection to the cemetery. The temple could have been a first port of call for caravans coming from Palmyra. A cistern next to the temple may have served to water pack animals. Remains of wall paintings were found in the temple. Three inscriptions are particularly important. The oldest of them, written in
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924:, that indicates some activity in the 4th century or later. A Yale–French expedition also found seven lamps dating from fifth century. Because of these finds, historians concluded that the city wasn't abandoned and that there is "firm evidence that not only did activity continue at Dura—even if it was only sporadic and cannot confidently be associated with permanent settlement—but that contact with the Mediterranean, though certainly even more sporadic, continued as well."
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2041:. Fifteen years of excavations led to a revival of issues on the Hellenistic levels (P. Leriche) and on the history of the city thanks to studies on the fortifications (J.-C. Bessac 1997) and stone architecture (J. Abdul Massih 2000) and mud brick (M. Gelin 2000). The mission also resumed the study of certain formerly excavated monuments, such as the odeon, the palace of the Strategos, the temples of Zeus Megistos, Bel and Azanathkona, the houses of islets C7 and D1.
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1102:(an official responsible for the distribution of wages in the Roman military), there is a Greek inscription that identifies the man by name and occupation. The use of Greek to identify a Roman official is typical of the multicultural environment at Dura-Europos. Another example is an inscription that reads: "... brave in campaigns, mighty in wars, dead..." These words are part of the epitaph of Julius Terentius, tribune of the twentieth Palmyrene cohort. As historian
2322:(2011) is the first novel in the Parthian Chronicles series by Peter Darman. These chronicles have, as their central fictional character, Pacorus I, King of Dura-Europos (although the royal name Pacorus features prominently during the Parthian Empire), who lived at the same time as the rebel Roman gladiator Spartacus and was part of Spartacus's army before being freed in Italy and then returning home to Parthia, where he became the most feared warrior in the empire.
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5364:"M. I. Rostovtzeff, A. R. Bellinger, F. E. Brown, and C. B. Welles, The Excavations at Dura-Europos Conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of inscriptions and letters, Preliminary Report of the Ninth Season of Work, 1935–6. Part III, The Palace of the Dux Ripae and the Dolicheneum. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952. Pp. XVI + 134, 24 plates and 11 text-figures (including plans, elevations, and reconstructions). No price stated"
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1382:, on the left is the one consecrating the relief. The city was founded by Seleukos Nikator, so the ruler enjoyed a special veneration here. According to an inscription, the reliefs were dedicated to "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 ." The cella also contained a relief that depicted the Semitic god Yarhibol. An inscription records "Bani Mitha, the archers" as the donors.
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usual, in "oriental" costume ("trousers, boots, and pointed cap"). As is typical for mithraea in the Roman provinces in the Greek East, the inscriptions and graffiti are mostly in Greek, with the rest in
Palmyrene (and some in Hellenized Hebrew). The end of the sanctuary features an arch with a seated figure on each of the two supporting columns. Inside, and following the form of the arch, is a series of depictions of the
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1260:, when different donors are named together, they come from the same clan. The Bene Gaddibol clan is well documented in Palmyra, where belonging to a clan was an important part of one's identity. In Dura-Europos clan membership obviously lost its meaning, and two people from different clans could appear together in inscriptions. In Dura-Europos, their identity was their common Palmyrene origin.
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pieces. It is made from strips of wood that are 30 to 80 millimetres (1.2 to 3.1 in) wide and 1.5 to 2 millimetres (0.059 to 0.079 in) thick. They are put together in three layers, so that the total thickness of the wood layer is 4.5 to 6 millimetres (0.18 to 0.24 in). In the center of the shield is a hole that was probably cut in the wood after the board was made; the
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goddesses. Perhaps it can explain her popularity at Dura-Europos. The relief is dated to 200-256 AD. The house where the relief was found is close to the military quarter and may have been a brothel. Two other nearly identical and one fragmentary versions of this relief were excavated across the site. One of the additional
Aphrodite reliefs was found at what is called the
1209:(small temple) was built in its stead, but it was never finished. In the middle of the first century BC the temple was rebuilt: a courtyard complex was created, in the middle of which stood a new temple, with an anteroom and three-aisled cella. The temple was rebuilt several times before the city fell. A statue, found in its ruins, represents a woman's figure, probably
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1039:, which was stationed here, were found in a room that apparently served as an archive. The texts offer a unique view of the organization of the Roman army on the eastern border of the empire, and include a religious festival calendar, various letters—some of which are in Latin—daily reports on troop movements, and various lists of names.
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of wall paintings were also found in one room. Various inscriptions were discovered in and around the temple. One cella was dedicated to the little-known god
Turmasgade. The second cella was for Jupiter Dolichenus, several dedications to whom were found in the temple. Another room was dedicated to an unnamed goddess, probably
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Persian ones were written on the wall paintings themselves and record appraisal on the part of visitors from elsewhere. Their presence can be explained by assuming that
Mesopotamian Jews had sent someone "like a consular representative nowadays" to the Euphrates stronghold, in order to approve of the frescos.
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power of the goddess. At the feet of the goddess is a wheel (a typical symbol associated with the goddess) and a griffin." As noted by Dirven, the image of
Nemesis here differs from those in Palmyra and Greece. Here she is associated with a sun god; in Palmyra she was most likely associated with the goddess
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was also found at the site; it is the only one ever found. The shield was found during the excavation campaign of 1928–1937 at Tower 19. The scutum is a rectangular arched shield that measures 105.5 by 41 centimetres (41.5 by 16.1 in) and is made mostly of wood. It was found broken into thirteen
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The Palace of the Strategos is organized around a central courtyard, 11 x 11.50 m, framed by a corridor on each side. Porticoes with two columns highlight the official rooms: the large vestibule at the entrance to the west and to the south, the reception room. To the north and west, corridors control
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The site is divided between a flat part of 45 ha, delimited by the line of the western rampart and the irregular layout of the northern and southern wadis, a narrow part culminating at an altitude of 218 m, crowned by the walls of the citadel, and a lower part 20 m below the top of the
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The surviving frescoes, graffiti, and dipinti (painted inscriptions, which number in the dozens) are of enormous interest in the study of the social composition of the cult. The statuary and altars were found intact, as was the typical relief of Mithras slaying the bull, with the hero-god dressed, as
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The goddess of victory, Nike, was also popular in Dura-Europos, especially with the military, who viewed her as "an active divine force influencing human affairs and bringing military success. One of the paintings of Nike was found in an enclosed wooden shrine in the Palmyrene Gate. That painting may
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may have been worshiped. The temple entrance was in the south part. The building had a columned courtyard with two altars; behind it were two cellae. The temple was therefore dedicated to two deities. Various rooms were arranged around the courtyard, some of them had benches along the walls. Remnants
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New Yorkers would have felt at home in the grid pattern of streets, where merchants lived, scribes wrote and Jews worshiped in the same block, not far from a Christian house-church as well as shrines to Greek and Palmyrene deities. Scholars said the different religious groups seemed to maintain their
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Although the documents found mainly regard administration (in Latin) and business (in Greek), some literary and religious texts were found in the city. Only a few documents can be dated with certainty to the time of Parthian rule. Only seven of them are definitely dated. They are written in Greek but
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Apart from a liturgical text written in Hebrew (on a parchment), the available textual sources from the synagogue consist of inscriptions and graffiti, which are more or less evenly divided in Aramaic (22), Greek (19) and Persian (12 Middle Persian, 'Pārsīk', and 3 Parthian, 'Pahlavīk'). Most of the
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Some evidence of a Sasanian presence at Dura after the sack of the city was found, but is limited to several coins, and some burials. Many buildings apparently stood empty for a time before they collapsed: a house in a part of the site near the river that was excavated by the Franco-Syrian expedition
771:, which killed 19 Romans and 1 Persian, one of which was carrying a coin dated 256, allowing the dating of the siege. Archaeologists excavated the scene in the 1930s. In 2009, tests showed the presence of sulfur dioxide inside the tunnel. An archaeologist at the University of Leicester suggested that
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the city. True to the fears of the defenders, Shapur set his engineers to undermine what archaeologists called Tower 19, two towers north of the Palmyrene Gate. When the Romans became aware of the threat, they dug a countermine with the aim of meeting the Persian effort and attacking them before they
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Because of the dry desert climate, numerous documents on papyrus and parchment have been preserved, materials that otherwise would have little chance of surviving for millennia. The documents were found under the brick ramp built against the western wall, where they were especially protected. In the
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in order to undermine them and create breaches. As a countermeasure, the Roman garrison decided to sacrifice the street and the buildings along the wall by filling them with rubble, to bolster the wall in case of a Persian mining operation. So, the Christian chapel, the synagogue, the Mithraeum, and
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Dura-Europos is of extreme archaeological importance, and was called the "Pompeii of the Desert". As it was abandoned after its conquest in 256–57 AD, nothing was built over it and no later building programs obscured the architectural features of the ancient city. Its location on the edge of empires
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The painting shows Julius Terentius performing an official sacrifice in front of a military standard, Terentius stands with his men. Although in Roman military attire, these soldiers are Palmyrenes; one of them (Themes, son of Mokimos) is identified in Greek as a priest. The sacrifice, a burning of
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A relief of the goddess Nemesis was described as: "Marble relief of the goddess Nemesis (right) receiving a burnt offering by a priest named Julius Aurelius Malochus. The relief includes a 'floating' bust with a radiant aura around the bust. One interpretation is that the bust symbolizes the cosmic
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This brought on a third attempt at breaching the city wall. A ramp was raised, attacking Tower 14; but, as it was being built and the garrison fought to stop the progress of the ramp, another mine was started near the ramp. Its purpose was not to cause a collapse of the wall — the buttress had been
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In A.D. 194, Emperor Septimius Severus divided the province of Syria to limit the power of its previously rebellious governors. As a result, Dura became part of the new province of Syria Coele. In its later years, it also attained the status of a Roman colonia, which, by the third century, was what
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wrote, "he discovery singularly transformed historians' understanding of Roman cavalry equipment." These are the only full sets of scale horse armor ever found. Each set of armor was made of nearly 2000 individual overlapping thin, scale-like plates bound together with wire. Such armor was used by
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Next, the Sassanids attacked Tower 14, the southernmost along the western wall. It overlooked a deep ravine to the south and it was from that direction that it was attacked. This time the mining operation was partially successful, in that it caused the tower and adjacent walls to subside. However,
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conquered Dura-Europos, and held it, with one brief intermission, until 165 AD, when it was taken by the Romans. The Parthian period was that of expansion at Dura-Europos, an expansion that was facilitated by the town's losing its function as a military outpost. All the space enclosed by the walls
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by the attacking Persian army. During the siege the attackers dug several underground shaft mines under the city walls. The Romans dug tunnels to reach the mines and fight the diggers underground. In one such tunnel, when the Romans broke through into the Sassanian tunnel, the tunnelers ignited a
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professor Samuel Record investigated the wood and identified it as pine. The shields became the subject of close re-examination in 2011. Based on that analysis the painted surface appears to include carbon black; calcium-based whites, including gypsum and chalk; lead white; orpiment; organic red
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era) It is the oldest known inscription at Dura-Europos; and when it was found and published in 1935, it was the oldest known Palmyric inscription anywhere. The names of the founders of the temple are known: Zabdibol, son of Ba'yashu, and Maliku, son of Ramu. Zabdibol came from the Bene Gaddibol
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crystals were ignited to create poisonous gas, which was then funnelled through the tunnel with the use of underground chimneys and bellows. The Roman soldiers had been constructing a countermine, and Sasanian forces are believed to have released the gas when their mine was breached by the Roman
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In 216 AD, a small amphitheater for soldiers was built in the military area, while the new synagogue, completed in 244 AD, and a house of Christian worship, were embellished with frescos of important characters wearing Roman tunics, caftans, and Parthian trousers. These splendid paintings, which
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One of the more interesting aspects of the shield — one that relates it to later works such as medieval and renaissance paintings — are the preparatory and paint layers on the piece, in which we see the use of both organic and inorganic materials. It informs us how artists or artisans developed
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The military importance of the site was confirmed after 209 AD: the northern part of the site was occupied by a Roman camp, isolated by a brick wall; soldiers were housed among civilians, among others, in the so-called "House of Scribes". Romans built the palace of the commander of the military
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showed the tale of the Trojan horse; and a third was decorated with a warrior god. Constructed of multiple thin slats of wood joined along the long edges and painted, the oval shields—all approximately four feet (1.2 m) high by three feet (0.91 m) wide—were cleaned in the field after
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The discovery of the wall paintings in the assembly hall of the synagogue caused a tremendous sensation, as it is the largest cycle of paintings that has survived from antiquity. The find is important for religious history, as the Jewish communities there were generally judged to be hostile to
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Many Greek documents are in the Attic dialect and have few grammatical errors. Since most of the texts are legal documents, this shows that most of the writers were well educated in the Greek language. On the other hand, a letter dating from the third century that was sent by a person from the
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The father is recorded as having the Greek name Polemocrates (his own father and grandfather also bearing the names Demetrius and Polemocrates, respectively), and amongst the younger Polemocrates' sons, all had both Greek and Aramaic names, for instance Demetrius, also known as Nabusamus. The
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wrote, Julius is known better than most of the Roman soldiers who were stationed at Dura, as he is recorded in papyri from the military archives as well as from a painting, depicting him with his men. His Greek funerary inscription was found in a house near the centre of the city, apparently
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cover the walls, testify to the richness of the Jewish and Christian communities. The population of Dura-Europos is estimated at 10,000-15,000 people, at the most; more conservative estimates say that the agriculture of that region could only support a population of about 5,000-6,000 people.
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was found in a private house, and is one of three such reliefs that were made in the same mold. The composition is derived from Hellenistic art, but the goddess's attributes—her bracelets, anklets, breast ornaments, and lack of modesty—is similar to the images of nude Near Eastern fertility
1583:, who was worshipped in sanctuaries together with the sun god Shamash. Dirven concludes that "the popularity of solar deities among the military probably enforced this Palmyrene association of Nemesis-Allat with the sun god and resulted in the presence of the sun god in the Durene relief".
2474:, p. 68) prefers 257 as the fall, based on the lateness in the year of the issue from the mint of the coins found at Dura which provided the year 256. He also argues that a garrison of Sassanid forces probably remained in the city for perhaps a year after the locals had been deported.
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made for a commingling of cultural traditions, much of which was preserved under the city's ruins. Some remarkable finds have been brought to light, including numerous temples, wall decorations, inscriptions, military equipment, tombs, and even dramatic evidence of the Sasanian siege.
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document records the concern with noting patrilineal descent – descent along the male line – and a pattern of sons taking the Greek name of their grandfathers. They are described as Europaioi, 'of Europos', a designation of place which is generally assumed to indicate citizen status.
1567:, which led to speculation about women's roles in the domestic cult. A marble statue of Aphrodite Urania was found in the Temple of Artemis; it is thought to have been imported to Dura-Europos. Wall paintings of Aphrodite and Cupid were found in the House of Scribes.
650:. The historian Ross Burns states that, in exchange, the city's military role was abandoned. Its original Greek settler population was increasingly outnumbered by people of Semitic stock; and by the first century BC, the city was predominantly eastern in character.
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and Greek clothing. On her left is the dedicator of the relief, depicted as a priest, and on her right a Nike. The other depicts the male patron deity of Dura-Europos, bearded and wearing a tunic. It is very likely a depiction of Zeus Megistos. To his right is
1409:. Wall paintings, which were discovered in a fragmentary state, depicted a statue and a family making an offering to the god on a fire altar at left. The scene has been reconstructed. In the temple complex there was also another relief, which shows the god
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era and from the Seleucid era. Interesting is the appearance of women in the legal documents of the Parthian and Roman periods, which indicated that they acted independently and did not need a male advocate, as they did in the Mediterranean region.
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Julius Terentius Performing a sacrifice. Commissioned by the Roman tribune at Dura-Europos, Julius Terentius (depicted and identified here by Latin inscription), this painting mixes Greek, Roman, and Palmyrene elements, perhaps as a diplomatic
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wrote about the discovery of the scale armor in Tower 19. Since Tower 19 was partially destroyed during a siege, sediment settled on the items inside the tower, which ended up preserving them well, allowing the armor to be incredibly intact.
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inscription to 244, is the best preserved of the many ancient synagogues of that era that have been uncovered by archaeologists. It was well preserved due to having been infilled with earth to strengthen the city's fortifications against a
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After the siege and victory by the Persians in AD 256, the record is blank. The mute testimony that remained was of a site desolate and forlorn, where the lonely and level sands covered the bones of the city and stretched away across the
472:, "Castle of Blood". Pierre Leriche, excavations director of the site in early 2000s, opposes the name Dura-Europos, because it "obscures what he sees as the fundamental Greekness of the city" and proposes to use "Europos-Dura" instead.
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Analysis was done with ultraviolet-induced visible fluorescence (UVF), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Raman
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The good state of preservation of these buildings and their frescoes was due to their location, close to the main city wall facing west, and to the military necessity of strengthening the wall. The Sassanid Persians had become adept at
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was on the north side of the city and had two naoi. The temple has stood here since at least 13 AD. In Roman times, the complex was partly integrated into the military camp, although the cult worship was continued. The archive of the
1115:, made this as commanded." It is notable because it shows that a man who bears a Latin name, Scribonius Moucianus, and holding a Greek-titled office in the Roman army, worshipped a local deity and offered his dedication in Greek.
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in the 2000s had its floors covered in disarticulated rodent skeletons and owl pellets, apparently from time when birds inhabited the emptied homes. Coin hoards were found, which indicate that people hoped to return to the city.
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looming—the sanctuary was filled in and became part of the strengthened fortifications. Following excavations, the temple was transported in pieces to New Haven, Connecticut, where it was rebuilt (and is now on display) at the
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was written at a monastery that had grown up on the site of Mar Ma'in's cell at Shadba (=Shadwa, Shadbo), 6 miles from Europos, and on the basis of this he is able to give c. 636, the end of Byzantine rule in that area, as the
1531:. A Greek inscription also gives the name of the donor as Seleukos, son of Luke, and names the god as Zeus. A further Greek inscription on the stele again names Seleukos, gives the date, and refers to the god as Zeus Kyrios.
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was built in the second century AD and was among the most important sanctuaries of the city. The building was in the centre of the city. It had an area of around 37 square metres (400 sq ft) and occupied half an
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of Alexander the Great. In 113 BC, Parthians conquered the city, and held it, with one brief Roman intermission (114 AD), until 165 AD. Under Parthian rule, it became an important provincial administrative centre. The
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In the southeast part of the site, which was separated from the rest of the city by a wadi, apparently stood an acropolis typical of a Greek city. However, hardly anything has survived from the temples of that time.
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Another important find was that of three painted wooden shields with scenes of the Trojan War as depicted in the Iliad. On Friday, January 18, 1935, Clark Hopkins, field director of excavations, wrote in his notes:
1715:, the earliest house church yet discovered, is near the 17th tower and was preserved by the same defensive fill that saved the synagogue. "Their evidently open and tolerated presence in the middle of a major Roman
1298:(chambers) at the back. There were numerous small rooms around the courtyard, some of which were probably shrines that were consecrated to various deities. A relief on the sanctuary of the temple shows the goddess
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Isidore is the only ancient historian who mentioned that the city had two different names. Isidore's account helped to identify the site, because both "Dura" and "Europos" were not unique names for that region.
2230:(likely rose madder); vermilion; indigo; and red and yellow iron oxide pigments. As noted by associate conservator Irma Passeri from Yale, the shields are interesting and important examples of painted shields:
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Just after breakfast, three painted shields were found one right a top of the other.... Herb and I spent all morning removing them. Most of the wood was strong enough to move easily and much of the painting is
798:
approached Shapur I to negotiate Palmyrene interests but was rebuffed and the gifts sent to the Persians were thrown into the river. The date for the attempted negotiations is debated: some scholars, including
4880:
Jebel Bishri in context : introduction to the archaeological studies and the neighbourhood of Jebel Bishri in central Syria : Proceedings of a Nordic research training seminar in Syria, May 2004
1841:. This reading has not found favor with others: "the two figures are Palmyrene in all their characteristic traits" and are more probably portraits of leading members of that mithraeum's congregation of
5243:
464:. Dura-Europos is now seen as owing its development to its role as a regional capital. After the siege and destruction of the city its names were forgotten by local people, and the site was known as
1425:
was found in one room of the temple. An inscription from 161 AD said that the temple was dedicated to Artemis Azzanathkona. Her followers believed in a "syncretized combination" of a Greek goddess
1987:
The existence of Dura-Europos was long known through literary sources. Its actual location was rediscovered by the American "Wolfe Expedition" in 1885, when the Palmyrene Gate was photographed by
1290:) and which occupies the northern part of H2 Block, was built on roughly the same principle. The temple complex had a large courtyard in the middle, a monumental entrance, and a sanctuary with a
6694:
6689:
5075:
Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century. Catalogue of the Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, November 19, 1977, Through February 12, 1978
3985:
The Excavations at Dura-Europos conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters 1928 to 1937. Final Report VII: The Arms and Armour and other Military Equipment
3953:
The Excavations at Dura-Europos conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters 1928 to 1937. Final Report VII: The Arms and Armour and other Military Equipment
2026:
and published in 1922–23, identified the site with Dura-Europos, and uncovered a temple, before renewed hostilities in the area closed it to archaeology. Later, renewed campaigns directed by
1461:. The temple was built by units of the Roman army around 211 AD, and was in use until 256 AD, mainly by Roman soldiers stationed in the city. Soldiers left several inscriptions that mention "
4305:
1256:
clan, Maliku from that of the Bene Komare. The donors were obviously Palmyrians who lived in Dura-Europos. It is noteworthy that the donors come from two different clans. In inscriptions at
2316:, is centred around a detailed description of the Sassanid siege of Dura-Europos in 256 AD, based on the archeological finds in the site, although the city name was changed to "Arete."
1310:; Hadad and Adonis could also be worshipped here. Various inscriptions by ancient visitors tell of the people who visited the sanctuary. That the temple was frequented by people from
4663:
All Those Nations – Cultural Encounters Within and with the Near East : Studies Presented to Hans Drijvers at the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday by Colleagues and Students
2239:
It was also noted by the examiners' team that "the shield has an interesting combination of materials — some that are indigenous to Syria and others that would have been traded."
666:
James (Henry Breasted) calls an "honorary title for an important town." He suggests that the "Roman authorities wanted to present Dura as an important city of the Roman province."
2097:
siege of 256 AD, which included painted wooden shields and complete horse armour, preserved by the very finality of the destruction of the city that journalists have called "the
631:
erected a "Triumphal Arch" west of the Palmyrene Gate. Upon the death of Trajan in 117, Rome relinquished Mesopotamia to the Parthians, but Dura was retaken by the Roman army of
284:
1118:
Some documents that were found are evidence of a local tradition of people having several names: for example, a Greek one and a Semitic or a Persian one. One of the examples is
1726:
The building consists of a house conjoined to a separate hall-like room, which functioned as the meeting room for the church. Dating from 235 AD, the surviving frescoes of the
5717:
1342:. The building had a monumental courtyard and in it a large naos. The cult figure of the god was depicted on the back wall. He stood next to a chariot and was crowned by two
515:
When the town was founded, agricultural land was allotted to the members of the garrison, the size and quality of the allotments according to military rank. As the historian
1734:", the "Healing of the paralytic", and "Christ and Peter walking on the water" are among the preserved paintings and are the earliest depictions of Jesus Christ ever found.
1064:
and dates the copy to the 2nd century AD. Dura parchment 10 (P. Dura 10), the fragment of a harmony of the Gospels, is particularly interesting. It is perhaps a fragment of
780:
countermine. The lone Persian soldier discovered among the bodies is believed to be the individual responsible for releasing the gas before the fumes overcame him as well.
6009:
4781:
Palmyrene and Gandharan Sculpture: An Exhibition Illustrating the Cultural Interrelations Between the Parthian Empire and Its Neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara
4607:
Dirven, Lucinda (2011). "Strangers and Sojourners. The religious behavior of Palmyrenes and other foreigners in Dura-Europos". In Brody, Lisa R.; Hoffman, Gail L. (eds.).
1790:
and his troops. At this stage it was still a room in a private home. It was extended and renovated between 209 and 211, and most of the frescoes are from this period. The
1083:
village of Ossa shows more deviations from the classic Attic. Still, there is no indication that any dialect of Greek peculiar to the city, a "Durene" dialect, developed.
1014:
settlers. So, it is not surprising that the vast majority of the inscriptions are in Greek, and about 800 Greek texts are known so far. These are dedicatory inscriptions,
2264:
The jury of the International Carlo Scarpa Prize for Gardens unanimously decided that their 2010 award, the twenty-first of those annual awards, would go to Dura-Europos.
1217:
writes that the statue has "an Amazonian aspect by the fact that one breast is left bare". There is a crescent-shaped necklace on the statue, and a veil of unusual form.
4598:
940:. The style and technique of the figure—the frontal pose, large eyes, subtle shading, and earth-toned pigments—recall other painted decoration in the city's buildings.
3357:
4608:
4277:
1401:
was also built in Parthian times. It is also a temple complex that is grouped around a courtyard. The actual temple was located to the south and consisted of a
5274:
4541:
703:" after the year 254 AD; official documents called the city "the 'colony of the Europeans of Seleukos Nikator' (κωλονεία Εὐροπαίων Σελεύκου Νεικάτορος)."
657:, and as an outpost for expeditions against the Parthian empire and their capital on the Tigris in 198 AD. The city was later a border post of the Roman "
4227:
604:
The entirely original architecture of Dura-Europos was perfected during the Parthian period. This period was characterized by a progressive evolution of
732:
There is no written record of the Sasanian siege of Dura. However, archaeologists have uncovered striking evidence of the siege and how it progressed.
6724:
6699:
2212:
Each of the three shields was decorated with a distinct multi-colored scene; one showed the battle between the Greeks and the Amazons; the so-called
4741:
La vallée engloutie (Volume 2 : catalogue des sites) : Géographie historique du Moyen-Euphrate (du IVe s. av. J.-C. au VIIe s. apr. J.-C.)
2352:
2115:
4315:
2221:. When the shields were brought to Yale University in 1935, conservator George Stout and scientist Rutherford Gettens, from the Harvard University
2357:
653:
The city regained its importance as a military outpost, when the Romans established it as a starting point for the conquest of the territories of
1122:(P. Dura 19) (dating from first century AD), which records the division of a house inherited by four brothers from their father. As Baird wrote:
4228:"Ancient History, Modern Destruction: Assessing the seeStatus of Syria's Tentative World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery"
636:
440:" is modern, and was coined by Franz Cumont in 1922. Dura controlled the river crossing on the route between Seleucus's newly founded cities of
6002:
5744:
4190:
1472:
5468:
5121:
5083:
5059:
5038:
5017:
4998:
4927:
4908:
4887:
4849:
4825:
4806:
4768:
4749:
4721:
4671:
4642:
4621:
4551:
4530:
4502:
4481:
4435:
4414:
4334:
3992:
3960:
642:
The townspeople, however, retained considerable freedom as inhabitants of the regional headquarters for the section of the river between the
348:
116:
1782:, between towers 23 and 24. It was unearthed in January 1934 after years of expectation as to whether Dura would reveal traces of the Roman
936:
The tile from the ceiling of a House of Scribes that bears a Greek inscription that identifies the man by name, Heliodoros, and occupation,
523:
Out of this meager evidence, the early settlement of Europos emerges as an entity ambiguously situated between a simple fortress and a full
2286:
1413:
on a camel. The inscription under the figure reads: "Oga the sculptor has made (this to) 'Arsu the camel-rider', for the life of his son".
1152:
In 1933, among fragments of text recovered from the town dump outside the Palmyrene Gate, a fragmentary text was unearthed from an unknown
392:
4252:
728:
Successive steps of backfilling of the Wall street in Dura-Europos and the subsequent destruction of the synagogue. After Kraeling, 1956.
1060:. The Herodotus fragment comes from his 5th book and is written in extremely beautiful script. C. Bradford Welles describes the book as
142:
56:
6152:
5842:
2273:
1786:
cult. The earliest archaeological traces found within the temple are from between 168 and 171 AD, which coincides with the arrival of
1465:
of a vexillation of IV (Scythia) and XVI Flavia Firma, a vexillation of Cohors II Paphlagonum with the titles 'Galliana Volusiana', a
1334:
1074:. There was also a prayer in Hebrew. The texts shed light on daily life in the city. In Parthian times, documents were dated from the
491:
writing found at Dura; no other evidence was found. The ancient settlement was probably deserted for a long time when Dura was found.
424:("fortress" in Aramaic), at the intersection of an east–west trade route and the trade route along the Euphrates. The city was called
5010:
Roms orientalische Steppengrenze : Palmyra, Edessa, Dura-Europos, Hatra : eine Kulturgeschichte von Pompeius bis Diocletian
4497:. Chestnut Hill, Mass.; Chicago, Ill. : McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College : dist. by the University of Chicago Press.
84:
6714:
5995:
5797:
4868:
4692:
1614:
have contained a depiction of the emperor. It was dedicated to the goddess by soldiers on behalf of their commander and his family.
1236:
4711:
4660:
Drijvers, Han J. W.; Vanstiphout, H. L. Herman L. J.; Bekkum, Wout Jacques van; Gelder, G. J. H. van; Reinink, Gerrit Jan (1999).
1042:
5904:
5899:
2213:
2080:
1205:(a walled, sacred area) with a Doric colonnade and an altar in the middle. At the end of the second century BC it burned down. A
2870:
1808:, and it seems that construction was done by imperial troops. The mithraeum was enlarged again in 240, but in 256—with war with
1741:
visiting Christ's tomb. There are also frescoes of Adam and Eve as well as David and Goliath. The frescoes clearly followed the
6719:
835:
Historians argue whether Dura-Europos was completely abandoned after the siege of 256. Lucinda Dirven wrote that, according to
5812:
5802:
2226:
1417:
1398:
1098:
The languages used by different people show how multicultural the city was. For example, on a ceiling tile of Heliodoros, an
519:
wrote, during its early history Dura-Europos was neither entirely a military outpost nor a polis, but something in-between:
384:. Its population was deported, and the abandoned city eventually became covered by sand and mud and disappeared from sight.
2295:
reported further plundering of the site on a massive scale by the Islamic State in order to fund their hold on the region.
839:, Dura-Europos was a deserted town when Julian's army passed there in 363. There is evidence from a Syriac document called
6729:
2058:
712:
many other buildings were entombed. The Romans also buttressed the walls from the outside with an earthen mound forming a
872:
1842:
1484:(second century AD) on the Acropolis probably replaced a Greek temple of Zeus Olympius. The assignment of the temple to
1263:
4124:
3792:
2546:
2022:
were carried out in the 1920s and 1930s by French and American teams. The first archaeology on the site, undertaken by
1527:
inscription that states that it was erected by Baratheh, son of Luke and his son Abubuhi in 31 AD. The god is named as
6734:
6651:
6098:
5946:
5925:
5822:
4836:
4353:
2160:
2106:
2007:
1954:
1814:
1229:
786:
destroyed not only Dura-Europos, but also other Palmyrene trade colonies along the Euphrates, including the colony at
739:
680:
region on the edge of a cliff. The city then had several sanctuaries, beside the temples, dedicated to the Greek gods
381:
42:
1609:
Translation: Maloka son of Shudai, Palmyrene, made (this), and with gratitude, for Nemesis. The year 556 (AD 244-5).
2127:
1697:
1346:. On the side walls of the hall are the pictures of the donors, and their family members, who financed this temple.
6658:
5737:
5666:
Unvala, J. M. (1930). "Doura-Eropos.: Based on "Fouilles de Doura-Eropos (1922–3) par Franz Cumont, Paris, 1926"".
5329:"Strange Meeting at Salihiyeh: Who Discovered (or Encountered, or Identified, or Invented) Dura-Europos, and When?"
4454:
Rivers and steppes. Cultural heritage and environment of the Syrian Jezireh. Catalogue to the Museum of Deir ez-Zor
4008:
1622:
1603:
Translation: Julius Aurelius Malochas, son of Soudaios, Palmyrene, set this up in gratitude to the goddess Nemesis.
2852:
1278:(incense altar) from the Cistern at the Temple of Atargatis. It depicts a group of deer, Atargatis sacred animals.
932:
6684:
5777:
1773:
1737:
A much larger fresco depicts two women (and a third, mostly lost) approaching a large sarcophagus, i.e. probably
4573:
The excavations at Dura-Europos: conducted by Yale university and the French academy of inscriptions and letters
4086:
6704:
5894:
5702:
2340:
2304:
2201:
2180:
2172:
2076:
2019:
605:
4861:
Latin military papyri of Dura-Europos (P.Dura 55-145): a new edition of the texts, with introduction and notes
1756:
5073:
2936:"Top 10 Discoveries of 2009 – Earliest Chemical Warfare – Dura-Europos, Syria – Archaeology Magazine Archive"
2897:"Top 10 Discoveries of 2009 – Earliest Chemical Warfare – Dura-Europos, Syria – Archaeology Magazine Archive"
6447:
6327:
5847:
5837:
2385:
1671:
1481:
1220:
612:
ones, played an increasing role. These innovations affected both religious and domestic buildings. Although
609:
3449:
1488:
is based only on a dedicatory inscription, according to which parts of the building were made by Seleucus,
1201:
The Temple of Artemis Nanaïa was perhaps the oldest temple in the city. In the Seleucid period there was a
6291:
5920:
5884:
5782:
1805:
1631:
1570:
1422:
1036:
548:
colonists contributed to an increase in the population, which was a multicultural one, as inscriptions in
445:
6679:
5966:
5832:
5730:
2520:
2331:
1508:
2289:. In 2015, according to satellite imagery, more than 70% of Dura-Europos was destroyed by looters; and
724:
616:
influence is difficult to find in the architecture of Dura-Europos, in figurative art the influence of
2139:
1853:
1825:. Within the framework of the now-obsolete theory that the Roman cult was "a Roman form of Mazdaism" (
1586:
1213:, dressed in hunting garb. Only the upper part was found, both arms having been broken off. Historian
372:
decisively captured Dura-Europos in 165 AD and greatly enlarged it as their easternmost stronghold in
5941:
5767:
5202:
2011:
2002:, also explored the ruins. On March 30, 1920, a soldier digging a trench uncovered brilliantly fresh
1796:
of 210 offers salutation to Septimus Severus, Caracalla, and Geta. The construction was managed by a
1678:
1214:
868:
851:(c. 379). J. M. Unvala wrote that "The fortress of Doura-Eropos is mentioned by ancient authors like
836:
613:
261:
4194:
3303:
2038:
1458:
1086:
273:
5971:
5827:
5817:
5772:
5712:
5637:
Teicher, J. L. (1963). "Ancient Eucharistic Prayers in Hebrew (Dura-Europos Parchment D. Pg. 25)".
4967:
4946:
4310:
3757:
2291:
2222:
2031:
1801:
1706:
1515:
was found in the sanctuary, with either a cult image or a dedicatory relief on it. The stele shows
1485:
1358:
1339:
1283:
1271:
1139:
pointed out that they were Christian Eucharistic prayers, so closely connected with the prayers in
903:
regarding the dating and place, and notes that "Dura is specifically described as being 'ruined'":
804:
791:
628:
545:
433:
269:
224:
1534:
1136:
6126:
6108:
6072:
6044:
5683:
5654:
5600:
5592:
5563:
5523:
5399:
5391:
5350:
5266:
5161:
5112:
Yon, Jean-Baptiste (2016). "Women and the Religious Life of Dura-Europos". In Kaizer, Ted (ed.).
4469:
2102:
1742:
1524:
1449:
1176:
980:
888:
800:
658:
643:
356:
5293:
Francis, Eric David (1975b), "Mithraic graffiti from Dura-Europos", in Hinnells, John R. (ed.),
2770:
2257:
World Heritage Sites. In 2011, was again included on that list, with the nearby ancient city of
2155:
1643:, located by the western wall between towers 18 and 19, the last phase of which was dated by an
1135:
scrolls with Hebrew texts have also been unearthed; they resisted meaningful translation until
916:, since the author is clearly writing at a time when the Byzantine emperor controlled the area.
6467:
6423:
6307:
6281:
6144:
5879:
5707:
5613:
5515:
5464:
5444:
5431:
5383:
5230:
5117:
5100:
5079:
5055:
5034:
5028:
5013:
4994:
4923:
4904:
4898:
4883:
4864:
4845:
4821:
4802:
4764:
4745:
4717:
4698:
4688:
4667:
4648:
4638:
4617:
4592:
4547:
4526:
4520:
4498:
4477:
4457:
4431:
4410:
4262:
3988:
3956:
2991:
2956:
1988:
1248:
1193:
1154:
1025:
described the linguistic diversity as follows (from examples of graffiti from the synagogue):
1022:
1000:
992:
900:
856:
708:
585:
581:
569:
541:
537:
499:
5049:
4661:
4583:; Francis, Eric David, ed., trans. (1975), "The Dura Mithraeum", in Hinnells, John R. (ed.),
3400:
3023:
3007:
2972:
6418:
6357:
6286:
5961:
5807:
5792:
5675:
5646:
5584:
5555:
5456:
5375:
5340:
5315:
5258:
5244:"The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art"
5220:
5210:
5151:
4838:'Arṣû and 'Azîzû : a study of the West Semitic "Dioscuri" and the gods of dawn and dusk
4257:
2335:
of 1936 shows on its cover the view from the high escarpment at Dura. Christie, her husband
2313:
2282:
1834:
1644:
1564:
1436:
1379:
1349:
1343:
755:
480:
429:
396:
5857:
4425:
2771:"Archaeology Magazine – Dura-Europos: Crossroad of Cultures – Archaeology Magazine Archive"
2167:
1764:
1499:
1385:
6709:
6372:
6317:
6175:
6018:
5873:
5614:"Dura Europos : A City on the Euphrates and her Economic Importance in the Roman Era"
5191:"Satellite imagery-based monitoring of archaeological site damage in the Syrian civil war"
2511:
2326:
2206:
1929:
1877:
1870:
1738:
984:
700:
573:
557:
532:
377:
360:
328:
2935:
1306:
nearby. A cult standard is depicted between the two deities. Atargatis was the mother of
1007:. In such a multicultural city, languages used by people didn't tell of their ethnicity.
588:
testify. In the 1st century BC, it served as a frontier fortress of the Parthian Empire.
475:
The city was probably built on the site of a previous town; a clay tablet dating to King
5486:
5419:
5206:
4033:
2921:
2235:
similar technologies and approaches throughout the centuries when creating works of art.
1829:), Cumont supposed that the two Dura friezes represented the two primary figures of his
407:
37:
6545:
6057:
5225:
5190:
5069:
4400:
4062:
3731:
3639:
3278:
3095:
2417:
2408:
2403:
2034:
continued until 1937, when funds ran out, with only part of the excavations published.
1551:
1103:
1004:
996:
968:
921:
768:
577:
565:
549:
4950:
1748:
tradition, but they are more crudely done than the paintings of the nearby synagogue.
955:
descended from the original settlers. In the course of its excavation, over a hundred
312:
6673:
6551:
6352:
6134:
5956:
5687:
5604:
5403:
5354:
5295:
Mithraic studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies
5165:
4761:
The Roman military base at Dura-Europos, Syria : an archaeological visualization
4585:
Mithraic studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies
4492:
4404:
2515:
2027:
2003:
1792:
1731:
1653:
945:
895:, a general under Shapur II (309–79) who converted to Christianity and suffered as a
815:
764:
452:
model, with rectangular blocks defined by cross-streets ranged round a large central
288:
257:
185:
5708:"Dura Europos: A City on the Euphrates and her Economic Importance in the Roman Era"
5345:
5328:
3670:
2896:
1970:
1111:. On it there is an inscription in Greek: " the god Yarhibol, Scribonius Moucianus,
456:, took place in the 2nd century BC. The traditional view of Dura-Europos as a great
436:
in Macedonia. In ancient times, either designation stood alone; the combination of "
6461:
6022:
5976:
5951:
5889:
4939:
John Henry Haynes: A Photographer and Archaeologist in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1900
4580:
4568:
4546:. New York, NY: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University.
2336:
2218:
2037:
In 1986 excavations resumed in a joint Franco-Syrian effort under the direction of
2023:
1906:
1787:
1745:
1712:
1275:
976:
964:
632:
617:
460:
is modified by the discoveries of local manufactures and traces of close ties with
457:
369:
332:
265:
3196:
5460:
5215:
4971:
4779:
4632:
4168:
4150:
1857:
Aerial view of Dura in late 1930s. Yale University Art Gallery, negative no. 2184
1286:, which is south of the centre of the city (referred to by the excavators as the
468:, "a name thought to refer to Saladin". In Ottoman times the ruins were known as
6629:
6252:
6185:
6090:
6052:
5787:
5139:
4687:. Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of California. p. 164.
2258:
2151:
1999:
1995:
1445:
1374:
1319:
1164:
1070:
952:
596:
516:
506:ἔνθεν Δοῦρα, Νικάνορος πόλις, κτίσμα Μακεδόνων, ὑπὸ δὲ Ἑλλήνων Εὔρωπος καλεῖται.
449:
373:
324:
130:
5304:"Stratagems, Combat, and "Chemical Warfare" in the Siege Mines of Dura-Europos"
5183:
4634:
The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria
4108:
6231:
6208:
5679:
2090:
1675:
1528:
1453:
864:
795:
340:
316:
A view of the southern wadi and part of the walls of the city of Dura-Europos.
5519:
5435:
5387:
4652:
4461:
4085:
Gunnison, Anne; Passeri, Irma; Mysak, Erin; Brody, Lisa R. (25 August 2020).
157:
144:
17:
6455:
6398:
6062:
3800:
3155:
3153:
2550:
2217:
excavation and consolidated with polyvinyl acetate by the expedition artist
1975:
1913:
1809:
1783:
1779:
1727:
1719:
town reveals that the history of the early Church was not simply a story of
1665:
1640:
1559:
1555:
1539:
1489:
1430:
1299:
1132:
1112:
1099:
1091:
1075:
1053:
956:
937:
896:
848:
647:
488:
476:
344:
6245:
5987:
5234:
5104:
4702:
1052:
use the Seleucid calendar. Among the literary texts there is a fragment by
5093:
Welles, C. Bradford; Fink, Robert O; Gilliam, J. F; Henning, W. B (1959).
4739:
2085:
Among the archaeological finds were astonishingly well-preserved arms and
1730:
room are probably the most ancient Christian paintings in existence. The "
747:
Roman countermeasure bolstered the wall and prevented it from collapsing.
6576:
6502:
6337:
6213:
6203:
6193:
6167:
6116:
6080:
5319:
4543:
Edge of empires : pagans, Jews, and Christians at Roman Dura-Europos
4474:
The history of the Holy Mar Maʻin with a guide to the Persian martyr acts
4338:
4091:
Mummy Portraits of Roman Egypt: Emerging Research from the APPEAR Project
2094:
1958:
1720:
1716:
1686:
1649:
1252:
1244:
1108:
1015:
852:
783:
736:
364:
5094:
4682:
2225:, analyzed them and produced a comprehensive report. Also at that time,
1239:
was built in 33 BC and, according to the inscriptions, was dedicated to
608:
concepts toward new formulas in which regional traditions, particularly
6623:
6592:
6539:
6519:
6403:
6332:
6312:
6276:
5703:"Dura-Europos: Excavating Antiquity" at the Yale University Art Gallery
5658:
5527:
5503:
5303:
5270:
5178:
4103:
3279:"Julius Terentius Performing a Sacrifice – Yale University Art Gallery"
2343:, who designed the cover, had visited Dura-Europos on 8 November 1934.
2098:
2015:
1838:
1637:
1547:
1546:
Multiple images of Greco-Roman deities were also found. Among them are
1520:
1426:
1402:
1370:
1315:
1291:
1257:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1141:
988:
960:
949:
776:
772:
685:
654:
561:
461:
441:
411:
The Palmyrene Gate, the principal entrance to the city of Dura-Europos.
5596:
5567:
5543:
5395:
5156:
2159:
Parthians, Sasanians, and later by Roman heavy cavalry. Archaeologist
843:, dating from the fifth century, that a Christian (perhaps Byzantine)
6615:
6604:
6598:
6533:
6508:
6489:
6478:
6442:
6413:
6408:
6377:
6362:
6261:
6223:
4278:"Via Satellite, Tracking The Plunder Of Middle East Cultural History"
2277:
Looting of Dura-Europos, 2011–2015, satellite images by DigitalGlobe.
2254:
2086:
1893:
1822:
1657:
1307:
1159:
1065:
1057:
1011:
876:
860:
844:
760:
713:
689:
624:
5650:
5262:
1935:
c. 232–256 AD: House converted into a Christian chapel and decorated
1656:, who found that it contains a forecourt and house of assembly with
1090:
Altar of Yarhibol with Greek inscription by Scribonius Moucianus, a
5588:
5559:
5379:
4763:(First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
4738:
Gaborit, Justine (11 January 2018). "Doura-Europos (Syrie) – E14".
3075:
3073:
1353:
The female protective deity of Palmyra from the Temple of the Gadde
1318:
language), that is addressed to the god of the city of Hatra named
818:, the field director at Dura-Europos in the 1930s, opened his book
688:. There were shrines, dating from the 1st century AD, dedicated to
6570:
6562:
6497:
6472:
6367:
6347:
6322:
6198:
6157:
2272:
2200:
2166:
2057:
1969:
1886:
c. 33 BC: Dura becomes a Parthian provincial administrative centre
1852:
1763:
1755:
1696:
1670:
1661:
1621:
1585:
1580:
1569:
1533:
1512:
1498:
1471:
1435:
1406:
1384:
1366:
1348:
1311:
1303:
1295:
1287:
1270:
1262:
1219:
1192:
1085:
1041:
972:
931:
723:
595:
553:
536:
gradually became occupied, and the influx of new inhabitants with
453:
406:
352:
311:
120:
5448:
5182:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
4406:
The Inner Lives of Ancient Houses: An Archaeology of Dura-Europos
4107:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3760:. Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. 23 September 2011
3452:. Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. 23 September 2011
3358:"A Melting Pot at the Intersection of Empires for Five Centuries"
920:
Another piece of evidence is a single coin, of the Roman emperor
6586:
6527:
6342:
4903:(9 ed.). United States of America: Macmillan. p. 166.
4616:. Chestnut Hill, Mass.: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College.
2655:
2653:
1516:
1410:
1390:
1240:
787:
681:
391:
It was looted and mostly destroyed between 2011 and 2014 by the
336:
5991:
5726:
5722:
4125:"An ancient Roman shield gets a makeover thanks to a Yale team"
1938:
238 AD: Graffito stating "Persians descended on us" was written
4282:
2253:
In 1999, Dura-Europos was included on the "Tentative List" of
2101:
of the desert". Finds from Dura-Europos are on display in the
1778:
Also partially preserved by the defensive embankment, was the
1197:
Bust of a woman, probably Artemis, from the Temple of Artemis.
4637:. Religions in the Graeco–Roman World. Vol. 138. Brill.
4476:(1st Gorgias Press ed.). Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.
2694:
2692:
1950:
post-254 AD: Defensive embankment built to bolster city walls
420:
Originally a fortress, the city was founded around 300 BC as
3036:
3034:
3032:
2429:
The tablet was found in the wall of the Temple of Atargatis.
1228:
There were at least three Palmyric temples in the city. The
807:, set it in 256, following the destruction of Dura-Europos.
735:
The buttressing of the walls would be tested in 256 AD when
4844:. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
4306:"Here Are the Ancient Sites ISIS Has Damaged and Destroyed"
2853:"Buried Soldiers May Be Victims of Ancient Chemical Weapon"
2724:
2722:
879:
Mar Mu'ain, who lived in the time of Shapur II as follows:
5575:
Rostovtzeff, M. (1933). "Hadad and Atargatis at Palmyra".
1883:
c. 65–19 BC: City walls constructed, including some towers
1224:
The sacrifice of Konon, wall painting in the Temple of Bel
5189:
Casana, Jesse; Laugier, Elise Jakoby (30 November 2017).
3758:"Painted Panel of the Winged Goddess of Victory, or Nike"
2396:
1994:
British troops under Captain Murphy, in the aftermath of
1469:
with the same titles, and Julius Julianus, of A.D. 251".
494:
The earliest mention of Dura-Europos can be found in the
4452:
Bonatz, Dominik; Kühne, Hartmut; Mahmoud, As'ad (1998).
3256:
3244:
3232:
3220:
3183:
3159:
3144:
343:
90 metres (300 feet) above the southwestern bank of the
4991:
Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation
2983:
2981:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2709:
2707:
5668:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
5184:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
4109:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3922:
3920:
3918:
3916:
3327:
3325:
2285:, Dura-Europos was looted and mostly destroyed by the
2205:
Wooden shield with scenes from the Iliad, painting by
4232:
AAAS – The World's Largest General Scientific Society
3581:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3392:
3390:
2834:
The description of the fall is heavily dependent on (
1626:
David anointed by Samuel, painting from the synagogue
1511:
was a small sanctuary built against the city wall. A
1361:
was a double temple dedicated to the patron deities (
1302:, with a lion on either side of her, and her husband
1145:
that he was able to fill lacunae in the light of the
3598:
3596:
3594:
3268:(Dura inscription No. 939, Rostovtzeff et al. 1944).
2794:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2579:
1519:
seated on the right and a donor who appears to be a
847:
lived there during the time of the Sassanid emperor
6614:
6561:
6518:
6488:
6441:
6432:
6391:
6300:
6269:
6260:
6222:
6184:
6166:
6143:
6125:
6107:
6089:
6071:
6043:
6036:
5934:
5913:
5865:
5760:
4863:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
4253:"Loot, sell, bulldoze: Isis grinds history to dust"
4169:"Mari & Europos-Dura sites of Euphrates Valley"
2616:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2524:, December 15, 1996, last updated December 2, 2011.
2121:
Graffito showing a warrior on a horse in full armor
2062:
Statue of Aphrodite with a turtle found in the city
1701:
Procession of women, painting from the house church
1314:is shown by a visitor's inscription, in Hatran (an
302:
294:
279:
253:
243:
238:
230:
220:
212:
204:
196:
191:
181:
173:
136:
126:
111:
6695:Populated places disestablished in the 3rd century
6690:Populated places established in the 4th century BC
5447:; Price, Jonathan J; Wasserstein, David J (eds.).
4713:Terracotta Figurines and Plaques from Dura-Europos
3938:
907:Fiey is more plausible in his suggestion that the
5544:"A Bacchic Graffito from the Dolicheneum at Dura"
4801:. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
4540:Chi, Jennifer Y.; Heath, Sebastian, eds. (2011).
875:. It is also mentioned in the Acts of the Syrian
1179:compared the ancient city with modern New York:
4797:Hillers, Delbert R.; Cussini, Eleonora (1995).
4063:"Scutum (Shield) – Yale University Art Gallery"
3554:
3304:"Altar Dedicated to the Palmyrene God Iarhibol"
1440:Relief with figure of Iarhibol from Dolicheneum
663:
4922:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
4276:Amos, Deborah; Meuse, Alison (10 March 2015).
4087:"Painted Roman Wood Shields from Dura-Europos"
3793:"Dura-Europos, 'Pompeii of the Syrian Desert'"
3626:
3530:
2924:. January 19, 2009 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
2846:
2844:
1606:‘bd wmwd’ mlwk’ br šwdy tdmry’ lnmsys šnt 556
803:, set the event in 253; while others, such as
6003:
5738:
5487:"Dura-Europos: The Parchments and the Papyri"
5114:Religion, society and culture at Dura-Europos
4900:A History of World Societies, Combined Volume
4409:. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
4379:Religion, Society and Culture at Dura-Europos
4214:
627:occupied the city for a couple of years: the
8:
5078:. New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
4597:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4381:, Cambridge University Press, 2016, p. 13 f.
4118:
4116:
3987:. Oxford, England: Oxbow Books. p. 28.
3955:. Oxford, England: Oxbow Books. p. 25.
3482:
3308:Institute for the Study of the Ancient World
3096:"Ceiling Tile with Heliodoros, an Actuarius"
3090:
3088:
2683:
2671:
2659:
2533:
1652:assault in 256. It was uncovered in 1932 by
544:names alongside descendants of the original
355:. Dura-Europos was founded around 300 BC by
30:
4610:Dura-Europos : crossroads of antiquity
4494:Dura-Europos : crossroads of antiquity
4080:
4078:
4076:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3566:
2698:
1919:c. 165–200 AD: House converted to synagogue
692:, to Palmyrene gods, and to local deities.
448:. Its rebuilding as a great city after the
6438:
6266:
6040:
6010:
5996:
5988:
5856:
5745:
5731:
5723:
4057:
4055:
3907:
3132:
1660:walls depicting people and animals, and a
1373:. She sits between two figures, wearing a
483:'s times, 1900 BC, refers to the place as
36:
29:
5508:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte
5344:
5224:
5214:
5155:
4491:Brody, Lisa R.; Hoffman, Gail L. (2011).
3821:
2728:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2471:
2461:, p. 68) has thrown this into doubt.
2458:
2154:were found at the site. As the historian
347:river. It is located near the village of
3846:
3356:Wilford, John Noble (19 December 2011).
3120:
3040:
3003:
2987:
2952:
2353:Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL
1849:Timeline of known events at Dura-Europos
1503:The stele from the Temple of Zeus Kyrios
1035:temple of Azzanathana, documents of the
6031:With correspondence to modern geography
5449:"Religion and language in Dura-Europos"
4329:Sidebottom, Harry (September 6, 2017).
3926:
3858:
3833:
3778:
3671:"Dura Europos – Godesses [sic]"
3343:
2835:
2810:
2713:
2496:
2369:
2358:List of cities of the ancient Near East
2111:
1862:
1760:Cumont and Rostovtzeff in the Mithraeum
1685:images. The paintings are preserved at
1600:Σουδαίου Παλμυρηνὸς εὐξάμενος ἀνέθηκεν
1452:and the god called Zeus Helios Mithras
1189:Greco-Roman, Palmyrene, and local cults
5443:Kaizer, Ted (2009). Cotton, Hannah M;
5030:Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen
4590:
4191:"Fondazione Benetton Studi e Ricerche"
3895:
3883:
3870:
3718:
3706:
3694:
3585:
3542:
3470:
3424:
3396:
3381:
3064:
3052:
3019:
2757:
2644:
2632:
2599:
2570:
891:describes the story of Mu'Ain as "The
790:, in 253. The sixth-century historian
767:, producing a cloud of poisonous gas,
600:Dura-Europos general excavations plan.
5144:Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal
5116:. Cambridge: Yale Classical Studies.
4920:The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337
4009:"Heavy metal from the ancient Romans"
3978:
3976:
3974:
3972:
3614:
3602:
3518:
3506:
3436:
3412:
3331:
3171:
3079:
2968:
2822:
2798:
2745:
2620:
2416:
2402:
1429:and local Syrian deity Azzanathkona (
1326:, which may be an old name for Dura.
7:
5297:, Manchester UP, pp. II.424–445
4820:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
1251:, dates from 33 BC (year 279 of the
754:The siege was notable for the early
428:by Greeks in honor of the origin of
91:
63:
5713:Dura-Europos: Past, Present, Future
4897:McKay, John; Hill, Bennett (2011).
4587:, Manchester UP, pp. I.151–214
4430:. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic.
3732:"Nike or Winged Goddess of Victory"
3494:
2851:Pappas, Stephanie (March 8, 2011).
1896:takes Dura and triumphal arch built
1598:Θεᾷ Νεμέσι Ιούλιος Αὐρήλιος Μαλωχὰς
1267:Relief from the Temple of Atargatis
885:madinta hada xarabta metkaria doura
873:Zosimus the Cosmographer of Ravenna
672:Dura-Europos: Crossroad of Cultures
6153:Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
5491:Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies
5048:Watson, Alaric (14 January 2004).
4123:Connolly, Bess (2 November 2015).
2922:"Ancient Persians 'gassed Romans'"
2281:Between 2011 and 2014, during the
2093:garrison at the time of the final
1944:c. 244–254 AD: Synagogue paintings
1928:c. 224 AD: (Parthians defeated by
1925:post-216 AD: City walls heightened
1861:Based on the chronology found in (
1664:shrine in the western wall facing
25:
5548:The American Journal of Philology
5504:"Dating the Fall of Dura-Europos"
4835:Hvidberg-Hansen, Finn O. (2007).
4456:. Damascus: Ministry of Culture.
3197:"The Dura-Europos Gospel Harmony"
1889:c. 17–16 BC: Palmyrene Gate begun
1590:Nike or Winged Goddess of Victory
699:The city received the status of "
432:, who founded it and was born in
6725:Forcibly depopulated communities
6700:Former populated places in Syria
6251:
6244:
5177:
5138:Baird, J.A. (1 September 2020).
5027:Southern, Pat (1 January 2008).
4716:. University of Michigan Press.
4102:
3939:Bonatz, Kühne & Mahmoud 1998
3791:James, Simon (23 January 2009).
3640:"Relief of Aphrodite in a niche"
2138:
2126:
2114:
2081:Homeric shield from Dura-Europos
928:Inhabitants, languages and texts
887:"the ruined city called Doura".
90:
83:
62:
55:
5577:American Journal of Archaeology
5346:10.4467/20800909EL.22.029.16524
5308:American Journal of Archaeology
5140:"The Ruination of Dura-Europos"
4973:The Excavations at Dura-Europos
4968:Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovitch
4684:The stone and plaster sculpture
4149:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage.
3450:"Thymiaterion (Incense Burner)"
1869:c. 300 BC: Dura founded by the
376:, until it was captured by the
5813:Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona
5485:Kilpatrick, George D. (1964).
5051:Aurelian and the Third Century
4352:Darman, Peter (May 29, 2011).
4171:. UNESCO World Heritage Centre
3201:www.earlychristianwritings.com
2308:(2008), the first book in the
1961:, the population was deported.
1922:c. 211 AD: Dura a Roman colony
1476:Head, perhaps of Zeus Megistos
1418:Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona
883:"from the fortress of Doura";
1:
4941:. Istanbul: Kayık Yayıncılık.
4818:The discovery of Dura-Europos
4784:. Yale University Art Gallery
4040:. Yale University Art Gallery
3738:. Yale University Art Gallery
3646:. Yale University Art Gallery
3102:. Yale University Art Gallery
3082:, pp. 5–6, Introduction.
2871:"Gas Warfare at Dura-Europos"
2312:series by the Oxford scholar
1947:253 AD: First Sassanid attack
1899:121 AD: Parthians regain Dura
1827:la forme romaine du mazdeisme
1798:centurio principe praepositus
1294:(portico) in front and three
948:society, ruled by a tolerant
820:The Discovery of Dura-Europos
637:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166
5461:10.1017/CBO9780511641992.011
5368:The Journal of Roman Studies
5216:10.1371/journal.pone.0188589
5012:. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
4989:Smith II, Andrew M. (2013).
4304:Curry, Andrew (2015-09-01).
4155:UNESCO World Heritage Centre
2760:, pp. 445–452, 467–472.
2397:
2010:. The American archeologist
1941:c. 240 AD: Mithraeum rebuilt
1010:Dura-Europos was founded by
416:Foundation and early history
234:Hellenistic, Parthian, Roman
6652:UNESCO World Heritage Sites
6099:Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa
5947:Robert du Mesnil du Buisson
5926:Siege of Dura-Europos (256)
5639:The Jewish Quarterly Review
4993:. Oxford University Press.
4937:Ousterhout, Robert (2011).
4522:Monuments of Syria: A Guide
4424:Baird, Jennifer A. (2018).
2179:A painted semi-cylindrical
2107:Yale University Art Gallery
1815:Yale University Art Gallery
1393:, from the Temple of Adonis
1155:Greek harmony of the gospel
43:Temple of Bel, Dura-Europos
6751:
6659:Legacy of the Roman Empire
5542:Porter, Howard N. (1948).
3627:Hillers & Cussini 1995
3531:Hillers & Cussini 1995
2418:[ˈduːraeu̯ˈroːpʊs]
2389:
2074:
1771:
1704:
1629:
893:History of Ma'in of Sinjar
709:tunneling under such walls
6647:
6242:
6029:
5854:
5718:100 years of Dura Europos
5680:10.1017/S0041977X00090984
5502:MacDonald, David (1986).
5099:. Yale University Press.
5096:The Parchments and papyri
4878:Lönnqvist, Minna (2008).
4710:Downey, Susan B. (2003).
4681:Downey, Susan B. (1977).
4215:Casana & Laugier 2017
2547:"History of Dura Europos"
2404:[ˈduːraewroːˈpos]
1774:Mithraeum of Dura-Europos
1768:Relief from the Mithraeum
1168:, but independent of it.
967:, have revealed texts in
841:Life of the Martyr Mu'Ain
306:No, closed due to the war
49:
35:
6715:3rd-century Christianity
5362:Jones, A. H. M. (1955).
5242:Gutmann, Joseph (1988).
5008:Sommer, Michael (2005).
4952:Dura-europos And Its Art
4778:Ingholt, Harald (1954).
4631:Dirven, Lucinda (1999).
4575:. Yale University Press.
3898:, p. I.183, n. 174.
3886:, p. I.183, n. 174.
3882:Rostovtzeff, quoted. by
3483:Brody & Hoffman 2011
2684:Brody & Hoffman 2011
2672:Brody & Hoffman 2011
2660:Brody & Hoffman 2011
2534:Brody & Hoffman 2011
2341:Robin Halliday Macartney
2173:Scutum from Dura-Europos
2077:Scutum from Dura-Europos
1974:View of excavations and
1558:. One of the reliefs of
995:(proto-Arabic dialect),
975:(the latter including a
99:Dura-Europos (Near East)
6654:; Proposed; in Danger
6448:Palestinian territories
5848:Palace of the Dux Ripae
5838:Temple of Zeus Megistos
5453:From Hellenism to Islam
5418:Hopkins, Clark (1947).
4976:. Yale University Press
4918:Millar, Fergus (1993).
4882:. Oxford: Archaeopres.
4859:Iovine, Giulio (2023).
4816:Hopkins, Clark (1979).
4799:Palmyrene Aramaic texts
2940:archive.archaeology.org
2901:archive.archaeology.org
2775:archive.archaeology.org
2227:Yale School of Forestry
2054:Palace of the Strategos
1494:strategos kai epistates
1482:Temple of Zeus Megistos
756:use of chemical weapons
623:In 114 AD, the Emperor
6720:300s BC establishments
6194:Aelia Augusta Aeclanum
5921:Cohors XX Palmyrenorum
5618:Topoi. Orient-Occident
4013:yalealumnimagazine.com
2457:More recent analysis (
2412:
2278:
2237:
2209:
2199:
2176:
2063:
1979:
1858:
1806:Legio XVI Flavia Firma
1769:
1761:
1702:
1681:
1632:Dura-Europos synagogue
1627:
1594:The dedication reads:
1591:
1575:
1543:
1504:
1477:
1441:
1423:Cohors XX Palmyrenorum
1394:
1354:
1279:
1268:
1225:
1198:
1186:
1158:account—comparable to
1129:
1095:
1048:
1037:Cohors XX Palmyrenorum
1032:
941:
918:
829:
729:
677:
629:Third Cyrenaica legion
601:
592:Rebuilding of the city
529:
509:
446:Seleucia on the Tigris
412:
317:
5967:Carl Hermann Kraeling
5833:Temple of Zeus Kyrios
5612:Ruffing, Kai (2007).
5424:The Classical Journal
5327:James, Simon (2022).
5302:James, Simon (2011).
4759:James, Simon (2019).
4744:. Presses de l'Ifpo.
4265:on November 10, 2014.
3983:James, Simon (2004).
3951:James, Simon (2009).
3822:McKay & Hill 2011
2521:Encyclopaedia Iranica
2332:Murder in Mesopotamia
2325:The first edition of
2276:
2232:
2204:
2194:
2170:
2061:
2018:, was alerted. Major
1973:
1957:to the Sassanid king
1905:164 AD: Romans under
1865:, pp. 269–271).
1856:
1767:
1759:
1700:
1674:
1625:
1589:
1574:Relief of the Nemesis
1573:
1537:
1523:man. The stele has a
1509:Temple of Zeus Kyrios
1502:
1475:
1439:
1388:
1352:
1274:
1266:
1223:
1196:
1181:
1124:
1089:
1045:
1027:
935:
905:
824:
727:
720:Siege and destruction
599:
521:
504:
410:
315:
244:Excavation dates
102:Show map of Near East
6730:Roman sites in Syria
5942:James Henry Breasted
5843:Temple of Zeus Theos
5320:10.3764/aja.115.1.69
5251:Artibus et Historiae
4519:Burns, Ross (2009).
3555:Hvidberg-Hansen 2007
3497:, pp. 103, 110.
3121:Chi & Heath 2011
3041:Chi & Heath 2011
2071:Archaeological finds
2012:James Henry Breasted
1831:Les Mages hellénisés
1679:crossing the Red Sea
1389:Relief with the god
1335:Temple of Zeus Theos
1184:distinct identities.
963:fragments, and many
881:men madabra da doura
869:Ammianus Marcellinus
837:Ammianus Marcellinus
531:In 113 BC, the
285:destroyed and looted
262:James Henry Breasted
5972:Michael Rostovtzeff
5828:Temple of the Gadde
5818:Temple of Atargatis
5420:"The Siege of Dura"
5207:2017PLoSO..1288589C
4470:Brock, Sebastian P.
4311:National Geographic
4067:artgallery.yale.edu
4038:artgallery.yale.edu
3736:artgallery.yale.edu
3644:artgallery.yale.edu
3545:, pp. 258–262.
3533:, pp. 172–173.
3473:, pp. 279–280.
3310:. 23 September 2011
3283:artgallery.yale.edu
3147:, pp. 191–412.
3100:artgallery.yale.edu
2292:National Geographic
2045:Archaeological site
2032:Michael Rostovtzeff
1802:Legio IIII Scythica
1707:Dura-Europos church
1448:was a temple where
1359:Temple of the Gadde
1284:Temple of Atargatis
944:Dura-Europos was a
792:Peter the Patrician
382:siege in 256–257 AD
270:Michael Rostovtzeff
225:Classical antiquity
154: /
32:
27:Ancient Syrian city
6735:Seleucus I Nicator
6475:: Emmaus Nicopolis
6458:: Aelia Capitolina
6270:Of legion veterans
6127:Gallia Narbonensis
6109:Gallia Lugdunensis
6073:Britannia Inferior
6045:Britannia Superior
5900:Statue of Hercules
4401:Baird, Jennifer A.
3849:, p. II.424f.
3362:The New York Times
3257:Welles et al. 1959
3245:Welles et al. 1959
3233:Welles et al. 1959
3221:Welles et al. 1959
3184:Welles et al. 1959
3160:Welles et al. 1959
3145:Welles et al. 1959
2536:, pp. 95–110.
2448:Aramaic and Arabic
2299:In popular culture
2279:
2210:
2177:
2103:Deir ez-Zor Museum
2064:
1980:
1909:again control Dura
1902:160 AD: Earthquake
1859:
1843:Syrian auxiliaries
1770:
1762:
1743:Hellenistic Jewish
1703:
1682:
1628:
1592:
1576:
1544:
1525:Palmyrene language
1505:
1478:
1450:Jupiter Dolichenus
1442:
1395:
1355:
1280:
1269:
1226:
1199:
1177:John Noble Wilford
1096:
1049:
942:
914:terminus ante quem
889:Sebastian P. Brock
801:John F. Drinkwater
730:
659:Kingdom of Palmyra
602:
498:by the geographer
413:
359:, who founded the
357:Seleucus I Nicator
318:
303:Public access
71:Shown within Syria
6667:
6666:
6643:
6642:
6639:
6638:
6468:Caesarea Maritima
6392:Possible colonies
6282:Caesarea Maritima
6240:
6239:
6199:Castra Taurinorum
6145:Germania Inferior
5985:
5984:
5798:Necropolis Temple
5470:978-0-511-64199-2
5445:Hoyland, Robert G
5280:on 27 August 2018
5157:10.16995/traj.421
5123:978-1-107-12379-3
5085:978-0-87099-179-0
5061:978-1-134-90815-8
5040:978-1-84725-034-6
5033:. A&C Black.
5019:978-3-515-08724-7
5000:978-0-19-986110-1
4929:978-0-674-77886-3
4910:978-0-312-66691-0
4889:978-1-4073-0303-1
4851:978-87-7304-311-0
4827:978-0-300-02288-9
4808:978-0-8018-5278-7
4770:978-0-19-874356-9
4751:978-2-35159-539-8
4723:978-0-472-11237-1
4673:978-90-5693-032-5
4644:978-90-04-11589-7
4623:978-1-892850-16-4
4553:978-0-691-15468-8
4532:978-0-85771-489-3
4504:978-1-892850-16-4
4483:978-1-59333-222-8
4437:978-1-4725-3087-5
4416:978-0-19-968765-7
3994:978-1-84217-371-8
3962:978-1-84217-371-8
3384:, pp. 45–47.
3223:, pp. 73–74.
3186:, pp. 69–70.
3174:, pp. 65–66.
3162:, pp. 74–75.
3123:, pp. 74–96.
3043:, pp. 71–72.
2877:. 7 November 2009
2875:World Archaeology
2662:, pp. 95–96.
2395:
2089:belonging to the
1989:John Henry Haynes
1953:256–257 AD: Dura
1711:The Dura-Europos
1463:centurio princeps
1237:Necropolis Temple
1120:Dura parchment 19
1023:George Kilpatrick
901:Jean Maurice Fiey
857:Isidore of Kharax
822:with an epigram:
500:Isidore of Charax
496:Parthian Stations
487:. It is the only
351:, in present-day
310:
309:
158:34.747°N 40.730°E
74:Show map of Syria
16:(Redirected from
6742:
6685:Coloniae (Roman)
6439:
6419:Emmaus Nicopolis
6287:Aelia Capitolina
6267:
6255:
6248:
6041:
6012:
6005:
5998:
5989:
5962:Susan M. Hopkins
5860:
5808:Temple of Aphlad
5803:Temple of Adonis
5793:House of Priests
5747:
5740:
5733:
5724:
5691:
5662:
5633:
5631:
5629:
5608:
5571:
5538:
5536:
5534:
5498:
5481:
5479:
5477:
5439:
5414:
5412:
5410:
5374:(1–2): 201–202.
5358:
5348:
5323:
5298:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5279:
5273:. Archived from
5248:
5238:
5228:
5218:
5201:(11): e0188589.
5181:
5176:
5174:
5172:
5159:
5127:
5108:
5089:
5065:
5044:
5023:
5004:
4985:
4983:
4981:
4963:
4961:
4959:
4942:
4933:
4914:
4893:
4874:
4855:
4843:
4831:
4812:
4793:
4791:
4789:
4774:
4755:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4706:
4677:
4656:
4627:
4615:
4602:
4596:
4588:
4576:
4564:
4562:
4560:
4536:
4515:
4513:
4511:
4487:
4465:
4448:
4446:
4444:
4420:
4382:
4377:Ted Kaizer, ed.
4375:
4369:
4368:
4366:
4364:
4349:
4343:
4342:
4331:Fire in the East
4326:
4320:
4319:
4314:. Archived from
4301:
4295:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4273:
4267:
4266:
4261:. Archived from
4258:The Sunday Times
4249:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4239:
4224:
4218:
4212:
4206:
4205:
4203:
4202:
4193:. Archived from
4187:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4176:
4165:
4159:
4158:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4120:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4082:
4071:
4070:
4059:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4030:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3980:
3967:
3966:
3948:
3942:
3936:
3930:
3924:
3911:
3905:
3899:
3893:
3887:
3880:
3874:
3868:
3862:
3856:
3850:
3843:
3837:
3831:
3825:
3819:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3799:. Archived from
3788:
3782:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3728:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3698:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3667:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3651:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3589:
3583:
3570:
3567:Rostovtzeff 1933
3564:
3558:
3552:
3546:
3540:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3498:
3492:
3486:
3480:
3474:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3446:
3440:
3434:
3428:
3422:
3416:
3410:
3404:
3394:
3385:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3353:
3347:
3341:
3335:
3329:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3300:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3275:
3269:
3266:
3260:
3254:
3248:
3242:
3236:
3230:
3224:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3193:
3187:
3181:
3175:
3169:
3163:
3157:
3148:
3142:
3136:
3130:
3124:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3092:
3083:
3077:
3068:
3062:
3056:
3050:
3044:
3038:
3027:
3017:
3011:
3001:
2995:
2985:
2976:
2966:
2960:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2893:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2882:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2848:
2839:
2832:
2826:
2820:
2814:
2808:
2802:
2796:
2779:
2778:
2767:
2761:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2732:
2726:
2717:
2711:
2702:
2699:Rostovtzeff 1977
2696:
2687:
2681:
2675:
2669:
2663:
2657:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2603:
2597:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2549:. Archived from
2543:
2537:
2531:
2525:
2510:Pierre Leriche,
2508:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2468:
2462:
2455:
2449:
2446:
2440:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2406:
2400:
2394:romanized:
2393:
2391:
2374:
2314:Harry Sidebottom
2305:Fire in the East
2283:Syrian Civil War
2175:, 3rd century AD
2142:
2130:
2118:
1565:House of Priests
1399:Temple of Adonis
1380:Seleukos Nikator
675:
430:Seleucus Nikator
397:Syrian Civil War
169:
168:
166:
165:
164:
159:
155:
152:
151:
150:
147:
103:
94:
93:
87:
75:
66:
65:
59:
40:
33:
21:
6750:
6749:
6745:
6744:
6743:
6741:
6740:
6739:
6705:Parthian cities
6670:
6669:
6668:
6663:
6635:
6610:
6601:: Philippopolis
6557:
6530:: Arca Caesarea
6514:
6484:
6446:
6434:
6428:
6387:
6296:
6256:
6250:
6249:
6236:
6218:
6180:
6176:Augusta Emerita
6162:
6139:
6121:
6103:
6085:
6067:
6032:
6025:
6016:
5986:
5981:
5930:
5909:
5874:Feriale Duranum
5861:
5852:
5756:
5751:
5699:
5694:
5665:
5651:10.2307/1453566
5636:
5627:
5625:
5611:
5574:
5541:
5532:
5530:
5501:
5484:
5475:
5473:
5471:
5442:
5417:
5408:
5406:
5361:
5326:
5301:
5292:
5283:
5281:
5277:
5263:10.2307/1483314
5246:
5241:
5188:
5170:
5168:
5137:
5124:
5111:
5092:
5086:
5070:Weitzmann, Kurt
5068:
5062:
5047:
5041:
5026:
5020:
5007:
5001:
4988:
4979:
4977:
4966:
4957:
4955:
4947:Rostovtzeff, M.
4945:
4936:
4930:
4917:
4911:
4896:
4890:
4877:
4871:
4858:
4852:
4841:
4834:
4828:
4815:
4809:
4796:
4787:
4785:
4777:
4771:
4758:
4752:
4737:
4728:
4726:
4724:
4709:
4695:
4680:
4674:
4659:
4645:
4630:
4624:
4613:
4606:
4589:
4579:
4567:
4558:
4556:
4554:
4539:
4533:
4518:
4509:
4507:
4505:
4490:
4484:
4468:
4451:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4423:
4417:
4399:
4390:
4385:
4376:
4372:
4362:
4360:
4351:
4350:
4346:
4328:
4327:
4323:
4303:
4302:
4298:
4288:
4286:
4275:
4274:
4270:
4251:
4250:
4246:
4237:
4235:
4226:
4225:
4221:
4213:
4209:
4200:
4198:
4189:
4188:
4184:
4174:
4172:
4167:
4166:
4162:
4148:
4147:
4143:
4133:
4131:
4122:
4121:
4114:
4095:
4093:
4084:
4083:
4074:
4061:
4060:
4053:
4043:
4041:
4032:
4031:
4027:
4017:
4015:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3995:
3982:
3981:
3970:
3963:
3950:
3949:
3945:
3937:
3933:
3925:
3914:
3908:Ousterhout 2011
3906:
3902:
3894:
3890:
3881:
3877:
3869:
3865:
3857:
3853:
3844:
3840:
3832:
3828:
3820:
3816:
3806:
3804:
3790:
3789:
3785:
3777:
3773:
3763:
3761:
3756:
3755:
3751:
3741:
3739:
3730:
3729:
3725:
3717:
3713:
3705:
3701:
3693:
3689:
3679:
3677:
3675:users.stlcc.edu
3669:
3668:
3659:
3649:
3647:
3638:
3637:
3633:
3625:
3621:
3613:
3609:
3601:
3592:
3584:
3573:
3565:
3561:
3553:
3549:
3541:
3537:
3529:
3525:
3517:
3513:
3505:
3501:
3493:
3489:
3481:
3477:
3469:
3465:
3455:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3443:
3435:
3431:
3423:
3419:
3411:
3407:
3395:
3388:
3380:
3376:
3366:
3364:
3355:
3354:
3350:
3342:
3338:
3330:
3323:
3313:
3311:
3302:
3301:
3297:
3287:
3285:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3255:
3251:
3243:
3239:
3231:
3227:
3219:
3215:
3205:
3203:
3195:
3194:
3190:
3182:
3178:
3170:
3166:
3158:
3151:
3143:
3139:
3133:Kilpatrick 1964
3131:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3105:
3103:
3094:
3093:
3086:
3078:
3071:
3063:
3059:
3051:
3047:
3039:
3030:
3018:
3014:
3002:
2998:
2986:
2979:
2967:
2963:
2951:
2947:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2905:
2903:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2880:
2878:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2857:livescience.com
2850:
2849:
2842:
2833:
2829:
2821:
2817:
2809:
2805:
2797:
2782:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2756:
2752:
2744:
2735:
2727:
2720:
2712:
2705:
2697:
2690:
2682:
2678:
2670:
2666:
2658:
2651:
2643:
2639:
2635:, pp. 3–4.
2631:
2627:
2619:
2606:
2598:
2577:
2573:, pp. 1–2.
2569:
2565:
2556:
2554:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2532:
2528:
2512:D. N. MacKenzie
2509:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2488:
2482:
2478:
2469:
2465:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2443:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2424:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2349:
2327:Agatha Christie
2310:Warrior of Rome
2301:
2271:
2269:Looting by ISIS
2250:
2245:
2223:Fogg Art Museum
2207:Herbert J. Gute
2146:
2145:Sasanian helmet
2143:
2134:
2131:
2122:
2119:
2083:
2075:Main articles:
2073:
2056:
2047:
1985:
1968:
1912:c. 168–171 AD:
1851:
1776:
1754:
1739:the three Marys
1709:
1695:
1634:
1620:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1467:cohors equitata
1215:Susan B. Downey
1191:
1174:
930:
813:
811:After the siege
722:
676:
674:by Carly Silver
670:
594:
533:Parthian Empire
507:
418:
405:
378:Sasanian Empire
361:Seleucid Empire
272:
268:
264:
260:
248:
162:
160:
156:
153:
148:
145:
143:
141:
140:
107:
106:
105:
104:
101:
100:
97:
96:
95:
78:
77:
76:
73:
72:
69:
68:
67:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6748:
6746:
6738:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6672:
6671:
6665:
6664:
6662:
6661:
6655:
6648:
6645:
6644:
6641:
6640:
6637:
6636:
6634:
6633:
6627:
6620:
6618:
6612:
6611:
6609:
6608:
6602:
6596:
6590:
6584:
6579:
6574:
6567:
6565:
6559:
6558:
6556:
6555:
6549:
6543:
6537:
6531:
6524:
6522:
6516:
6515:
6513:
6512:
6506:
6500:
6494:
6492:
6486:
6485:
6483:
6482:
6476:
6470:
6465:
6459:
6452:
6450:
6436:
6433:Locations with
6430:
6429:
6427:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6395:
6393:
6389:
6388:
6386:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6335:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6304:
6302:
6301:Of late Empire
6298:
6297:
6295:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6279:
6273:
6271:
6264:
6258:
6257:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6235:
6234:
6228:
6226:
6220:
6219:
6217:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6190:
6188:
6182:
6181:
6179:
6178:
6172:
6170:
6164:
6163:
6161:
6160:
6155:
6149:
6147:
6141:
6140:
6138:
6137:
6131:
6129:
6123:
6122:
6120:
6119:
6113:
6111:
6105:
6104:
6102:
6101:
6095:
6093:
6087:
6086:
6084:
6083:
6077:
6075:
6069:
6068:
6066:
6065:
6060:
6058:Lindum Colonia
6055:
6049:
6047:
6038:
6034:
6033:
6030:
6027:
6026:
6017:
6015:
6014:
6007:
6000:
5992:
5983:
5982:
5980:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5938:
5936:
5935:Archaeologists
5932:
5931:
5929:
5928:
5923:
5917:
5915:
5911:
5910:
5908:
5907:
5905:Homeric shield
5902:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5869:
5867:
5863:
5862:
5855:
5853:
5851:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5764:
5762:
5758:
5757:
5752:
5750:
5749:
5742:
5735:
5727:
5721:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5698:
5697:External links
5695:
5693:
5692:
5674:(1): 133–149.
5663:
5634:
5609:
5589:10.2307/498042
5572:
5560:10.2307/291317
5539:
5499:
5482:
5469:
5440:
5430:(5): 251–259.
5415:
5380:10.2307/298783
5359:
5324:
5299:
5290:
5239:
5186:
5134:
5133:
5129:
5128:
5122:
5109:
5090:
5084:
5072:, ed. (1979).
5066:
5060:
5045:
5039:
5024:
5018:
5005:
4999:
4986:
4964:
4943:
4934:
4928:
4915:
4909:
4894:
4888:
4875:
4869:
4856:
4850:
4832:
4826:
4813:
4807:
4794:
4775:
4769:
4756:
4750:
4735:
4722:
4707:
4693:
4678:
4672:
4657:
4643:
4628:
4622:
4604:
4577:
4565:
4552:
4537:
4531:
4525:. I.B.Tauris.
4516:
4503:
4488:
4482:
4466:
4449:
4436:
4421:
4415:
4396:
4395:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4383:
4370:
4354:"The Parthian"
4344:
4321:
4318:on 2015-09-04.
4296:
4268:
4244:
4219:
4207:
4182:
4160:
4151:"Dura Europos"
4141:
4112:
4072:
4051:
4025:
4000:
3993:
3968:
3961:
3943:
3931:
3912:
3900:
3888:
3875:
3873:, p. 184.
3863:
3861:, p. 201.
3851:
3838:
3836:, p. 200.
3826:
3824:, p. 166.
3814:
3783:
3771:
3749:
3723:
3721:, p. 214.
3711:
3709:, p. 164.
3699:
3687:
3657:
3631:
3629:, p. 171.
3619:
3617:, p. 110.
3607:
3590:
3571:
3559:
3547:
3535:
3523:
3521:, p. 134.
3511:
3499:
3487:
3485:, p. 204.
3475:
3463:
3441:
3429:
3427:, p. 200.
3417:
3415:, p. 111.
3405:
3386:
3374:
3348:
3336:
3321:
3295:
3270:
3261:
3249:
3237:
3225:
3213:
3188:
3176:
3164:
3149:
3137:
3125:
3113:
3084:
3069:
3057:
3045:
3028:
3012:
2996:
2977:
2961:
2945:
2927:
2913:
2888:
2862:
2840:
2827:
2815:
2803:
2780:
2762:
2750:
2748:, p. 149.
2733:
2731:, p. 100.
2729:Lönnqvist 2008
2718:
2703:
2701:, p. 288.
2688:
2686:, p. 102.
2676:
2674:, p. 100.
2664:
2649:
2637:
2625:
2604:
2575:
2563:
2538:
2526:
2516:"Dura Europos"
2495:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2476:
2472:MacDonald 1986
2463:
2459:MacDonald 1986
2450:
2441:
2431:
2422:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2360:
2355:
2348:
2345:
2300:
2297:
2270:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2262:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2214:Homeric Shield
2148:
2147:
2144:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2113:
2072:
2069:
2055:
2052:
2046:
2043:
2039:Pierre Leriche
2004:wall-paintings
1984:
1981:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1910:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1874:
1850:
1847:
1772:Main article:
1753:
1750:
1723:persecution".
1705:Main article:
1694:
1691:
1630:Main article:
1619:
1616:
1596:
1459:Juno Dolichena
1190:
1187:
1173:
1172:Religious life
1170:
1104:Jennifer Baird
1005:Middle-Persian
929:
926:
922:Constantius II
812:
809:
769:sulfur dioxide
721:
718:
668:
593:
590:
578:Middle Persian
417:
414:
404:
401:
363:as one of the
308:
307:
304:
300:
299:
296:
292:
291:
281:
277:
276:
274:Pierre Leriche
255:
254:Archaeologists
251:
250:
245:
241:
240:
236:
235:
232:
228:
227:
222:
218:
217:
214:
210:
209:
206:
202:
201:
198:
194:
193:
189:
188:
183:
179:
178:
175:
171:
170:
163:34.747; 40.730
138:
134:
133:
128:
124:
123:
113:
109:
108:
98:
89:
88:
82:
81:
80:
79:
70:
61:
60:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
47:
46:
41:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6747:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6677:
6675:
6660:
6656:
6653:
6650:
6649:
6646:
6631:
6628:
6625:
6622:
6621:
6619:
6617:
6613:
6606:
6603:
6600:
6597:
6594:
6591:
6588:
6585:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6572:
6569:
6568:
6566:
6564:
6560:
6553:
6550:
6547:
6544:
6541:
6538:
6535:
6532:
6529:
6526:
6525:
6523:
6521:
6517:
6510:
6507:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6495:
6493:
6491:
6487:
6480:
6477:
6474:
6471:
6469:
6466:
6463:
6460:
6457:
6454:
6453:
6451:
6449:
6444:
6440:
6437:
6431:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6396:
6394:
6390:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6378:Philippopolis
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6343:Arca Caesarea
6341:
6339:
6336:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6305:
6303:
6299:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6274:
6272:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6259:
6254:
6247:
6233:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6225:
6221:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6191:
6189:
6187:
6183:
6177:
6174:
6173:
6171:
6169:
6165:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6150:
6148:
6146:
6142:
6136:
6135:Narbo Martius
6133:
6132:
6130:
6128:
6124:
6118:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6110:
6106:
6100:
6097:
6096:
6094:
6092:
6088:
6082:
6079:
6078:
6076:
6074:
6070:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6050:
6048:
6046:
6042:
6039:
6035:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6013:
6008:
6006:
6001:
5999:
5994:
5993:
5990:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5957:Clark Hopkins
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5939:
5937:
5933:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5918:
5916:
5912:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5875:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5864:
5859:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5823:Temple of Bel
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5765:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5748:
5743:
5741:
5736:
5734:
5729:
5728:
5725:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5700:
5696:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5645:(2): 99–109.
5644:
5640:
5635:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5540:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5505:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5483:
5472:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5441:
5437:
5433:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5416:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5314:(1): 69–101.
5313:
5309:
5305:
5300:
5296:
5291:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5257:(17): 25–29.
5256:
5252:
5245:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5187:
5185:
5180:
5167:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5136:
5135:
5131:
5130:
5125:
5119:
5115:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5097:
5091:
5087:
5081:
5077:
5076:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5057:
5054:. Routledge.
5053:
5052:
5046:
5042:
5036:
5032:
5031:
5025:
5021:
5015:
5011:
5006:
5002:
4996:
4992:
4987:
4975:
4974:
4969:
4965:
4954:
4953:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4935:
4931:
4925:
4921:
4916:
4912:
4906:
4902:
4901:
4895:
4891:
4885:
4881:
4876:
4872:
4870:9781009183130
4866:
4862:
4857:
4853:
4847:
4840:
4839:
4833:
4829:
4823:
4819:
4814:
4810:
4804:
4800:
4795:
4783:
4782:
4776:
4772:
4766:
4762:
4757:
4753:
4747:
4743:
4742:
4736:
4725:
4719:
4715:
4714:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4694:0-917956-04-4
4690:
4686:
4685:
4679:
4675:
4669:
4665:
4664:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4640:
4636:
4635:
4629:
4625:
4619:
4612:
4611:
4605:
4600:
4594:
4586:
4582:
4581:Cumont, Franz
4578:
4574:
4570:
4569:Cumont, Franz
4566:
4555:
4549:
4545:
4544:
4538:
4534:
4528:
4524:
4523:
4517:
4506:
4500:
4496:
4495:
4489:
4485:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4450:
4439:
4433:
4429:
4428:
4422:
4418:
4412:
4408:
4407:
4402:
4398:
4397:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4380:
4374:
4371:
4359:
4355:
4348:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4325:
4322:
4317:
4313:
4312:
4307:
4300:
4297:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4272:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4259:
4254:
4248:
4245:
4233:
4229:
4223:
4220:
4216:
4211:
4208:
4197:on 2011-04-03
4196:
4192:
4186:
4183:
4170:
4164:
4161:
4156:
4152:
4145:
4142:
4130:
4126:
4119:
4117:
4113:
4110:
4105:
4092:
4088:
4081:
4079:
4077:
4073:
4068:
4064:
4058:
4056:
4052:
4039:
4035:
4034:"Horse Armor"
4029:
4026:
4014:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3996:
3990:
3986:
3979:
3977:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3964:
3958:
3954:
3947:
3944:
3940:
3935:
3932:
3928:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3917:
3913:
3910:, p. 41.
3909:
3904:
3901:
3897:
3896:Francis 1975a
3892:
3889:
3885:
3884:Francis 1975a
3879:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3855:
3852:
3848:
3847:Francis 1975b
3842:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3827:
3823:
3818:
3815:
3803:on 2009-01-23
3802:
3798:
3794:
3787:
3784:
3780:
3775:
3772:
3759:
3753:
3750:
3737:
3733:
3727:
3724:
3720:
3715:
3712:
3708:
3703:
3700:
3696:
3691:
3688:
3676:
3672:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3632:
3628:
3623:
3620:
3616:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3563:
3560:
3556:
3551:
3548:
3544:
3539:
3536:
3532:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3515:
3512:
3509:, p. 18.
3508:
3503:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3479:
3476:
3472:
3467:
3464:
3451:
3445:
3442:
3439:, p. 73.
3438:
3433:
3430:
3426:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3393:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3375:
3363:
3359:
3352:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3337:
3334:, p. 69.
3333:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3309:
3305:
3299:
3296:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3271:
3265:
3262:
3259:, p. 47.
3258:
3253:
3250:
3247:, p. 12.
3246:
3241:
3238:
3234:
3229:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3214:
3202:
3198:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3180:
3177:
3173:
3168:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3114:
3101:
3097:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3004:Southern 2008
3000:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2988:Southern 2008
2984:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2965:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2953:Smith II 2013
2949:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2928:
2923:
2917:
2914:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2889:
2876:
2872:
2866:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2828:
2825:, p. 23.
2824:
2819:
2816:
2812:
2807:
2804:
2800:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2772:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2754:
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2747:
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2738:
2734:
2730:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2685:
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2677:
2673:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2626:
2622:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2564:
2553:on 2009-01-23
2552:
2548:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2454:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2435:
2432:
2426:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2399:
2398:Doûra Eurōpós
2390:Δοῦρα Εὐρωπός
2387:
2383:
2379:
2376:also spelled
2373:
2370:
2363:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2334:
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2328:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2306:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2287:Islamic State
2284:
2275:
2268:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2187:
2182:
2174:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2141:
2136:
2129:
2124:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2082:
2078:
2070:
2068:
2060:
2053:
2051:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2028:Clark Hopkins
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2008:Temple of Bel
2005:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1990:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1875:
1873:as a fortress
1872:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1855:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1794:
1793:tabula ansata
1789:
1785:
1781:
1775:
1766:
1758:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1733:
1732:Good Shepherd
1729:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1708:
1699:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1654:Clark Hopkins
1651:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1633:
1624:
1617:
1615:
1610:
1595:
1588:
1584:
1582:
1572:
1568:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1501:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1486:Zeus Megistos
1483:
1474:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1438:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1351:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1230:Temple of Bel
1222:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1195:
1188:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1156:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1134:
1131:Fragments of
1128:
1123:
1121:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1044:
1040:
1038:
1031:
1026:
1024:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
951:
947:
939:
934:
927:
925:
923:
917:
915:
910:
904:
902:
899:". He quotes
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
833:
828:
823:
821:
817:
816:Clark Hopkins
810:
808:
806:
805:Alaric Watson
802:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
757:
752:
748:
744:
741:
738:
733:
726:
719:
717:
715:
710:
704:
702:
697:
693:
691:
687:
683:
673:
667:
662:
660:
656:
651:
649:
645:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
621:
619:
615:
611:
607:
598:
591:
589:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
534:
528:
526:
520:
518:
513:
508:
503:
501:
497:
492:
490:
486:
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478:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
415:
409:
402:
400:
398:
394:
393:Islamic State
389:
385:
383:
379:
375:
371:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
314:
305:
301:
297:
293:
290:
289:Islamic State
286:
282:
278:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:Clark Hopkins
256:
252:
246:
242:
237:
233:
229:
226:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
190:
187:
186:Syrian Desert
184:
180:
176:
172:
167:
139:
135:
132:
129:
125:
122:
118:
114:
110:
86:
58:
48:
44:
39:
34:
19:
18:Doura Europos
6680:Dura-Europos
6582:Dura-Europos
6581:
6542:: Heliopolis
6435:modern names
6383:Dura-Europos
6382:
6023:Ancient Rome
5977:Herbert Gute
5952:Franz Cumont
5890:Sator Square
5880:Parchment 24
5872:
5754:Dura-Europos
5753:
5671:
5667:
5642:
5638:
5626:. Retrieved
5624:(1): 399–411
5621:
5617:
5583:(1): 58–63.
5580:
5576:
5554:(1): 27–41.
5551:
5547:
5531:. Retrieved
5514:(1): 45–68.
5511:
5507:
5494:
5490:
5474:. Retrieved
5452:
5427:
5423:
5407:. Retrieved
5371:
5367:
5336:
5332:
5311:
5307:
5294:
5282:. Retrieved
5275:the original
5254:
5250:
5198:
5194:
5169:. Retrieved
5147:
5143:
5113:
5095:
5074:
5050:
5029:
5009:
4990:
4978:. Retrieved
4972:
4956:. Retrieved
4951:
4938:
4919:
4899:
4879:
4860:
4837:
4817:
4798:
4786:. Retrieved
4780:
4760:
4740:
4727:. Retrieved
4712:
4683:
4662:
4633:
4609:
4584:
4572:
4557:. Retrieved
4542:
4521:
4508:. Retrieved
4493:
4473:
4453:
4441:. Retrieved
4427:Dura-Europos
4426:
4405:
4378:
4373:
4363:September 4,
4361:. Retrieved
4357:
4347:
4330:
4324:
4316:the original
4309:
4299:
4287:. Retrieved
4281:
4271:
4263:the original
4256:
4247:
4236:. Retrieved
4234:. 2014-12-16
4231:
4222:
4210:
4199:. Retrieved
4195:the original
4185:
4173:. Retrieved
4163:
4154:
4144:
4132:. Retrieved
4128:
4094:. Retrieved
4090:
4066:
4042:. Retrieved
4037:
4028:
4016:. Retrieved
4012:
4003:
3984:
3952:
3946:
3934:
3927:Gaborit 2018
3903:
3891:
3878:
3866:
3859:Hopkins 1979
3854:
3841:
3834:Hopkins 1979
3829:
3817:
3805:. Retrieved
3801:the original
3796:
3786:
3779:Gutmann 1988
3774:
3762:. Retrieved
3752:
3740:. Retrieved
3735:
3726:
3714:
3702:
3690:
3678:. Retrieved
3674:
3648:. Retrieved
3643:
3634:
3622:
3610:
3562:
3557:, p. 7.
3550:
3538:
3526:
3514:
3502:
3490:
3478:
3466:
3454:. Retrieved
3444:
3432:
3420:
3408:
3377:
3365:. Retrieved
3361:
3351:
3344:Teicher 1963
3339:
3312:. Retrieved
3307:
3298:
3286:. Retrieved
3282:
3273:
3264:
3252:
3240:
3235:, p. 6.
3228:
3216:
3204:. Retrieved
3200:
3191:
3179:
3167:
3140:
3128:
3116:
3104:. Retrieved
3099:
3060:
3055:, p. 2.
3048:
3015:
2999:
2964:
2948:
2939:
2930:
2916:
2904:. Retrieved
2900:
2891:
2879:. Retrieved
2874:
2865:
2856:
2836:Hopkins 1947
2830:
2818:
2811:Ruffing 2007
2806:
2774:
2765:
2753:
2716:, p. 2.
2714:Ingholt 1954
2679:
2667:
2647:, p. 3.
2640:
2628:
2566:
2555:. Retrieved
2551:the original
2541:
2529:
2519:
2484:spectroscopy
2479:
2466:
2453:
2444:
2434:
2425:
2413:Dūra Eurōpus
2382:Dura-Europus
2381:
2378:Dura Europos
2377:
2372:
2337:Max Mallowan
2330:
2324:
2320:The Parthian
2319:
2318:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2290:
2280:
2243:Modern times
2238:
2233:
2219:Herbert Gute
2211:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2178:
2150:Two sets of
2149:
2084:
2065:
2048:
2036:
2024:Franz Cumont
1993:
1986:
1907:Lucius Verus
1863:Hopkins 1979
1860:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1797:
1791:
1788:Lucius Verus
1777:
1746:iconographic
1736:
1725:
1713:house church
1710:
1693:House church
1683:
1635:
1612:
1597:
1593:
1577:
1545:
1506:
1493:
1479:
1466:
1462:
1443:
1415:
1396:
1362:
1356:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1281:
1276:Thymiaterion
1234:
1227:
1200:
1182:
1175:
1163:
1153:
1151:
1146:
1140:
1137:J.L. Teicher
1130:
1125:
1119:
1117:
1097:
1081:
1069:
1061:
1050:
1033:
1028:
1020:
1009:
977:sator square
965:inscriptions
946:cosmopolitan
943:
919:
913:
908:
906:
892:
884:
880:
840:
834:
830:
825:
819:
814:
782:
753:
749:
745:
734:
731:
705:
698:
694:
678:
671:
664:
652:
644:Khabur River
641:
633:Lucius Verus
622:
618:Parthian art
603:
530:
524:
522:
514:
510:
505:
502:(c. 26 BC).
495:
493:
484:
474:
469:
465:
458:caravan city
438:Dura-Europos
437:
425:
421:
419:
390:
386:
339:built on an
321:Dura-Europos
320:
319:
266:Franz Cumont
249:1986–present
31:Dura-Europos
6464:: Ptolemais
6158:Mogontiacum
6091:Roman Dacia
6053:Camulodunum
5788:Dolicheneum
5628:23 December
5533:23 December
5476:22 December
5455:: 235–254.
5409:17 December
5339:: 301–328.
5284:23 December
5171:21 December
4980:23 December
4958:23 December
4788:23 December
4729:22 December
4559:23 December
4510:23 December
4443:23 December
4175:26 December
4134:22 December
4096:22 December
4044:22 December
4018:22 December
3871:Cumont 1975
3807:23 December
3764:26 December
3742:26 December
3719:Dirven 2011
3707:Downey 1977
3695:Downey 1977
3680:26 December
3650:20 December
3586:Porter 1948
3543:Cumont 1939
3471:Sommer 2005
3456:26 December
3425:Dirven 1999
3397:Dirven 1999
3382:Downey 2003
3367:26 December
3314:20 December
3288:18 December
3206:22 December
3106:20 December
3065:Unvala 1930
3053:Dirven 1999
3020:Watson 2004
2906:22 December
2881:22 December
2758:Millar 1993
2645:Dirven 1999
2633:Dirven 1999
2600:Kaizer 2009
2571:Dirven 1999
2386:Koinē Greek
2248:Recognition
2161:Simon James
2152:horse armor
2133:Horse armor
2020:excavations
2000:Arab Revolt
1996:World War I
1966:Archaeology
1916:first built
1876:c. 113 BC:
1446:Dolicheneum
1375:mural crown
1165:Diatessaron
1071:Diatessaron
1056:and one by
953:aristocracy
794:wrote that
759:mixture of
646:and modern
635:during the
517:Paul Kosmin
470:Qan Qal'esi
450:Hippodamian
395:during the
374:Mesopotamia
325:Hellenistic
161: /
137:Coordinates
131:Middle East
6674:Categories
6657:See also:
6632:: Seleucia
6595:: Laodicea
6481:: Neronias
6328:Heliopolis
6232:Singidunum
6209:Mediolanum
5497:: 215–225.
4358:Amazon.com
4339:0141032294
4289:19 January
4238:2018-08-23
4201:2010-08-06
3615:Baird 2018
3603:Jones 1955
3519:Baird 2018
3507:Baird 2018
3437:Baird 2018
3413:Baird 2018
3399:, p.
3332:Baird 2018
3172:Baird 2018
3080:Brock 2008
3022:, p.
3006:, p.
2990:, p.
2971:, p.
2969:Klijn 1999
2955:, p.
2823:Baird 2014
2799:Baird 2020
2746:Burns 2009
2621:James 2022
2557:2009-02-18
2492:References
2156:Lisa Brody
2014:, then at
1676:Israelites
1542:in a niche
1538:Relief of
1529:Baalshamin
1454:Turmasgade
1021:Historian
950:Macedonian
865:Ptolemaeus
796:Odaenathus
610:Babylonian
564:dialects (
560:, various
546:Macedonian
341:escarpment
283:Partially
239:Site notes
216:256–257 AD
177:settlement
149:40°43′48″E
146:34°44′49″N
6626:: Antioch
6607:: Palmyra
6536:: Berytus
6456:Jerusalem
6292:Ptolemais
6214:Placentia
6204:Florentia
6063:Londinium
5885:Route map
5866:Artefacts
5783:Synagogue
5778:Mithraeum
5761:Buildings
5688:195514175
5605:191373119
5520:0018-2311
5436:0009-8353
5404:250354239
5388:1753-528X
5355:253178894
5166:225238878
4666:. BRILL.
4653:0927-7633
4462:638775287
1976:Euphrates
1930:Sassanids
1914:Mithraeum
1880:take Dura
1878:Parthians
1871:Seleucids
1835:Zoroaster
1810:Sasanians
1780:Mithraeum
1752:Mithraeum
1728:baptistry
1666:Jerusalem
1641:synagogue
1618:Synagogue
1560:Aphrodite
1556:Aphrodite
1540:Aphrodite
1521:Palmyrene
1490:Strategos
1431:Atargatis
1300:Atargatis
1133:parchment
1113:chiliarch
1100:actuarius
1092:chiliarch
1054:Herodotus
981:Palmyrene
957:parchment
938:actuarius
897:confessor
849:Shapur II
648:Abu Kamal
620:is felt.
570:Palmyrene
489:cuneiform
477:Hammurabi
466:Salihiyeh
345:Euphrates
295:Ownership
280:Condition
247:1922–1937
213:Abandoned
208:c. 300 BC
6630:Samandağ
6577:Damascus
6573:: Bostra
6511:: Gerasa
6505:: Gadara
6503:Umm Qais
6424:Neronias
6373:Neapolis
6338:Damascus
6318:Seleucia
6308:Laodicea
6168:Hispania
6117:Lugdunum
6081:Eboracum
6019:Colonies
5333:Electrum
5235:29190783
5195:PLOS ONE
5150:(1): 2.
5132:Articles
4970:(1977).
4949:(1938).
4593:citation
4571:(1939).
4472:(2008).
4403:(2014).
4129:YaleNews
3797:le.ac.uk
3495:Yon 2016
2347:See also
2197:visible.
2105:and the
2095:Sasanian
1998:and the
1983:Overview
1959:Shapur I
1892:116 AD:
1804:and the
1784:Mithraic
1717:garrison
1687:Damascus
1658:frescoed
1650:Sasanian
1405:and the
1324:Da-wa-ra
1253:Seleucid
1249:Palmyric
1245:Yarhibol
1109:Yarhibol
1076:Arsacian
1047:gesture.
1016:graffiti
1001:Parthian
993:Safaitic
853:Polybius
784:Shapur I
740:besieged
737:Shapur I
669:—
586:Safaitic
582:Parthian
485:Da-ma-ra
380:after a
365:Diadochi
329:Parthian
231:Cultures
197:Material
117:Salhiyah
112:Location
6624:Antakya
6593:Latakia
6589:: Emesa
6554:: Tyrus
6548:: Sidon
6540:Baalbek
6520:Lebanon
6445:and the
6404:Ascalon
6358:Sebaste
6333:Palmyra
6313:Antioch
6277:Berytus
5914:History
5768:Brothel
5659:1453566
5528:4435949
5271:1483314
5226:5708659
5203:Bibcode
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4703:4389924
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2016:Baghdad
2006:in the
1839:Ostanes
1833:, i.e.
1800:of the
1645:Aramaic
1548:Nemesis
1427:Artemis
1403:pronaos
1371:Antioch
1316:Aramaic
1292:pronaos
1258:Palmyra
1211:Artemis
1207:naiskos
1203:temenos
1147:Didache
1142:Didache
1062:de luxe
997:Pahlavi
989:Hatrian
961:papyrus
909:History
827:desert.
777:sulphur
773:bitumen
701:colonia
686:Artemis
655:Osroene
614:Iranian
562:Aramaic
542:Iranian
538:Semitic
462:Palmyra
442:Antioch
434:Europos
426:Europos
403:History
349:Salhiyé
335:border
287:by the
221:Periods
205:Founded
200:Various
192:History
6710:303 BC
6616:Turkey
6605:Tadmur
6599:Shahba
6534:Beirut
6509:Jerash
6490:Jordan
6479:Banias
6443:Israel
6414:Gadara
6409:Gerasa
6363:Bostra
6262:Levant
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6186:Italia
6037:Europe
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2181:scutum
2087:armour
1894:Trajan
1823:zodiac
1638:Jewish
1554:, and
1340:insula
1308:Adonis
1160:Tatian
1149:text.
1066:Tatian
1058:Appian
1003:, and
985:Hebrew
877:Martyr
861:Lucian
845:hermit
761:sulfur
714:glacis
690:Mithra
625:Trajan
584:, and
574:Syriac
566:Hatran
558:Hebrew
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323:was a
298:Public
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6498:Petra
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6348:Sidon
6323:Emesa
5684:S2CID
5655:JSTOR
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5593:JSTOR
5564:JSTOR
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5400:S2CID
5392:JSTOR
5351:S2CID
5278:(PDF)
5267:JSTOR
5247:(PDF)
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1721:pagan
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1367:Tyche
1363:gaddē
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1320:Šamaš
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1304:Hadad
1288:agora
1012:Greek
973:Latin
969:Greek
765:pitch
606:Greek
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4365:2018
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4291:2016
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3208:2021
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2171:The
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