316:
Since the last reorganisation by the
Emperor Maurice (582-602), Cyrenaica had in fact belonged to the province of Egypt, as had Tripolitania. 'Amr marched on Cyrenaica at the beginning of 643, and seized it almost without meeting any resistance. He found neither Greeks nor Byzantines to oppose him, only Berbers of the Luwata and Hawwara groups. These, surrendering, agreed to pay an annual tribute of 13,000 dinars, which henceforth constituted part of the tribute payable by Egypt. By then Berenice had dwindled to an insignificant village among magnificent ruins. It began to be known by its Arabic name Barneeq.
299:(582-602), Cyrenaica belonged to the province of Egypt. In general, Byzantine/Eastern Roman control over the region was weak, except in Berenice and other urban areas which were relatively under control. Berber rebellions were frequent in the insecure hinterland, and later reduced the area to anarchy. The potential prosperity of Berenice was thus squandered. Byzantine rule was deeply unpopular, not least because taxes were increased dramatically in order to pay for military upkeep, while Berenice and other cities were left to decay.
329:
63:
202:, around the middle of the 3rd century, many Cyrenaican cities were renamed to mark the occasion. Euesperides became Berenice and the change of name also involved a relocation. Its desertion was probably due to the silting up of the lagoons; Berenice, the place they moved to, lies underneath Benghazi's modern city centre. The Greek colony had lasted from the 6th to the mid-3rd centuries BC. The remains of this settlement were discovered in the early 1950s by Mr. Frank Jowett.
211:
256:
site. It probably contained many poor members, but three Jewish inscriptions found in
Benghazi show that a comfortable and even wealthy stratum existed in the Jewish community. There was also a synagogue in Berenice. Despite relative peace, religious strife was not unheard of; a Jewish insurgency in 118 AD had destroyed much of Cyrenaica. Christianity later came to Berenice from Egypt, and many of the early Christians there were non-trinitarian
308:
almost extinct, due to depopulation under the
Emperor Trajan in the 2nd century fearful of a Jewish rising, and its equally fearful suppression. The towns were deserted and prey to marauding bands of Berbers. Berber peasantry was exploited by crushing taxation and were keen for new rule. The official Church had alienated the mass of the population by its intransigent attitude to what it considered as heresies.
55:
754:
452:; Suq Al-Hout and al-Sabri would subsequently suffer intensified bombardment and war damage by the LNA during the closing months of the battle between late-2016 and mid-2017. Wilayat Barqa militants reportedly fled Benghazi in early January 2017, while the LNA declared the city cleared of the Shura Council on 5 July 2017; fighting would officially end on 27 July.
366:
118:. Euesperides was probably founded by people from Cyrene or Barca on the edge of a lagoon which opened from the sea. At the time, the lagoon may have been deep enough to receive small sailing vessels. The name Euesperides was attributed to the fertility of the area, and gave rise to mythological associations with the garden of
307:
Islam came to North Africa at a moment when there was nothing of a calibre sufficient to oppose it, while there were many native elements favourable to its advance. The Romans were largely obliterated except in
Berenice and the rest of the small area under Byzantine rule. Civilisation in Berenice was
255:
The inhabitants of the city practiced different religions throughout the centuries. During Pagan times, the worship of Apollo was very important in
Berenice. Whilst still a pagan city, a Jewish community existed in Berenice around the time the city was first founded after moving from the Euesperides
246:
in 296 changed the administrative structure and
Cyrenaica was split into two provinces: Libya Inferior and Libya Superior (which comprised Berenice and the other cities of the Pentapolis, with Cyrene as capital). Berenice prospered for most of its 600 years as a Roman city; it even superseded Cyrene
150:
plant. Silphium once formed the crux of trade from
Cyranaica because of its use as a rich seasoning and as a medicine. Euesperides's coinage suggests that it must have enjoyed an intermittent autonomy from Cyrene in the early 5th century, because Euesperidean coins had their own types, distinct from
412:
In
February 2011 Benghazi was the scene of protests again the Gaddafi-led government, which caused numerous killings by paramilitary internal security forces and commando teams, and the burning down of the houses of those suspected of anti-Gaddafi regime sympathies. Beginning in late February 2011,
315:
and the
Patriarch Cyrus, the last Byzantine governor of Egypt, ratifying the conquest of his territory by the Arabs. Shortly thereafter, on 17 September 642, the last Byzantine garrison evacuated Alexandria. But Amr ibn alAs, the conqueror of Egypt, thought it necessary to annex Cyrenaica as well.
174:
of 462 BC. to attract new settlers to
Euesperides, where Arcesilaus hoped to create a safe refuge for himself against the resentment of his own people in Cyrene. This proved totally ineffective, since when the King fled to Euesperides during the anticipated revolution (around 440 BC), he was
283:
with as many as 80,000 settlers in tow. They sacked Cyrenaica in the 5th century, and Berenice became part of their empire. The Romans recognised the Vandal ascendancy, as long as civil administration remained in Roman hands. Berenice suffered enormous damage during the Vandal invasion.
384:
The Italians modernised and expanded the port, and developed the city, constructing a district of white Italianate villas and other buildings by the shore. Benghazi grew as an administrative and commercial centre, and by the start of World War II was home to about 22,000 Italians.
82:
in antiquity. After the war of Othomi in 464-460 BC. the Messenians settled in Naupaktos. In 399 BC, expelled once more by the Spartians, they took final refuge in Euesperides. The Greek city that existed within the modern day boundaries of Benghazi was founded around 525 BC.
251:
as the chief center of Cyrenaica after the 3rd century AD. Many structures were built in Roman Berenice, and mosaics were to be found on the floors of several important buildings. A public bath and churches were built in the city later on in its history.
729:
151:
those of Cyrene with the legend EU(ES). An inscription found in modern Benghazi and dated around the middle of the 4th century BC, shows that the city had a similar constitution to that of Cyrene, with a board of chief magistrates (
145:
in Egypt conquered most of Cyrenaica and reached "as far west as Euesperides". The oldest coins minted in the city date back to 480 BC. One side of the coin has an engraving of Delphi, whilst the other has an engraving of a
348:
rule until 1911. Under Ottoman rule, Benghazi was the most impoverished of the Ottoman provinces. It had neither a paved road nor telegraph service, and the harbor was too silted to permit the access of shipping. Greek and
319:
In the 13th century, the small settlement became an important player in the trade growing up between Genoese merchants and the tribes of the hinterland. In 16th century maps, the name of Marsa ibn Ghazi appears.
424:, infighting between militias, and reemerging Islamist militancy. In 2012, Benghazi became the center of controversy in the United States when the American diplomatic mission in Benghazi
226:
on his death in 96 BC. At first, the Romans gave Berenice and the other cities of the Pentapolis their freedom. By 78 BC however, Cyrenaica was formally organised as one administrative
420:
Following the overthrow of the Gaddafi government, the city would be plagued by instability due to weakened interim governments, a split between the Tripoli-based government and the
186:. Later in the 4th century BC, during the unsettling period which followed Alexander's death, the Euesperides backed the losing side in a revolt led by the Spartan adventurer
166:
and his fleet, who were blown to Libya by contrary winds on their way to Sicily. Another important event in the city's history was the assassination of the Cyrenean king
373:
In 1911, Benghazi was invaded by the Italians, and by 1912 they had established the colony of Cyrenaica. The local population of Cyrenaica under the leadership of
336:
Benghazi had a strategic port location, one that was too useful to be ignored by the Ottomans. They occupied Benghazi in the 16th century and it was ruled from
449:
162:
mentions a siege of the city in 414 BC. by Libyan tribes who were probably the Nasamones. Euesperides was saved by the chance arrival of Spartan general
441:
724:
287:
There was a brief period of repair when the Eastern Roman Empire took control of Berenice in the 6th century and the city came under the rule of
445:
429:
433:
761:
David Gill and Patricia Flecks (2007). "Defining domestic space at Euesperides, Cyrenaica: Archaic structures on the Sidi Abeid".
190:; he was trying to create an empire for himself, but was defeated by the Cyreneans and their Libyan allies. After the marriage of
122:. The city was located on a raised piece of land opposite what is now the Sidi Abeid graveyard, in the Eastern Benghazi suburb of
763:
437:
405:
President Ronald Reagan justified the attacks by claiming Libya was responsible for terrorism directed at the USA, including the
406:
158:
The city was located in hostile territory surrounded by inhospitable tribes, and had a turbulent history. The Greek historian
187:
414:
793:
332:
The Ottoman flag is raised during Mawlid celebrations in Benghazi in 1896. The city was then part of the Ottoman Empire.
269:
377:
resisted the Italian occupation. Cyrenaica suffered ruthless oppression, particularly under the fascist dictator
102:). It was one of five important cities in Cyrenaica known as the Pentapolis â the other four were the chief city
703:
Ahmed Buzaian; John A. Lloyd (1996). "Early Urbanism in Cyrenaica: New Evidence from Euesperides (Benghazi)".
328:
46:. Throughout its history, the city has been continuously conquered by different ancient and colonial forces.
398:
265:
167:
218:
itinerarium (road map) shows Berenice and the other cities of the Pentapolis which were bequeathed to Rome.
95:
87:
214:
Euesperides was refounded as Berenice and became part of the Roman Pentapolis. This section of the Roman
402:
191:
312:
295:, Justinian rebuilt the walls of Berenice and also built a public bath. After later reorganisation by
660:
461:
425:
421:
248:
235:
215:
147:
115:
107:
62:
444:(which have become entrenched in the central coastal quarters of Suq Al-Hout and al-Sabri) and the
353:
sponge fishermen worked its coastal waters. In 1858, and again in 1874, Benghazi was devastated by
210:
179:
397:, Benghazi was later rebuilt with the country's newly found oil wealth as a gleaming showpiece of
772:
381:; about 125,000 Libyans were forced into concentration camps, about two-thirds of whom perished.
475:
Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe: The Pirenne Thesis in the Light of Archaeology
550:
712:
691:
341:
296:
279:. These Germanic people from Europe quickly set about invading the country under their leader
183:
70:
found in Benghazi from the times of Euesperides, the Ancient Greek city that is now Benghazi.
738:
683:
378:
526:
The transport amphorae from Euesperides: The maritime trade of a Cyrenaican city 400-250 BC
234:. It became a senatorial province in 20 BC, like its far more prominent western neighbour
199:
175:
assassinated, thus terminating the almost two hundred year rule of the Battiad dynasty.
354:
345:
337:
138:
79:
43:
787:
413:
Benghazi was no longer under control of the government in Tripoli, but was under the
261:
223:
171:
103:
394:
374:
257:
35:
753:
674:
Michael Vickers; et al. (1994). "Euesperides: the Rescue of an Excavation".
288:
195:
39:
365:
54:
687:
632:
General History of Africa, III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century
268:
in 325 AD, Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of the
243:
159:
119:
716:
695:
528:, Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, Series in 4o No. 25, Lund/Stockholm 2007, 29.
746:
742:
292:
239:
134:
111:
75:
730:
Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
17:
727:(2003). "Une cité grecque de Libye: fouilles d'EuhespéridÚs (Benghazi)".
584:
The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa
500:
489:
280:
227:
163:
31:
776:
276:
67:
152:
142:
222:
Cyrenaica became a Roman province when it was bequeathed to Rome by
141:
expedition to Cyrenaica in c.515 BC; the punitive force sent by the
364:
350:
327:
231:
209:
127:
61:
53:
27:
619:
The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion
426:
was attacked by a heavily armed group of Islamist 125â150 gunmen
311:
In the year 642, the Treaty of Alexandria was concluded between
34:, has a history which extends to the present day from when the
666:
R. Goodchild, "Euesperides: a devastated city site",
133:
Euesperides is first mentioned by ancient sources in
401:. On 15 April 1986 US Airforce and Navy planes
275:By 431, the whole of Libya was conquered by the
344:from 1711 to 1835, then it passed under direct
407:bombing of La Belle discotheque in West Berlin
78:, an area which was heavily colonised by the
8:
555:Digital Library and Archives, Virginia Tech
170:. The King used his chariot victory at the
557:, August 1993, Accessed February 6, 2009.
501:Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, §E282.16
490:Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, §E284.19
442:Shura Council of Benghazi Revolutionaries
436:between the Libyan National Army-aligned
137:' account of the revolt of Barca and the
661:Timeline of Benghazi § Bibliography
74:Modern Benghazi lies in the province of
578:
576:
482:
415:National Transitional Council of Libya
155:) and a council of elders (gerontes).
473:Richard Hodges and David Whitehouse,
434:heavy fighting in and around Benghazi
7:
182:and subsequently became part of the
645:World and its Peoples, North Africa
50:Ancient Greek colony of Euesperides
25:
597:Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene
303:The Arabs and the advent of Islam
764:British School at Athens Studies
752:
643:Marshall Cavendish Corporation,
551:"Euesperides: A devastated Site"
568:Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece
1:
440:government, and the Islamist
178:Cyrenaica was a supporter of
403:bombed Benghazi and Tripoli.
58:Euesperides ruins, Benghazi.
670:26 (1952), pp. 208â212
198:, daughter of the Cyrenean
86:It was called Euesperides (
810:
658:
99:
91:
688:10.1017/S0263718900006282
617:Persson Nilsson, Martin,
438:House of Representatives
30:'s second largest city,
743:10.3406/crai.2003.22676
430:second Libyan Civil War
428:. The outbreak of the
370:
333:
219:
71:
59:
524:Göransson, Kristian:
368:
331:
213:
65:
57:
462:Timeline of Benghazi
422:Libyan National Army
236:Africa proconsularis
216:Tabula Peutingeriana
794:History of Benghazi
595:Applebaum, Shimon,
566:Guy Wilson, Nigel,
477:, 1983, p. 69.
180:Alexander the Great
42:was founded in the
393:Heavily bombed in
371:
334:
220:
72:
60:
621:, 1971, pp.57-58.
549:Economou, Maria,
432:in 2014 also saw
409:ten days before.
270:See of Alexandria
266:Council of Nicaea
184:Ptolemaic Kingdom
124:Sebkha Es-Selmani
16:(Redirected from
801:
780:
757:
756:
750:
737:(4): 1647â1675.
720:
699:
648:
641:
635:
628:
622:
615:
609:
606:
600:
593:
587:
580:
571:
564:
558:
547:
541:
535:
529:
522:
516:
509:
503:
498:
492:
487:
369:Italian Benghazi
361:Italian invasion
324:Ottoman province
206:Roman settlement
101:
93:
21:
809:
808:
804:
803:
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783:
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723:
702:
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642:
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629:
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608:Ham, pp. 11-12.
607:
603:
594:
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582:Cohen, Getzel,
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548:
544:
536:
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495:
488:
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458:
391:
389:Modern Benghazi
363:
326:
313:'Amr ibn al-'As
305:
297:emperor Maurice
291:. According to
208:
94:) and Esperis (
52:
44:6th century BCE
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
807:
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797:
796:
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782:
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758:
721:
705:Libyan Studies
700:
676:Libyan Studies
671:
656:
653:
650:
649:
647:, 2006, p.1226
636:
623:
610:
601:
588:
586:, 2006, p.390.
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559:
542:
530:
517:
511:Ham, Anthony,
504:
493:
481:
480:
479:
478:
469:
466:
465:
464:
457:
454:
390:
387:
362:
359:
355:bubonic plague
325:
322:
304:
301:
230:together with
207:
204:
200:Governor Magas
66:A panathenaic
51:
48:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
806:
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791:
789:
778:
774:
770:
766:
765:
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755:
748:
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736:
733:(in French).
732:
731:
726:
725:Andrew Wilson
722:
718:
714:
710:
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689:
685:
681:
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665:
664:
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654:
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627:
624:
620:
614:
611:
605:
602:
599:, 1979, p.160
598:
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579:
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573:
570:, 2006, p.198
569:
563:
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515:, 2002, p.156
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450:Wilayat Barqa
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262:Carpocrations
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224:Ptolemy Apion
217:
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172:Pythian Games
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168:Arcesilaus IV
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144:
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96:Ancient Greek
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88:Ancient Greek
84:
81:
77:
69:
64:
56:
49:
47:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
768:
762:
745:– via
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728:
708:
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679:
675:
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644:
639:
631:
626:
618:
613:
604:
596:
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520:
512:
507:
496:
485:
474:
419:
411:
399:modern Libya
395:World War II
392:
383:
375:Omar Mukhtar
372:
335:
318:
310:
306:
286:
274:
264:. After the
254:
221:
177:
157:
132:
126:(Es-Selmani
123:
85:
73:
36:Greek colony
26:
771:: 205â211.
682:: 125â136.
537:Herodotus,
289:Justinian I
242:reforms of
192:Ptolemy III
106:, its port
92:ÎáœÎ”ÏÏΔÏίΎΔÏ
40:Euesperides
18:Euesperides
659:See also:
630:Hrbek. I,
468:References
342:Karamanlis
258:Sabellians
244:Diocletian
160:Thucydides
120:Hesperides
747:Persee.fr
717:2052-6148
696:2052-6148
668:Antiquity
448:-aligned
379:Mussolini
293:Procopius
240:Tetrarchy
135:Herodotus
112:Taucheira
108:Apollonia
76:Cyrenaica
788:Category
777:40960589
634:, p.120.
456:See also
281:Geiseric
228:province
196:Berenice
164:Gylippus
148:silphium
32:Benghazi
655:Sources
539:IV.204.
351:Italian
346:Ottoman
340:by the
338:Tripoli
277:Vandals
188:Thibron
139:Persian
100:áŒÏÏΔÏÎŻÏ
68:amphora
775:
715:
694:
238:. The
153:ephors
143:satrap
114:, and
104:Cyrene
80:Greeks
773:JSTOR
513:Libya
249:Barca
232:Crete
128:Marsh
116:Barca
28:Libya
713:ISSN
692:ISSN
446:ISIL
260:and
247:and
739:doi
735:147
684:doi
194:to
130:).
38:of
790::
769:15
767:.
711:.
709:27
707:.
690:.
680:25
678:.
575:^
553:,
417:.
357:.
272:.
110:,
98::
90::
779:.
749:.
741::
719:.
698:.
686::
20:)
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