184:, solutions of products are applied directly into the animals' eyes, which can cause "intense burning, itching and pain". Clips are placed on the rabbits' eyelids to hold them open during the test period, which can last several days, during which time the rabbits are placed in restraining stocks. The chemicals often leave the eyes "ulcerated and bleeding". In the Draize test for skin irritancy, the test substances are applied to skin that is shaved and abraded (several layers of skin are removed with sticky tape), then covered with plastic sheeting.
244:(OECD) had not validated any alternative methods for testing eye or skin irritation potential. However, since 2000 OECD had validated alternative tests for corrosivity, meaning acids, bases and other corrosive substances are no longer required to be Draize tested on animals. The alternative tests include a human skin equivalent model and the transepicutaneous resistance test (TER). In addition, the use of human corneal cell line (HCE-T cells) is also another good alternative method to test eye irritation on potential chemicals.
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224:, conducted a comprehensive review of the Draize eye test in 2001. He also reported that differences in anatomy and biochemistry between the rabbit and human eye indicate that testing substances on rabbits might not predict the effects on humans. However, he noted "that eyes of rabbits are generally more susceptible to irritating substances than the eyes of humans" making them a conservative
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69:. The animals are euthanized after testing if the test renders irreversible damage to the eye or skin. Animals may be re-used for testing purposes if the product tested causes no permanent damage. Animals are typically reused after a "wash out" period during which all traces of the tested product are allowed to disperse from the test site.
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John H. Draize and Jacob M. Spines. Initially used for testing cosmetics, the procedure involves applying 0.5 mL or 0.5 g of a test substance to the eye or skin of a restrained, conscious animal, and then leaving it for set amount of time before rinsing it out and recording its effects. The
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distributed three test substances for comparative analysis to 24 different university and state laboratories. The laboratories returned significantly different evaluations, from non-irritating to severely irritating, for the same substances. A 2004 study by the U.S. Scientific
Advisory Committee on
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and later adopted to screen many other compounds. By Draize's retirement in 1963, and despite never having personally attached his name to any technique, irritancy procedures were commonly known as "the Draize test" To distinguish the target organ, the tests are now often referred to as "the Draize
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The test design requires that the substance be tested on one rabbit initially, and the effect of the substance on the skin must be ascertained before it can be introduced into the eye. If a rabbit shows signs of "severe pain" or distress it must be immediately killed, the study terminated and the
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The tests are controversial. They are viewed as cruel as well as unscientific by critics because of the differences between rabbit and human eyes, and the subjective nature of the visual evaluations. The FDA supports the test, stating that "to date, no single test, or battery of tests, has been
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under regulatory control. The following year Draize joined the FDA, and was soon promoted to head of the Dermal and Ocular
Toxicity Branch where he was charged with developing methods for testing the side effects of cosmetic products. This work culminated in a report by Draize, his laboratory
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pre-screening tests are recommended, such as a test on an isolated and perfused eye. Permission to carry out the test on several animals is given only if the test has been performed on a single animal and a period of 24 hours has been allowed for injury to become evident."
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screening of all compounds before testing on animals, and mandates the use of validated alternatives when available. It requires that the test solution's "physical and chemical properties are not such that a severe adverse reaction could be predicted"; therefore "known
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compound may not be tested on other animals. In tests where severe eye irritancy is considered likely, a washout should closely follow testing in the eye of the first rabbit. In the UK, any departure from these guidelines requires prior approval from the
255:(HET-CAM) assay and an epithelial model cultivated from human corneal cells, in comparison with Draize test data. The study found that none of the alternative tests, taken alone, proved to be a reliable replacement for the animal test.
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Doucet O, Lanvin M, Thillou C, et al. (June 2006). "Reconstituted human corneal epithelium: a new alternative to the Draize eye test for the assessment of the eye irritation potential of chemicals and cosmetic products".
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Leighton J, Nassauer J, Tchao R, Verdone J: Development of a procedure using the chick egg as an alternative to the Draize rabbit test. In: Goldberg AM (Ed): Product Safety
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wrote: "A substance expected from its chemical nature to be seriously painful must not be tested in this way; the test is permissible only if the substance has already been shown not to cause pain when applied to skin, and
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assistant, Geoffrey
Woodard, and division chief, Herbert Calvery, describing how to assess acute, intermediate, and chronic exposure to cosmetics by applying compounds to the skin, penis, and eyes of rabbits.
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Gordon VC, Bergman HC: The EYETEX-MPA system. Presented at the
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testing. Regulatory bodies have therefore begun to adopt a tiered testing strategy for skin and eye irritation, using alternatives to reduce Draize testing of substances with the most severe effects.
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as a replacement ... the Draize test". Because of its controversial nature, the use of the Draize test in the U.S. and Europe has declined in recent years and is sometimes modified so that
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Balls, M.; Botham, P.A.; Bruner, L.H.; Spielmann, H. (1995). "Toxicology in Vitro : The EC/HO international validation study on alternatives to the draize eye irritation test".
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September 2009 the OECD validated two alternatives to the Draize eye test: the bovine cornea opacity test (BCOP) and isolated chicken eye test (ICE). A 1995 study funded by the
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196:, the Draize eye test is now a "very mild test", in which small amounts of substances are used and are washed out of the eye at the first sign of irritation. In a letter to
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Industry and regulatory bodies responsible for public health are actively assessing animal-free tests to reduce the requirement for Draize testing. Before 2009 the
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Draize J.H.; Woodard G.; Calvery H.O. (1944). "Methods for the study of irritation and toxicity of substances applied topically to the skin and mucous membranes".
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in the skin test, and redness, swelling, discharge, ulceration, hemorrhaging, cloudiness, or blindness in the tested eye. The test subject is commonly an
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alternatives to the Draize test. In: Goldberg AM (Ed): In Vitro
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Indans I (February 2002). "The use and interpretation of in vitro data in regulatory toxicology: cosmetics, toiletries and household products".
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of the human eye. Wilhelmus concluded "The Draize eye test ... has assuredly prevented harm" to humans, but predicts it will be "supplanted as
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and investigated plants poisonous to cattle, other livestock, and people. The U.S. Army recruited Draize in 1935 to investigate the effects of
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1693:Anarchism and animal rights
1503:Stop Sequani Animal Testing
1274:International primate trade
260:Health and Safety Executive
107:and other chemical agents.
4528:
4071:Making a Stand for Animals
3943:The Case for Animal Rights
3594:Hunt Saboteurs Association
3554:Cruelty Free International
3524:Anti-Vivisection Coalition
2054:Animal testing regulations
1605:Animal Welfare Act of 1966
1582:Animal testing regulations
1443:Cruelty Free International
1403:Anti-Vivisection Coalition
1350:Charles River Laboratories
1153:History of model organisms
1143:Animal testing regulations
603:Animals in product testing
432:February 21, 2006, at the
407:Animals in Product Testing
222:Baylor College of Medicine
180:According to the American
153:Carnegie Mellon University
4492:Animal testing techniques
4457:
4226:The Ghosts in Our Machine
4063:Animal Ethics in the Wild
3842:
3831:
3499:Animal Legal Defense Fund
3455:
3441:
2798:William Hamilton Drummond
2436:
2422:
2157:Welfare of farmed insects
1784:Animal–industrial complex
1671:
1660:
1279:Laboratory animal allergy
1189:
1163:Laboratory animal sources
1148:History of animal testing
1138:Animal testing on rodents
1133:Animal testing on rabbits
849:10.1016/j.tiv.2005.09.005
695:October 18, 2007, at the
622:Huxley A (January 2006).
455:, retrieved 29 June 2009.
451:February 9, 2006, at the
318:Animal testing on rabbits
192:According to the British
4304:Journal of Animal Ethics
4170:Your Mommy Kills Animals
3559:Direct Action Everywhere
2968:Johann Heinrich Winckler
2913:Nathaniel Peabody Rogers
2370:Direct Action Everywhere
2074:Huntingdon Life Sciences
2059:Labcorp Drug Development
2016:Feedback (pork industry)
1981:Intensive animal farming
1718:History of animal rights
1508:Research Defence Society
1370:Labcorp Drug Development
1365:Huntingdon Life Sciences
555:Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol
253:chorioallantoic membrane
194:Research Defence Society
171:Descriptions of the test
4439:Holocaust on your Plate
4210:An Apology to Elephants
3991:Do Animals Have Rights?
3927:Animals, Men and Morals
3903:Better-World Philosophy
3780:Italian Animalist Party
3659:United Poultry Concerns
3614:Last Chance for Animals
3509:Animal Liberation Front
3396:Maud Ingersoll Probasco
1886:Replaceability argument
1804:Animal-free agriculture
1599:Animal Welfare Act 1999
1478:Primate Freedom Project
1423:Animal Free Research UK
1123:Animal testing on frogs
963:10.1126/science.3175645
816:. Tsar.jrc.ec.europa.eu
795:. Tsar.jrc.ec.europa.eu
517:J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther
4412:Salvation of Innocents
3959:Zoos and Animal Rights
3534:Beauty Without Cruelty
3494:Animal Justice Project
2833:John Zephaniah Holwell
2487:Stephen St. C. Bostock
2064:Great ape research ban
1683:Animal rights movement
1269:Great ape research ban
931:June 21, 2007, at the
4431:Fairs and exhibitions
4318:The Animals' Defender
4290:Cahiers antispécistes
4218:Speciesism: The Movie
4039:Animal (De)liberation
3999:Striking at the Roots
3911:The Universal Kinship
3871:The Rights of Animals
3792:People Animals Nature
3786:Party for the Animals
3599:In Defense of Animals
3361:Nina Douglas-Hamilton
2753:David Renaud Boullier
2339:Silver Spring monkeys
2238:Wild animal suffering
2147:Pain in invertebrates
1986:Intensive pig farming
1876:Opposition to hunting
1841:Ethics of eating meat
1327:Silver Spring monkeys
608:May 16, 2006, at the
412:May 16, 2006, at the
356:on 28 September 2007.
101:University of Wyoming
99:. He then joined the
4047:Sentientist Politics
3975:The Lives of Animals
3726:Animal Justice Party
3539:Born Free Foundation
3376:Lizzy Lind af Hageby
3250:Wendy Turner-Webster
2963:Adam Gottlieb Weigen
2185:Recreational fishing
2026:Ventilation shutdown
1794:Animal protectionism
1774:Animal consciousness
1611:Directive 2010/63/EU
1498:Speaking of Research
926:Eye Irritation Tests
536:J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem
75:scientific community
4507:American inventions
4471:( 139 )
4297:Etica & Animali
4283:Between the Species
4007:An American Trilogy
3700:Humanitarian League
3311:Frances Power Cobbe
2928:Arthur Schopenhauer
2923:Henry Stephens Salt
2803:Edward Payson Evans
2497:Stephen R. L. Clark
2354:War of the currents
2243:Wildlife management
2137:Pain in crustaceans
2132:Pain in cephalopods
1589:(Council of Europe)
1264:Biomedical Research
872:Toxicology in Vitro
640:2006Natur.439Q.138H
587:William S. Stokes,
249:European Commission
44:devised in 1944 by
4234:Unlocking the Cage
4055:Wild Animal Ethics
3879:The Ethics of Diet
3756:Animalist Movement
3732:Animal Politics EU
3644:Sentience Politics
3270:That Vegan Teacher
2888:Siobhan O'Sullivan
2873:José Ferrater Mora
2682:Steve F. Sapontzis
2175:Commercial fishing
2127:Pain in amphibians
2117:Cruelty to animals
2089:Operation Backfire
1928:Animal agriculture
1836:Emotion in animals
1317:Monkey Drug Trials
1183:Toxicology testing
759:Toxicology Letters
306:Secretary of State
4479:
4478:
4472:
4453:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4420:Onward to Freedom
4388:Animal Liberation
4373:
4372:
4194:Forks Over Knives
4146:Peaceable Kingdom
4106:Shores of Silence
4098:A Cow at My Table
3983:Eternal Treblinka
3935:Animal Liberation
3827:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3714:
3713:
3649:Uncaged Campaigns
3624:Mercy for Animals
3589:Great Ape Project
3504:Animal Liberation
3450:(groups, parties)
3437:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3336:Elizabeth Farians
3245:Christine Townend
3185:Heather Nicholson
3115:Brigitte Gothière
3105:Antoine Goetschel
2991:
2990:
2652:Charles Patterson
2557:Gary L. Francione
2532:Josephine Donovan
2522:Daniel Dombrowski
2502:Alasdair Cochrane
2418:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2297:
2296:
2228:Predation problem
2112:Animal euthanasia
2021:Foam depopulation
1856:Insects in ethics
1620:
1619:
957:(4876): 185–186.
380:978-0-19-516196-0
34:
33:
4519:
4502:Toxicology tests
4470:
4465:
4464:
4276:Animal Sentience
4265:
4130:Legally Blonde 2
4090:The Animals Film
3844:
3833:
3639:Rise for Animals
3464:
3457:
3443:
3306:Edith Carrington
3210:Craig Rosebraugh
3175:Virginia McKenna
3165:Jo-Anne McArthur
3095:Juliet Gellatley
3000:
2958:Mary Anne Warren
2898:Humphrey Primatt
2883:Edward Nicholson
2853:Charles R. Magel
2818:Thomas G. Gentry
2677:Richard D. Ryder
2617:Thomas Lepeltier
2447:
2438:
2424:
2391:World Animal Day
2349:Unnecessary Fuss
2309:Brown Dog affair
2279:Animals in sport
2269:Animal slaughter
2264:Animal sacrifice
2203:Culling wildlife
2006:Wildlife farming
1924:
1769:Animal cognition
1738:Total liberation
1673:
1662:
1647:
1640:
1633:
1624:
1333:Unnecessary Fuss
1307:Brown Dog affair
1195:
1092:
1085:
1078:
1069:
1003:
974:
936:
923:
914:
913:
908:. Archived from
902:
896:
895:
867:
861:
860:
837:Toxicol in Vitro
831:
825:
824:
822:
821:
810:
804:
803:
801:
800:
789:
783:
782:
754:
748:
747:
719:
700:
686:
680:
677:
671:
668:
662:
661:
651:
619:
613:
600:
594:
585:
579:
578:
550:
544:
543:
531:
525:
524:
512:
506:
505:
477:
468:
462:
456:
443:
437:
423:
417:
404:
398:
391:
385:
384:
364:
358:
357:
352:. Archived from
345:
283:In Britain, the
73:accepted by the
19:
4527:
4526:
4522:
4521:
4520:
4518:
4517:
4516:
4482:
4481:
4480:
4475:
4445:
4426:
4369:
4350:Muutoksen kevät
4323:
4256:
4162:Behind the Mask
4077:
3887:Animals' Rights
3838:
3819:
3803:
3710:
3678:
3451:
3425:
3286:Cleveland Amory
3274:
3240:Darren Thurston
3235:Marianne Thieme
3090:Bruce Friedrich
3055:Joey Carbstrong
3040:Brigitte Bardot
2987:
2978:Jon Wynne-Tyson
2868:J. Howard Moore
2813:John Galsworthy
2793:Wilhelm Dietler
2736:
2732:Corey Lee Wrenn
2642:Martha Nussbaum
2552:Lawrence Finsen
2492:Paola Cavalieri
2467:Kristin Andrews
2442:
2432:
2410:
2379:
2358:
2293:
2247:
2189:
2161:
2122:Pain in animals
2098:
2030:
1996:Poultry farming
1915:
1747:
1667:
1656:
1651:
1621:
1616:
1570:
1551:Neal D. Barnard
1531:Colin Blakemore
1523:
1517:
1395:
1389:
1338:
1294:
1288:
1237:
1233:Syrian hamsters
1196:
1187:
1101:
1096:
1065:
1063:
977:
948:
944:
942:Further reading
939:
933:Wayback Machine
924:
917:
904:
903:
899:
869:
868:
864:
833:
832:
828:
819:
817:
812:
811:
807:
798:
796:
791:
790:
786:
756:
755:
751:
730:(1–3): 177–82.
721:
720:
703:
697:Wayback Machine
687:
683:
678:
674:
669:
665:
649:10.1038/439138b
621:
620:
616:
610:Wayback Machine
601:
597:
586:
582:
552:
551:
547:
533:
532:
528:
514:
513:
509:
482:Surv Ophthalmol
479:
478:
471:
463:
459:
453:Wayback Machine
444:
440:
434:Wayback Machine
424:
420:
414:Wayback Machine
405:
401:
392:
388:
381:
366:
365:
361:
350:"Eye irritancy"
347:
346:
339:
335:
326:
314:
281:
276:
238:
218:
190:
178:
173:
145:
97:hyperthyroidism
93:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4525:
4523:
4515:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4484:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4473:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4451:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4443:
4434:
4432:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4424:
4416:
4408:
4400:
4392:
4383:
4381:
4375:
4374:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4360:
4353:
4346:
4339:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4324:
4322:
4321:
4314:
4307:
4300:
4293:
4286:
4279:
4271:
4269:
4262:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4254:
4246:
4238:
4230:
4222:
4214:
4206:
4198:
4190:
4182:
4174:
4166:
4158:
4150:
4142:
4134:
4126:
4122:Meet Your Meat
4118:
4110:
4102:
4094:
4085:
4083:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4075:
4067:
4059:
4051:
4043:
4035:
4027:
4019:
4011:
4003:
3995:
3987:
3979:
3971:
3963:
3955:
3947:
3939:
3931:
3923:
3919:The New Ethics
3915:
3907:
3899:
3891:
3883:
3875:
3867:
3859:
3850:
3848:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3829:
3828:
3825:
3824:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3817:
3811:
3809:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3795:
3789:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3765:
3759:
3753:
3750:Animals' Party
3747:
3741:
3735:
3729:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3715:
3712:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3697:
3692:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3519:AnimaNaturalis
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3489:Animal Justice
3486:
3481:
3476:
3470:
3468:
3461:
3453:
3452:
3446:
3439:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3421:Gretchen Wyler
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3351:Lewis Gompertz
3348:
3343:
3341:Emarel Freshel
3338:
3333:
3331:Muriel Dowding
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3267:
3265:Gary Yourofsky
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3180:Ingrid Newkirk
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3125:Charlotte Laws
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3050:Yves Bonnardel
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3025:Martin Balluch
3022:
3017:
3012:
3006:
3004:
2997:
2993:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2973:Steven M. Wise
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2918:Bernard Rollin
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2878:Leonard Nelson
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2783:Herman Daggett
2780:
2775:
2773:Priscilla Cohn
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2748:Jeremy Bentham
2744:
2742:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2662:Jessica Pierce
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2592:Kyle Johannsen
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2517:David DeGrazia
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2457:Carol J. Adams
2453:
2451:
2444:
2434:
2433:
2427:
2420:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2329:Pit of despair
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2259:Abandoned pets
2255:
2253:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2199:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2171:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2108:
2106:
2104:Animal welfare
2100:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2079:Model organism
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2036:Animal testing
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2011:Working animal
2008:
2003:
2001:Slaughterhouse
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1976:Insect farming
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1936:Animal product
1932:
1930:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1891:Sentiocentrism
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1799:Animal welfare
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1755:
1753:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1679:
1677:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1649:
1642:
1635:
1627:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1584:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1546:Ingrid Newkirk
1543:
1538:
1533:
1527:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1329:
1324:
1322:Pit of despair
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1298:
1296:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1254:Animal welfare
1251:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1197:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1109:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1099:Animal testing
1097:
1095:
1094:
1087:
1080:
1072:
1062:
1061:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1032:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
975:
945:
943:
940:
938:
937:
915:
912:on 2012-02-24.
897:
878:(6): 871–929.
862:
843:(4): 499–512.
826:
805:
784:
765:(2): 198–204.
749:
701:
681:
672:
663:
614:
595:
580:
561:(2): 276–360.
545:
526:
507:
488:(6): 493–515.
469:
457:
438:
418:
399:
386:
379:
359:
336:
334:
331:
330:
329:
324:
320:
313:
310:
280:
277:
275:
272:
237:
234:
217:
214:
189:
186:
177:
174:
172:
169:
168:
167:
164:
161:
144:
141:
92:
89:
67:including dogs
32:
31:
28:
24:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4524:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4497:Animal rights
4495:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4468:
4460:
4459:
4456:
4441:
4440:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4413:
4409:
4406:
4405:
4401:
4398:
4397:
4396:Tame Yourself
4393:
4390:
4389:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4376:
4366:
4365:
4361:
4359:
4358:
4357:No Compromise
4354:
4352:
4351:
4347:
4345:
4344:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4333:
4332:
4330:
4326:
4320:
4319:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4308:
4306:
4305:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4294:
4292:
4291:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4280:
4278:
4277:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4266:
4263:
4259:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4236:
4235:
4231:
4228:
4227:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4199:
4196:
4195:
4191:
4188:
4187:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4167:
4164:
4163:
4159:
4156:
4155:
4151:
4148:
4147:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4135:
4132:
4131:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4111:
4108:
4107:
4103:
4100:
4099:
4095:
4092:
4091:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4080:
4073:
4072:
4068:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4052:
4049:
4048:
4044:
4041:
4040:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4028:
4025:
4024:
4020:
4017:
4016:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3988:
3985:
3984:
3980:
3977:
3976:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3956:
3953:
3952:
3948:
3945:
3944:
3940:
3937:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3928:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3858:(3rd century)
3857:
3856:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3834:
3830:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3806:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3790:
3788:(Netherlands)
3787:
3784:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3769:
3766:
3763:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3751:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3730:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3717:
3707:
3704:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3681:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3514:Animal Rising
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3484:Animal Ethics
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3465:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3440:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3381:Jessie Mackay
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3356:James Granger
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3291:Henry B. Amos
3289:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3260:Louise Wallis
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3225:Kim Stallwood
3223:
3221:
3220:Jasmin Singer
3218:
3216:
3215:Nathan Runkle
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3200:David Olivier
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3085:John Feldmann
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3060:Aymeric Caron
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3030:Carole Baskin
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2933:Laurids Smith
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2903:James Rachels
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2848:John Lawrence
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2758:Brigid Brophy
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2722:Tatjana Višak
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2712:David Sztybel
2710:
2708:
2707:Cass Sunstein
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2672:Mark Rowlands
2670:
2668:
2667:Evelyn Pluhar
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2622:Andrew Linzey
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2607:Will Kymlicka
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2587:Dale Jamieson
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2567:Valéry Giroux
2565:
2563:
2562:Robert Garner
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2527:Sue Donaldson
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2507:J. M. Coetzee
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2472:Tom Beauchamp
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2445:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2376:
2375:Hunt sabotage
2373:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2363:Methodologies
2361:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2208:Hare coursing
2206:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1951:Chick culling
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1911:Vegetarianism
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1809:Anthrozoology
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1779:Animal ethics
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1654:Animal rights
1648:
1643:
1641:
1636:
1634:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1561:Simon Festing
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1293:Controversial
1291:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1249:Animal rights
1247:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1213:Invertebrates
1211:
1209:
1206:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1106:Main articles
1104:
1100:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
986:(4914): 125.
985:
981:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
947:
946:
941:
934:
930:
927:
922:
920:
916:
911:
907:
901:
898:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
866:
863:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
830:
827:
815:
809:
806:
794:
788:
785:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
753:
750:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
724:Toxicol. Lett
718:
716:
714:
712:
710:
708:
706:
702:
698:
694:
691:
685:
682:
676:
673:
667:
664:
659:
655:
650:
645:
641:
637:
634:(7073): 138.
633:
629:
625:
618:
615:
611:
607:
604:
599:
596:
592:
591:
584:
581:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
549:
546:
541:
537:
530:
527:
522:
518:
511:
508:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
476:
474:
470:
466:
461:
458:
454:
450:
447:
442:
439:
435:
431:
428:
422:
419:
415:
411:
408:
403:
400:
396:
390:
387:
382:
376:
372:
371:
363:
360:
355:
351:
344:
342:
338:
332:
327:
321:
319:
316:
315:
311:
309:
307:
301:
299:
295:
290:
286:
278:
273:
271:
269:
265:
261:
256:
254:
250:
245:
243:
235:
233:
231:
227:
223:
215:
213:
210:
205:
204:Andrew Huxley
201:
200:
195:
187:
185:
183:
175:
170:
165:
162:
159:
158:
157:
154:
150:
149:toxicologists
142:
140:
137:
133:
128:
125:
121:
117:
113:
108:
106:
102:
98:
90:
88:
86:
85:
80:
76:
70:
68:
64:
60:
56:
51:
50:toxicologists
47:
43:
42:toxicity test
39:
29:
25:
20:
4437:
4418:
4410:
4402:
4394:
4386:
4362:
4355:
4348:
4341:
4334:
4316:
4309:
4302:
4295:
4288:
4281:
4274:
4248:
4240:
4232:
4224:
4216:
4208:
4200:
4192:
4184:
4176:
4168:
4160:
4152:
4144:
4136:
4128:
4120:
4112:
4104:
4096:
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3941:
3933:
3925:
3917:
3909:
3901:
3893:
3885:
3877:
3869:
3861:
3853:
3706:Oxford Group
3574:Every Animal
3467:Contemporary
3416:Andrew Tyler
3406:Nell Shipman
3346:André Géraud
3255:Jerry Vlasak
3230:Lynda Stoner
3205:Alex Pacheco
3140:Evanna Lynch
3135:Howard Lyman
3120:Wayne Hsiung
3080:Chris DeRose
3070:Rod Coronado
3003:Contemporary
2943:Thomas Tryon
2863:Mary Midgley
2858:Jean Meslier
2838:Soame Jenyns
2828:John Hildrop
2823:Arthur Helps
2788:Richard Dean
2763:Peter Buchan
2702:Gary Steiner
2697:Peter Singer
2692:JĂ©rĂ´me Segal
2657:David Pearce
2647:Clare Palmer
2637:David Nibert
2627:Clair Linzey
2537:Joan Dunayer
2462:Aysha Akhtar
2450:Contemporary
2319:McLibel case
2274:Animal trial
2233:Seal hunting
2195:Wild animals
2180:Fishing bait
2142:Pain in fish
1961:Fish farming
1941:Battery cage
1861:Meat paradox
1818:
1759:Abolitionism
1556:Jerry Vlasak
1541:Gill Langley
1331:
1064:
1057:
1042:
1035:
1028:
983:
979:
954:
950:
910:the original
900:
875:
871:
865:
840:
836:
829:
818:. Retrieved
808:
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236:Alternatives
229:
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197:
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176:Anti-testing
146:
132:insecticides
129:
109:
94:
82:
79:anaesthetics
71:
40:is an acute
37:
35:
4261:Periodicals
4138:The Meatrix
4114:The Witness
3728:(Australia)
3702:(1891–1919)
3584:Faunalytics
3411:Henry Spira
3401:Hans Ruesch
3391:Jill Phipps
3386:Norm Phelps
3366:Barry Horne
3326:Royal Dixon
3321:Karen Davis
3301:Ernest Bell
3195:Ric O'Barry
3190:Jack Norris
3160:Dan Mathews
3065:Jake Conroy
3035:Barbi Twins
3010:James Aspey
2948:Gary Varner
2938:John Styles
2778:Henry Crowe
2727:Paul Waldau
2717:Michael Tye
2612:Renan Larue
2597:Melanie Joy
2582:Oscar Horta
2577:John Hadley
2547:Catia Faria
2542:Mylan Engel
2512:Alice Crary
2482:Steven Best
2477:Marc Bekoff
2443:and writers
2384:Observances
2289:Live export
2223:Ivory trade
2094:Vivisection
2069:Green Scare
1966:Fur farming
1871:Open rescue
1866:Nonviolence
1575:Legislation
1522:Writers and
1295:experiments
285:Home Office
274:Regulations
188:Pro-testing
143:Reliability
105:mustard gas
38:Draize test
22:Draize test
4486:Categories
4250:Seaspiracy
4154:Earthlings
3794:(Portugal)
3768:DierAnimal
3683:Historical
3479:Animal Aid
3371:Marie Huot
3316:Joan Court
3296:Bob Barker
3279:Historical
3170:LuĂsa Mell
3150:Keith Mann
3145:Bill Maher
3130:Ronnie Lee
3100:Tal Gilboa
3075:Karen Dawn
3015:Greg Avery
2893:Rod Preece
2808:T. Forster
2768:Mona Caird
2741:Historical
2602:Hilda Kean
2572:Lori Gruen
1906:Vegaphobia
1896:Speciesism
1789:Animal law
1536:Carl Cohen
1433:Boyd Group
1394:Groups and
1201:Testing on
820:2012-08-13
799:2012-08-13
542:: 281–289.
523:: 377–390.
136:sunscreens
122:, placing
91:Background
4404:Manifesto
4343:Bite Back
4328:Magazines
4202:Vegucated
3800:(Germany)
3798:V-ParteiÂł
3776:(Germany)
3770:(Belgium)
3746:(Finland)
3569:Equanimal
3155:Jim Mason
3110:Mark Gold
3045:Gene Baur
3020:Matt Ball
2996:Activists
2908:Tom Regan
2687:Jeff Sebo
2632:Dan Lyons
2441:Academics
2429:Advocates
2284:Live food
2084:Nafovanny
1991:Livestock
1971:Fur trade
1946:Bile bear
1881:Personism
1676:Overviews
1566:Tipu Aziz
1524:activists
1396:campaigns
1380:Nafovanny
1343:Companies
298:oxidation
294:corrosive
124:cosmetics
4467:Category
4336:Arkangel
4268:Journals
4242:Dominion
4178:The Cove
3808:Activism
3752:(Sweden)
3740:(Canada)
3734:(Europe)
3448:Movement
2983:Voltaire
1901:Veganism
1851:Ethology
1752:Concepts
1483:Pro-Test
1385:Shamrock
1302:Britches
1218:Primates
1178:Three Rs
1058:in vitro
1049:165-177.
1036:in vitro
1029:in vitro
1000:17787868
929:Archived
892:20650169
857:16243479
779:22595615
744:12052656
693:Archived
658:16407930
606:Archived
502:11425356
449:Archived
430:Archived
410:Archived
312:See also
289:in vitro
230:in vitro
209:in vitro
112:coal tar
84:in vitro
55:erythema
3782:(Italy)
3764:(Spain)
3758:(Italy)
3719:Parties
2213:Hunting
2167:Fishing
1826:Carnism
1228:Rodents
1223:Rabbits
1043:In vivo
980:Science
971:3175645
951:Science
636:Bibcode
575:5570968
268:in vivo
262:and US
116:mascara
27:Purpose
4469:
4442:(2003)
4423:(2014)
4415:(2014)
4407:(2008)
4399:(1991)
4391:(1987)
4379:Albums
4253:(2021)
4245:(2018)
4237:(2016)
4229:(2013)
4221:(2013)
4213:(2013)
4205:(2011)
4197:(2011)
4189:(2009)
4181:(2009)
4173:(2007)
4165:(2006)
4157:(2005)
4149:(2004)
4141:(2003)
4133:(2003)
4125:(2002)
4117:(2000)
4109:(2000)
4101:(1998)
4093:(1981)
4074:(2022)
4066:(2022)
4058:(2020)
4050:(2018)
4042:(2016)
4034:(2014)
4026:(2012)
4018:(2010)
4010:(2009)
4002:(2008)
3994:(2005)
3986:(2001)
3978:(1999)
3970:(1995)
3962:(1993)
3954:(1987)
3946:(1983)
3938:(1975)
3930:(1971)
3922:(1907)
3914:(1906)
3906:(1899)
3898:(1897)
3890:(1892)
3882:(1883)
3874:(1838)
3866:(1824)
3460:Groups
1920:Issues
1764:Ahimsa
1360:Harlan
1355:Envigo
1242:Issues
998:
969:
890:
855:
777:
742:
656:
628:Nature
573:
500:
377:
199:Nature
63:albino
48:(FDA)
4364:Satya
4082:Films
3847:Books
3669:Viva!
2302:Cases
2252:Other
1493:SPEAK
1418:AALAS
1208:Frogs
1158:IACUC
1053:1987.
333:Notes
226:model
59:edema
3609:L214
2334:SHAC
1613:(EU)
1607:(US)
1601:(NZ)
1595:(UK)
1488:SHAC
1448:PETA
1413:AAAS
996:PMID
967:PMID
888:PMID
853:PMID
775:PMID
740:PMID
654:PMID
571:PMID
498:PMID
375:ISBN
328:test
134:and
57:and
36:The
1453:ALF
1428:ALF
988:doi
984:245
959:doi
955:242
880:doi
845:doi
767:doi
763:212
732:doi
728:127
644:doi
632:439
563:doi
490:doi
114:in
4488::
994:.
982:.
965:.
953:.
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886:.
874:.
851:.
841:20
839:.
773:.
761:.
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704:^
652:.
642:.
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626:.
569:.
559:19
557:.
540:13
538:.
521:82
519:.
496:.
486:45
484:.
472:^
340:^
325:50
323:LD
308:.
279:UK
1646:e
1639:t
1632:v
1091:e
1084:t
1077:v
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990::
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383:.
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