1361:
1313:
1325:
1373:
378:
1337:
259:
1349:
278:
its instruction register. Interestingly, the instructions, particularly the addresses, could be altered within the computer's arithmetic unit, just like any other data. This capability paved the way for indirect or indexed addressing. The instruction cache also alleviated the issue found with the IBM 650, which required optimizing the arrangement of instructions on the drum to prevent its latency from slowing the program down.
481:
286:
528:
1385:
38:
274:, adding 8192 words of memory, equivalent to 49 kB (64 tracks of 8 blocks of 16 words of 48 bits), a fairly generous amount for that time. Up to three instructions could be stored per word on the drum, allowing up to 25,000 instructions to fit. This new version was called Gamma 3 A.E.T (Armoire Extension Tambour, or Drum Extension Cabinet).
267:
Programmed
Calculator) extension added to the 604. However, while this would lift the limititation of 64 programming steps and allow arbitrary-sized programs to run, the programs were still not executed in main memory, so their execution speed depended on the reading speed of the punched cards containing the program.
1277:
In the late 1950s, Professor Louis
Bolliet conducted the first university programming courses in France using Gamma 3 ET machines, marking a shift from manufacturer-provided courses to an academic framework. These courses are now available online and have been instrumental in the creation of Gamma 3
381:
Structure of the Gamma 3 computer from a 1950s programming course. Blocks of code and data from the drum feed memory groups (bottom half). The first three groups (0,1,2) are executable and called Series. Series 3 is mapped to the plug board, while Group 3 serves as an I/O buffer. Machine code from a
247:
execution varied from 0.6 ms to 10 ms, with a mean time 2 ms. The Gamma 3 was connected to the tabulator through a cable plugged in place of its connection panel (where the program instructions were coded); thus, the program would now reside and run on the Gamma 3 computer rather than the tabulator.
456:
in a separate, dedicated cabinet (ET). These eight memories are grouped in pairs to form four "groups". Groups 0, 1, and 2 are executable and referred to as "series", with each series serving as an instruction cache holding 48 instructions. The plugboard, when used, constitutes series 3. This would
338:
The Gamma 3 was a commercial success in Europe, with approximately 1200 units sold, outselling the IBM 650. The expanded Gamma 3 compared very favorably to its competitor: the memory space was four times larger and could store twelve times more instructions in memory, while the processing speed was
277:
The programs were stored in the A.E.T.'s memory in groups of 48 instructions, referred to as "series". When needed, a series was moved from the drum to an intermediate memory group acting as an instruction cache, which allowed the computer to fetch each instruction one by one and transfer them into
548:
of the program, complete it with mnemonics, manually convert the mnemonics to machine code using a table, then write down the resulting code on a coding sheet for review before punching it onto cards. After loading the program into the drum memory, the operator panel would allow the programmer to
471:
cylinder, 15 or 30 cm long, rotating at about 2,750 rpm. It hosts 64 or 128 tracks of 8 blocks, with each block containing a group, therefore the drum can store up to 1024 series, or 49,152 instructions. The recording density approached 300 bits per inch, using phase modulation, which was a
266:
A first step towards a stored program configuration occurred with the Card
Program (Programme Par Carte, PPC), introducing the capability to execute a program loaded from punched cards rather than hard wired onto a connection panel. IBM also experimented with a similar concept with the CPC (Card
246:
The machine has a clock speed of 281 kHz, higher than the 50 kHz of the IBM 604, and more importantly, several orders of magnitude faster than electromechanical devices. The execution time for adding two numbers was 680 μs, while multiplications took 5.7ms. The duration of instructions
556:
hosted in the circulating memories of the ET cabinet, where the code is fetched and decoded by the processor (the Gamma 3 cabinet). Short programs can be wired on the plug board, although most commonly they would be punched on cards and fed to the drum memory to be executed as a stored program.
281:
As a last upgrade, the magnetic drum was doubled in height in 1957, reaching 16,384 words (98 kB) or 50,000 instructions, and a standalone operator console was included, featuring an oscilloscope CRT display and push buttons to examine memory and single step the code. This new configuration was
463:
Finally, the drum memory serves as a large swapping device hosting both code and data, and fed from punch cards. On the Gamma 3, code isn't executed from the drum but from the first three groups of the circulating memories. While this increases the execution speed, it also makes far jumps more
250:
Nevertheless, while the Gamma 3 was programmable through a removable connection panel similar to those of tabulators, it remained a peripheral device of the tabulator rather than the other way around. Furthermore, despite being electronic, binary, and having a
1266:
As an uncommon feature for the 1950s, the Gamma 3 was optionally equipped with a hardwired floating-point library. This model, known as the Gamma 3M, was intended for scientific calculations. Eventually, this capability became built into the Gamma 3 ET.
227:
These tabulators performed arithmetic operations through a series of digit wheels driven by an electro-mechanical device. Only incrementation, and thus addition, was supported, making subtractions and multiplications particularly slow.
531:
Sample program on a coding sheet. The first column shows the labels and jumps. The next columns show the program register (NL), the mnemonics, the content of the shift register (MD) and the content of the first four
231:
In order to increase the calculation speed and avoid delaying the reading of punched cards during more complex operations, an accelerator capable of overcoming electro-mechanical limitations became a necessity.
243:. The computer was designed using logical circuits comprising around 400 vacuum tubes, 8000 germanium diodes and 48-bit registers made of electric delay lines to further reduce the dependency on vacuum tubes.
289:
Complete Gamma ET system at the SICOB exposition in Paris, late 1950s. The operator console is visible in the foreground, along with two tabulating machines. The CPU and memory cabinets are in the background.
1372:
1360:
2228:
305:. Gradually, the electromechanical unit record equipment gave way to electronic computers. The Gamma 3 ET positioned itself as a competitor to the IBM 650 computer, which had a very similar design.
1263:
words) for business data processing, or in binary mode (48-bit words) for industrial and scientific computing. Some dedicated instructions, CD and CB, allow the switching between the two modes.
444:
A second type of memory is known as
Circulating Memories, which act as buffers, as their content is meant to be swapped from and to the drum memory. The circulating memories, denoted from
1426:
294:
1217:
Since the plugboard was mapped to series 3, some extensions and subroutines eventually became shipped as pre-wired plugboard programs. One such example was the 'PDF' extension (
460:
Group 3 acts as an I/O buffer. An "Ordonnateur" (ORD) memory cabinet can also be added, providing an extra four groups (4 to 7), each one holding data, none of them executable.
316:
in March 1953. The Gamma 3 and 3 ET were subsequently used both in business data processing within large companies and for scientific calculations, notably at the then-emerging
1211:
Double precision division. Divides the number in M1-M2 by the value of register AD between positions OD and OF. Quotient is written to a part of M2 and the remainder in M1-M2
293:
With its capability to load and execute programs in memory, the Gamma 3 in its AET and ET configurations became the first French commercial stored program computer (although
1270:
Floating-point numbers are represented by 48 bits. The first bit is used for the sign, the next eight bits are used for the exponent, and the next 39 bits are used for the
1895:
1943:
117:
7 registers (48 bits or 12 BCD characters each) using delay line technology. Drum memory (8192 or 16,384 words, 49 to 98 kB) and intermediate memory of 64 or 128 words.
2288:
2017:
The stored signal was in a self-synchronizing, phase modulated mode. Bit density was close to 300 bits per inch, over 50% above the then current state of the art.
1871:
321:
1312:
1228:
The complete descriptions of the instruction set, along with programming examples, can still be found nowadays in some programming courses from the 1950s.
1684:
1324:
2202:
1453:"Compagnie des Machines Bull Launches the Gamma ET, the First Stored-Program Computer Produced for Sale in France : History of Information"
1348:
2298:
1289:
Four examples of the Gamma 3 still exist. One is exhibited at
Technikum museum near Frankfurt, another at the Fédération des Équipes Bull in
1239:. This language, Auto-Programmation Bull (APB) mixed elements of the Gamma 3 assembly language with structured elements of what would become
1915:
1543:
1810:"Picture of a complete Gamma ET featuring the operator console, the Central Processing Unit, drum memories and tabulating machines"
524:, which can either be digits in binary mode or characters in BCD mode. A total of 29 mnemonics are provided in the instruction set.
484:
Original code table from 1959. This helps convert mnemonics to machine code. For instance, instruction CB translates to TO=1,AD=15
409:: Sign Memory. Stores the current arithmetic sign. MC, MD and MS1 all are linked to the accumulator and part of Operator Memory.
1336:
1195:
Double precision multiplication. Multiply M1 by the value of register AD between positions OD and OF, sets the results in M1-M2
2083:
2278:
201:
to computers. The Gamma 3 was a commercial success, eventually selling more than 1200 units and prompting IBM to release the
297:
had built stored program computers earlier). The tabulator now served as an input/output device, while the Gamma 3 became a
1401:
1406:
520:). The TO field specifies the general instruction type, while the three other fields acts as parameters. OD and OF sets
374:). Transfers between them pass through M1. M0 is a special register linked to M1 and not available to the programmer.
437:
In order to reduce the number of electronic tubes, a common source of failures, the registers (common memories) use
2293:
1968:
2283:
1260:
1231:
In the later days of the Gamma 3, a high-level language was implemented by a team of students led by professor
302:
464:
costly, as a page must first be swapped from the drum to the MC memories with a dedicated instruction ("TB").
109:
Drawers of vacuum tubes and germanium diodes plugged into a backplane. 48 bits, bit-serial processor @ 281 kHz
42:
Interior view of the Gamma 3, showing power supplies on the left, and electronic circuit drawers on the right.
1763:
197:
Over the course of its ten-year availability, this machine facilitated the transition from electromechanical
190:(Gamma AET, 1955, then ET, 1957). In its stored-program configurations, the Gamma 3 mostly competed with the
1411:
355:
298:
187:
104:
1705:
1828:
1225:
Decimal), which added two extra instructions: BD and DCC to facilitate the use of floating-point numbers.
347:
The Gamma 3 implements three kind of memories, which all are based on 48-bit words or 12 BCD characters.
67:
Programmable electronic computer (Gamma 3, 1952), then stored-program computer (Gamma 3 AET and ET, 1955)
1256:
198:
2253:
1733:
1089:
Shifts M1, then compare its content to register AD between positions OD and OF. Sets the result to MC
2058:
1654:
208:
The Gamma 3 was succeeded by the lower-end Gamma 10, the mid-range Gamma 30, and the large, high-end
164:
1232:
1118:
Shifts M1, adds M1 to the value of register AD between positions OD and OF, writes the result to M1
1236:
252:
1625:
1378:
Gamma 3 plug board. In stored program configuration, programs are loaded from punch cards instead.
545:
179:
2238:
1293:, France, where it was manufactured, and another one in Museo degli Strumenti per il Calcolo in
549:
examine and deposit data in memory, as well as control the program flow for debugging purposes.
377:
309:
2030:
1384:
2134:
2095:
2008:
1872:"Destin d'objets scientifiques et techniques : L'aventure du Gamma 3 (5/10 - année 2018)"
1539:
1163:
Multiplies the number in M1 by register AD between positions OD and OF, puts the result in M1
1077:
Shifts M1, then compares position OD to 1 and sets the result to the
Comparison Register (MC)
560:
The following table describes the instructions with their mnemonics and related machine code:
453:
438:
1809:
1562:
2126:
2000:
1243:. It eventually proved fairly popular in the Gamma 3 user group and was later ported to the
313:
258:
2233:
1179:
Divides the number in M1 by register AD between positions OD and OF, puts the result in M1
416:
2258:
1591:
1452:
1147:
Shifts M1, subtract M1 from register AD from position OD to OF, writes the result to M1
480:
1896:"APPLICATIONS OF AN ELECTRONIC DIGITAL COMPUTER IN THE DESIGN OF LOW TEMPERATURE PLANT"
1782:
1222:
430:
400:
332:
2243:
2272:
220:
Until the 1950s, Compagnie des
Machines Bull, like its rival IBM, primarily marketed
209:
150:
2263:
2152:
1847:
1836:(in French). Centre National des Arts et Métiers (CNAM). pp. 13 (chapter 12.1).
1479:
255:
instructions set, the Gamma 3 still lacked the ability to store programs in memory.
967:
Resets M1, then transfer register AD to M1 between positions OD and OF. Resets MD.
285:
221:
2249:
FOSDEM: Understanding the Bull GAMMA 3 first generation computer through emulation
1060:
Shifts M1, then copy positions OD to OF to register AD between the same positions
186:, it was gradually enhanced with new features and evolved into a first-generation
17:
938:
Receives data from peripheral (usually a punch card reader) mapped to channel AD
2248:
1271:
489:
393:: Comparison Memory. This register holds the result of a comparison instruction.
325:
271:
236:
168:
2114:
1988:
386:
Besides those generic registers, the Gamma 3 also uses six internal registers:
262:
Gamma 3 units being produced at Bull's Angers plant in France during the 1950s.
527:
2138:
2099:
2012:
2130:
2004:
544:
which were yet to be invented. Instead, the programmer would first create a
537:
468:
339:
generally higher. This success prompted IBM to design the 1401 in response.
2203:"MUSEO DEGLI STRUMENTI PER IL CALCOLO - I Grandi Calcolatori: Gamma 3 BULL"
1281:
The Gamma 3 was the first computer produced in more than a thousand units.
1945:
Understanding the Bull GAMMA 3 first generation computer through emulation
37:
1510:
1421:
1298:
1244:
1240:
202:
2115:"From Gamma 2 to Gamma E.T.: The Birth of Electronic Computing at Bull"
1989:"From Gamma 2 to Gamma E.T.: The Birth of Electronic Computing at Bull"
1416:
541:
350:
The first kind are a group of seven registers at the heart of the CPU.
191:
183:
178:
Originally designed as an electronic accelerator for electromechanical
1290:
540:
in those days, was initially provided, nor high-level languages like
270:
The computer underwent a new upgrade in 1955 with the inclusion of a
457:
later be used for specific extensions shipped as wired subroutines.
382:
Series is then fetched from memory, decoded and executed (top half).
362:
the auxiliary accumulator for double-precision, 96 bits arithmetic.
331:
Bull never sold the Gamma 3 in
America despite its partnership with
2177:
955:
Resets M1, then sets position 0 to 1. Resets MD (shift register).
526:
479:
376:
284:
257:
240:
172:
488:
A Gamma 3 instruction consists of a 16-bit word composed of four
2153:"A first generation tube calculator: BULL GAMMA 3 - technikum29"
1294:
317:
224:
tabulators for inventory management, payroll, and accounting.
2178:"Angers, depuis 56 ans, Bull pionnier en électronique !"
2084:"Algol in France: From Universal Project to Embedded Culture"
870:
Transfers Group AD to/from block OF of track OD of the drum.
1354:
Close-up view of the Gamma 3 vacuum tube electronic circuits
335:
and having a custom version with a 60 Hz power supply.
1259:, capable of operating both in decimal mode (12-character
2031:"CNUM - M14926 : Gamma 3, calculateur électronique"
239:
for their switching speed compared to adding wheels and
235:
Starting in 1949, the Bull
Company became interested in
2259:
Description of the Gamma 3, Fédération des Équipes Bull
1301:, France, houses a unique specimen of the Gamma 3 ET.
370:
are general purpose registers called Common
Memories (
145:
137:
129:
121:
113:
103:
95:
87:
79:
71:
63:
55:
47:
905:Writes the value OF at position OD of register AD
2066:Université de Grenoble - Mathématiques Appliquées
1626:"Bull Gamma 3 ET - Du calculateur à l'ordinateur"
2254:Description of the Gamma 3 on the ACONIT website
1511:"Origins of Architecture and Design of the 1401"
889:Resets register AD between positions OD and OF
403:is used for both BCD and arithmetic operations.
358:and has the adder-subtractor wired to it, with
1848:"Musée virtuel de l'informatique | Gamma 3 ET"
1018:Logical AND between 1 and each position in M1
594:No operation (NOP) if OD and OF are also null
1135:Shifts M1, subtracts 1 to M1 from position 0
848:Switches the ALU to binary (scientific) mode
415:: Line Number, which would now be called the
8:
2229:Technical specifications and instruction set
1048:Sets M1 to zero between positions OD and OF
872:Last position of OF sets T->B or B->T
831:Selects the "seizaine" (16 words) set in OF
429: : Line Number Register, which acts as
30:
732:(jumps back to the address stored in RNL1)
1916:"Information Technology Industry TimeLine"
1706:"IBM Archives: Card-Programmed Calculator"
700:VCS, then stores jump address + 1 to RNL1
562:
308:The first client to receive a Gamma 3 was
282:called Gamma 3 ET, for Extension Tambour.
36:
29:
814:Selects the "octade" (8 words) set in OF
1538:. The MIT Press. pp. 461, chap.12.
1251:Historical and technical particularities
149:Gamma 10 (low end), Gamma 30 (mid-end),
2088:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
1437:
1427:Société d'électronique et d'automatisme
1308:
2289:Computer-related introductions in 1952
2077:
2075:
2052:
2050:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1937:
1935:
1804:
1802:
1297:, Italy. Lastly, the ACONIT museum in
2264:Bull Gamma 3 on the Technikum website
2029:Bull, Compagnie des machines (1952).
1757:
1755:
1753:
1728:
1726:
354:, also called Operator Memory is the
7:
1970:Documentation Extension Bull-Gamma 3
1678:
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1674:
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1645:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1586:
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1557:
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1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1474:
1472:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
780:Sends data to Group 3 (IO register)
763:Sends data to Group 3 (IO register)
667:Jumps to OD + NF if MS1 is positive
1563:"tabulatrice BS120 Bull, chr3inf2,"
2119:Annals of the History of Computing
1993:Annals of the History of Computing
25:
2059:"Cours de Programmation Gamma ET"
1342:Interior view of the Bull Gamma 3
1274:(also commonly called mantissa).
1255:The Gamma 3 features a dual-mode
684:Jumps to address OD of Series OF
641:Jumps to OD + OF if MD != 0
2239:Plug board programming simulator
1383:
1371:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1323:
1311:
1106:Shifts M1, adds 1 to position 0
2234:3D visualization of the Gamma 3
2207:www.fondazionegalileogalilei.it
2113:Leclerc, Bruno (January 1990).
1987:Leclerc, Bruno (January 1990).
1318:Another view of the CPU cabinet
1001:Sets MD with position OD of M2
675:(Variante Changement de Série)
628:Jumps to OD + OF if MD <= 0
175:, France and released in 1952.
125:3kW, fed through 3x 220V inputs
1031:Logical AND between M1 and M2
975:(Alteration Mémoire Décalage)
654:Jumps to OD + OF if MD < 0
454:magnetorestrictive delay lines
1:
2082:Mounier-Kuhn, Pierre (2014).
1655:"Compagnie des machines Bull"
1592:"Compagnie des machines Bull"
1402:List of vacuum-tube computers
2299:Computers designed in France
1942:Ponsard, Christophe (2023).
1876:www.echosciences-grenoble.fr
1457:www.historyofinformation.com
1407:List of Groupe Bull products
922:Copies Group OD to Group OF
713:VCS, then OD + 1 -> RNL2
492:numbers: an operation code (
2244:Online Gamma 3 ET simulator
1976:. IMAG. pp. chap. 5.1.
1814:Federation des Equipes Bull
536:No assembler, often called
169:Compagnie des Machines Bull
51:Compagnie des Machines Bull
2315:
1534:Bashe, Charles J. (1986).
1366:A memory extension cabinet
1187:(Multiplication Complète)
822:(Commutation de Seizaine)
1685:"Arithmétique du Gamma 3"
1155:(Multiplication Réduite)
1039:(Opérateur -> Banale)
946:(Banale -> Operative)
797:Sets the ALU to BCD mode
686:Series must be 0, 1 or 2
552:Instructions reside in a
35:
27:First-generation computer
1330:Details of the CPU racks
992:(Banale -> Décalage)
930:(Introduction Statique)
721:(Variante Retour Serie)
602:(Variante Systématique)
452:, are implemented using
303:Von-Neumann architecture
241:electromechanical relays
163:was an early electronic
2182:Des Mauges en Anjou ...
2131:10.1109/MAHC.1990.10010
2005:10.1109/MAHC.1990.10010
1734:"DBAconit V26.3 :"
1412:Stored program computer
1126:(Soustraction Normale)
1009:(Intersection Logique)
805:(Commutation d'Octade)
619:(Variante Comparaison)
467:The drum consists of a
441:instead of flip-flops.
333:Remington Rand - Univac
299:central processing unit
188:stored program computer
133:155 cm x 150 cm x 68 cm
1920:www.feb-patrimoine.com
1762:Chabrol, Jean (1959).
1659:www.feb-patrimoine.com
1630:www.feb-patrimoine.com
1596:www.feb-patrimoine.com
1567:www.histoireinform.com
1484:www.feb-patrimoine.com
1219:Point Decimal Flottant
1068:(Comparaison Normale)
913:(Groupe -> Groupe)
771:(Extraction Statique)
754:(Extraction Statique)
533:
485:
383:
290:
263:
199:unit records equipment
2279:Vacuum tube computers
2176:ocgall (2016-04-30).
1683:Guyot, Alain (2022).
1536:IBM's Early Computers
861:(Tambour->Banale)
856:(Banale->Tambour)
530:
483:
472:record at that time.
399:: Shift Memory. This
380:
288:
261:
167:. It was designed by
2035:CNAM-MUSEE CM0.4-BUL
1203:(Division Complète)
512:) and an end order (
439:electric delay lines
165:vacuum-tube computer
1237:University of Lille
1171:(Division Réduite)
1097:(Addition Normale)
897:(Constante Banale)
564:
343:Memory organization
180:tabulating machines
32:
2157:www.technikum29.de
563:
534:
504:), a start order (
486:
384:
291:
264:
18:Draft:Bull Gamma 3
2294:Decimal computers
1967:Baumann, Arnaud.
1215:
1214:
839:(Calcul binaire)
788:(Calcul Decimal)
611:Jumps to OD + OF
205:as a competitor.
182:, similar to the
157:
156:
16:(Redirected from
2306:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2199:
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2149:
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2110:
2104:
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2079:
2070:
2069:
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2057:Bolliet, Louis.
2054:
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2041:
2026:
2020:
2019:
1984:
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1964:
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1830:La mécanographie
1824:
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1787:www.columbia.edu
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1624:Leclerc, Bruno.
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1339:
1327:
1315:
565:
498:Type d'Opération
372:Mémoires Banales
40:
33:
21:
2314:
2313:
2309:
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2305:
2304:
2303:
2284:1950s computers
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500:), an address (
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476:Instruction set
431:stack registers
417:Program Counter
345:
310:Crédit Lyonnais
253:Turing-complete
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746:RNL2 -> NL
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730:RNL1 -> NL
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272:magnetic drum
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62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
39:
34:
19:
2210:. Retrieved
2206:
2197:
2186:. Retrieved
2181:
2171:
2160:. Retrieved
2156:
2147:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2091:
2087:
2068:(in French).
2065:
2038:. Retrieved
2034:
2024:
2016:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1969:
1951:. FOSDEM 23.
1944:
1923:. Retrieved
1919:
1910:
1899:. Retrieved
1890:
1879:. Retrieved
1875:
1866:
1855:. Retrieved
1851:
1842:
1829:
1822:
1813:
1790:. Retrieved
1786:
1777:
1771:(in French).
1765:Cours ET-ORD
1764:
1741:. Retrieved
1737:
1714:. Retrieved
1712:. 2003-01-23
1709:
1700:
1694:(in French).
1691:
1662:. Retrieved
1658:
1633:. Retrieved
1629:
1599:. Retrieved
1595:
1570:. Retrieved
1566:
1535:
1529:
1518:. Retrieved
1514:
1487:. Retrieved
1483:
1460:. Retrieved
1456:
1288:
1285:Preservation
1280:
1278:simulators.
1276:
1269:
1265:
1254:
1230:
1227:
1218:
1216:
1200:
1184:
1168:
1152:
1123:
1094:
1065:
1036:
1006:
989:
972:
943:
927:
910:
894:
878:
871:
858:
857:
853:
836:
819:
802:
785:
768:
751:
731:
718:
685:
672:
616:
599:
582:
577:Description
559:
553:
551:
535:
521:
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513:
509:
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501:
497:
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466:
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307:
292:
280:
276:
269:
265:
249:
245:
237:vacuum tubes
234:
230:
226:
222:punched card
219:
207:
196:
177:
160:
158:
88:Discontinued
80:Release date
31:Bull Gamma 3
2184:(in French)
2125:(1): 5–22.
1999:(1): 5–22.
1710:www.ibm.com
1272:significand
585:(Variante)
510:Ordre Début
490:hexadecimal
356:accumulator
326:Air Liquide
212:mainframe.
2273:Categories
2212:2023-07-30
2188:2023-07-22
2162:2023-07-22
2040:2023-08-06
1925:2023-07-22
1901:2023-12-19
1881:2023-07-22
1857:2023-07-22
1792:2023-07-26
1743:2023-07-22
1716:2023-07-22
1664:2023-07-22
1635:2023-07-25
1601:2023-07-22
1572:2023-07-22
1520:2023-07-23
1489:2023-07-23
1462:2023-07-25
1433:References
568:Mnemonics
532:registers.
153:(high end)
130:Dimensions
96:Units sold
72:Generation
2139:0164-1239
2100:1058-6180
2013:0164-1239
1480:"Gamma 3"
546:flowgraph
538:autocoder
522:positions
518:Ordre Fin
469:Duralumin
146:Successor
48:Developer
2094:(4): 6.
1422:IBM 1401
1396:See also
1299:Grenoble
1245:IBM 1620
1241:ALGOL 60
210:Gamma 60
151:Gamma 60
59:Computer
1816:. 1957.
1417:IBM 650
1305:Gallery
542:Fortran
301:with a
216:History
192:IBM 650
184:IBM 604
161:Gamma 3
2137:
2098:
2011:
1692:ACONIT
1542:
1291:Angers
554:series
141:900 kg
114:Memory
2062:(PDF)
1974:(PDF)
1949:(PDF)
1834:(PDF)
1769:(PDF)
1688:(PDF)
1235:from
1221:, or
173:Paris
122:Power
2135:ISSN
2096:ISSN
2009:ISSN
1540:ISBN
1295:Pisa
1206:0xF
1190:0xE
1174:0xD
1158:0xC
1142:0xB
1129:0xB
1113:0xA
1100:0xA
1028:0xC
1015:0xA
845:0xF
828:0xD
811:0xC
794:0xA
427:RNL2
423:RNL1
322:CNRS
320:and
318:CERN
203:1401
159:The
138:Mass
91:1962
83:1952
64:Type
2127:doi
2001:doi
1261:BCD
1257:ALU
973:AMD
820:CSZ
769:ES2
752:ES1
719:VRS
673:VCS
574:AD
571:TO
450:M15
448:to
407:MS1
366:to
324:or
312:in
295:SEA
171:in
105:CPU
75:1st
2275::
2205:.
2180:.
2155:.
2133:.
2123:12
2121:.
2117:.
2092:36
2090:.
2086:.
2074:^
2064:.
2049:^
2033:.
2015:.
2007:.
1997:12
1995:.
1991:.
1957:^
1934:^
1918:.
1874:.
1850:.
1812:.
1801:^
1785:.
1752:^
1736:.
1725:^
1708:.
1690:.
1673:^
1657:.
1644:^
1628:.
1610:^
1594:.
1581:^
1565:.
1554:^
1513:.
1498:^
1482:.
1471:^
1455:.
1440:^
1247:.
1201:DC
1185:MC
1169:DR
1153:MR
1132:0
1124:SN
1103:0
1095:AN
1084:9
1074:0
1071:9
1066:CN
1055:8
1045:1
1042:8
1037:OB
1025:7
1012:7
1007:IL
998:2
995:7
990:BD
981:0
978:7
962:6
952:0
949:6
944:BO
933:5
928:IS
919:0
916:5
911:GG
900:4
895:KB
884:3
879:ZB
865:2
859:TB
854:BT
842:1
837:CB
825:1
808:1
803:CO
791:1
786:CD
777:9
774:1
760:8
757:1
743:6
740:1
727:5
724:1
710:2
707:1
697:1
694:1
681:0
678:1
664:4
661:0
651:3
648:0
638:2
635:0
625:1
622:0
617:VC
608:0
605:0
600:VS
591:0
588:0
516:,
514:OF
508:,
506:OD
502:AD
496:,
494:TO
446:M8
425:/
413:NL
397:MD
391:MC
368:M7
364:M3
360:M2
352:M1
328:.
194:.
2215:.
2191:.
2165:.
2141:.
2129::
2102:.
2043:.
2003::
1928:.
1904:.
1884:.
1860:.
1795:.
1746:.
1719:.
1667:.
1638:.
1604:.
1575:.
1548:.
1523:.
1492:.
1465:.
583:V
433:.
419:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
