405:. Collectively, group living requires cooperation and generates conflict. Social living puts strong evolutionary selection pressures on acquiring social intelligence due to the fact that living in groups has advantages. Advantages to group living include protection from predators and the fact that groups in general outperform the sum of an individual's performance. But, from an objective point of view, group living also has disadvantages, such as, competition from within the group for resources and mates. This sets the stage for something of an evolutionary arms race from within the species.
397:. Therefore, in social animals, the neocortex came under intense selection to increase in size to improve social cognitive abilities. Social animals, such as humans are capable of two important concepts, coalition formation, or group living, and tactical deception, which is a tactic of presenting false information to others. The fundamental importance of animal social skills lies within the ability to manage relationships and in turn, the ability to not just commit information to memory, but manipulate it as well. An adaptive response to the challenges of social interaction and living is
111:, and in so doing, have given up their own reproduction in order to raise brothers and sisters. The existence of sterile castes among these social insects significantly restricts the competition for mating and in the process fosters cooperation within a colony. Cooperation among ants is vital, because a solitary ant has an improbable chance of long-term survival and reproduction. However, as part of a group, colonies can thrive for decades. As a consequence, ants are one of the most successful families of species on the planet, accounting for a
438:. The prisoner's dilemma serves to define cooperation and defecting with and against individuals driven by incentive, or in Nash's proposed case, years in jail. In evolutionary terms, the best strategy to use for the prisoner's dilemma is tit-for-tat. In the tit-for-tat strategy, an individual should cooperate as long others are cooperating, and not defect until another individual defects against them. At their core, complex social interactions are driven by the need to distinguish sincere cooperation and defection.
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462:. This is especially true for autism spectrum disorders, where social disconnect is evident, but non-social intelligence can be preserved or even in some cases augmented, such as in the case of a savant. The need for social intelligence surrounding theory of mind is a possible answer to the question as to why morality has evolved as a part of human behavior.
320:. According to Dr. de Waal, human morality has two extra levels of sophistication that are not found in other primate societies. Humans enforce their society's moral codes much more rigorously with rewards, punishments and reputation building. People also apply a degree of judgment and reason not seen in the animal kingdom.
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imply much of what we say. Phrases such as, "You know what I mean?" are not uncommon and are direct results of the sophistication of the human theory of mind. Failure to understand another's intentions and emotions can yield inappropriate social responses and are often associated with human mental conditions such as
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entail impunity are positively selected by evolution. Specifically punishing individuals aware of their breach of rules would select against the ability to be aware of it, precluding any coevolution of both conscious choice and a sense of it being the basis for moral and penal liability in the same species.
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hunter gatherer societies, recent paleolithic hominids lived in bands of a few hundred individuals. As community size increased over the course of human evolution, greater enforcement to achieve group cohesion would have been required. Morality may have evolved in these bands of 100 to 200 people as
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Shermer argues that these premoral sentiments evolved in primate societies as a method of restraining individual selfishness and building more cooperative groups. For any social species, the benefits of being part of an altruistic group should outweigh the benefits of individualism. For example, lack
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with humans who lived four to six million years ago. It is for this reason that chimpanzees and bonobos are viewed as the best available surrogate for this common ancestor. Barbara King argues that while primates may not possess morality in the human sense, they do exhibit some traits that would have
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The basic reason that social animals live in groups is that opportunities for survival and reproduction are much better in groups than living alone. The social behaviors of mammals are more familiar to humans. Highly social mammals such as primates and elephants have been known to exhibit traits that
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All social animals have societies in which each member knows its own place. Social order is maintained by certain rules of expected behavior and dominant group members enforce order through punishment. However, higher order primates also have a sense of reciprocity. Chimpanzees remember who did them
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and cruelty initially reigned, any sense of occasional altruism from otherwise egoistic and cruel individuals being worse than consistent cruelty would have made evolution of morality impossible due to early stages of moral evolution being selected against by such sentiments causing the individuals
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Within populations of social animals, altruism, or acts of behavior that are disadvantageous to one individual while benefiting other group members, has evolved. This notion seems to be contradictory to evolutionary thought, due to the fact that an organism's fitness and success is defined by its
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While groups may benefit from avoiding certain behaviors, those harmful behaviors have the same effect regardless of whether the offending individuals are aware of them or not. Since the individuals themselves can increase their reproductive success by doing many of them, any characteristics that
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attachment and bonding, cooperation and mutual aid, sympathy and empathy, direct and indirect reciprocity, altruism and reciprocal altruism, conflict resolution and peacemaking, deception and deception detection, community concern and caring about what others think about you, and awareness of and
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Brune details that theory of mind has been traced back to primates, but it is not observed to the extent that it is in the modern human. The emergence of this unique trait is perhaps where the divergence of the modern human begins, along with our acquisition of language. Humans use metaphors and
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In an experiment where subjects must demonstrate abstract, complex reasoning, researchers have found that humans (as has been seen in other animals) have a strong innate ability to reason about social exchanges. This ability is believed to be intuitive, since the logical rules do not seem to be
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Psychologist Matt J. Rossano muses that religion emerged after morality and built upon morality by expanding the social scrutiny of individual behavior to include supernatural third-party agents. By including ever watchful ancestors, spirits and gods in the social realm, humans discovered an
389:, supports the fact that the brain originally evolved to process factual information. The brain allows an individual to recognize patterns, perceive speech, develop strategies to circumvent ecologically-based problems such as foraging for food, and also permits the phenomenon of
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Schreier, Herb; Rosenthal, Miriam; Pyeritz, Reed; Miller, Larry; Madansky, Chuck; Lewontin, Richard C.; Leeds, Anthony; Inouye, Hiroshi; Hubbard, Ruth; Gould, Steven; Duncan, Margaret; Culver, David; Chorover, Steven; Beckwith, Jon; Beckwith, Barbara; Allen, Elizabeth.
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Though other animals may not possess what humans may perceive as moral behavior, all social animals have had to modify or restrain their behaviors for group living to be worthwhile. Typical examples of behavioral modification can be found in the societies of
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them. Vampire bats also demonstrate a sense of reciprocity and altruism. They share blood by regurgitation, but do not share randomly. They are most likely to share with other bats who have shared with them in the past or who are in dire need of feeding.
521:, may have an important role in certain forms of morality. Disgust is argued to be a specific response to certain things or behaviors that are dangerous or undesirable from an evolutionary perspective. One example is things that increase the risk of an
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is not just dependent on the number of offspring an individual produces, but also the number of offspring that related individuals produce. Outside of familial relationships altruism is also seen, but in a different manner typically defined by the
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argues that the single most important factor that leads to the success of ant colonies is the existence of a sterile worker caste. This caste of females are subservient to the needs of their mother, the
393:. Furthermore, having a large brain is a reflection of the large cognitive demands of complex social systems. It is said that in humans and primates the neocortex is responsible for reasoning and
401:. Theory of mind as defined by Martin BrĂĽne, is the ability to infer another individual's mental states or emotions. Having a strong theory of mind is tied closely with possessing advanced
700:
Bates, Lucy A.; Lee, Phyllis C.; Njiraini, Norah; Poole, Joyce H.; Sayialel, Katito; Sayialel, Soila; Moss, Cynthia J.; Byrne, Richard W. (1 January 2008). "Do
Elephants Show Empathy?".
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for later evolution of higher degrees of morality. These scientists argue that while this rules out evolutionary explanations of the specific type of morality that feels disgust at some
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Brief video clip that examines whether infants have a sense or morality. This video is no longer available because the YouTube account associated with this video has been terminated.
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and
Barbara King both view human morality as having grown out of primate sociality. Many social animals such as primates, dolphins, and whales have shown to exhibit what
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could make individuals more vulnerable to attack from outsiders. Being part of a group may also improve the chances of finding food. This is evident among animals that
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Animals such as
Capuchin monkeys and dogs also display an understanding of fairness, refusing to co-operate when presented unequal rewards for the same behaviors.
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refers to as premoral sentiments. According to
Shermer, the following characteristics are shared by humans and other social animals, particularly the great apes:
557:) or unwanted sexual advances. Still another example are behaviors that may threaten group cohesion or cooperation such as cheating, lying, and stealing.
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effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups. The adaptive value of religion would have enhanced group survival.
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Tybur, J. M.; Lieberman, D.; Griskevicius, V. (2009). "Microbes, mating, and morality: Individual differences in three functional domains of disgust".
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Buchanan, Allen; Powell, Russell (October 2015). "The Limits of
Evolutionary Explanations of Morality and Their Implications for Moral Progress".
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Hockings, Kimberley J.; Humle, Tatyana; Anderson, James R.; Biro, Dora; Sousa, Claudia; Ohashi, Gaku; Matsuzawa, Tetsuro (12 September 2007).
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been necessary for the evolution of morality. These traits include high intelligence, a capacity for symbolic communication, a sense of
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that average 50 individuals. It is likely that early ancestors of humans lived in groups of similar size. Based on the size of
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360:, it does not rule out evolution of other types of morality that accept a little altruism as better than no altruism at all.
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Brüne, Martin; Brüne-Cohrs, Ute (January 2006). "Theory of mind—evolution, ontogeny, brain mechanisms and psychopathology".
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with some morality to be treated worse than those with no morality. This would have caused low degree morality to become an
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can be defined as a system of ideas about right and wrong conduct. In everyday life, morality is typically associated with
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Rossano, Matt J. (19 September 2007). "Supernaturalizing Social Life: Religion and the
Evolution of Human Cooperation".
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Rodriguez, Tommy (2011). Diaries of
Dissension: A Case Against the Irrational and Absurd. iUniverse Publishing.
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explanations of human behavior remain controversial. Social scientists have traditionally viewed morality as a
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King, Barbara (2007). Evolving God: A Provocative View on the
Origins of Religion. Doubleday Publishing."
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Dunbar, R.I.M. (January 2009). "The social brain hypothesis and its implications for social evolution".
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studies have found that such situations activate areas in the brain associated with disgust.
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that would preclude the early steps away from the no morality condition, precluding an early
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American Utopia and Social
Engineering in Literature, Social Thought, and Political History.
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argue that since gradual evolutionary models of morality require incremental evolution of
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Hoffman, Moshe; Yoeli, Erez; Navarrete, Carlos David (2016). "Game Theory and
Morality".
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since even modern humans have difficulty maintaining stable social relationships with
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Range, Friederike; Horn, Lisa; Viranyi, ZsĂłfia; Huber, Ludwig (7 December 2008).
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Wilkinson, Gerald S. (March 1984). "Reciprocal food sharing in the vampire bat".
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549:. Another example is disgust against evolutionary disadvantageous mating such as
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and group solidarity. This numerical limit is theorized to be hard coded in our
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51:, the precursors of human morality can be traced to the behaviors of many other
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Fehr, Ernst; Fischbacher, Urs (October 2003). "The nature of human altruism".
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accessible to the individuals for use in situations without moral overtones.
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favors and who did them wrong. For example, chimpanzees are more likely to
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The Social Brain Hypothesis and Its Implications for Social Evolution
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The Bonobo and the Atheist: In Search of Humanism Among the Primates
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Emergence of human moral behavior over the course of human evolution
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such as spoiled foods, dead bodies, other forms of microbiological
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refers to the emergence of human moral behavior over the course of
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1334:"Scientist Finds the Beginnings of Morality in Primate Behavior"
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Animal Wise: The Thoughts and Emotions of Our Fellow Creatures
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ability to pass genes on to the next generation. According to
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Shermer, Michael (February 2008). "The Mind of the Market".
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Moral Origins: The Evolution of Virtue, Altruism, and Shame
984:"The absence of reward induces inequity aversion in dogs"
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725:
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Adaptive valley of disgust at cruel individual altruism
158:, realization of "self", and a concept of continuity.
965:"Monkey research : monkeys show sense of justice"
417:, the evolution of altruism can be accounted for when
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from rarely empathic individuals by assuming it to be
529:, a physical appearance suggesting sickness or poor
102:. Ant colonies may possess millions of individuals.
47:, have argued that, despite the complexity of human
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649:. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Belknap Press.
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988:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
675:"Taking a Cue From Ants on Evolution of Humans"
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1037:. Evolutionary Psychology. pp. 289–316.
119:were once thought to be uniquely human, like
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1577:: Can Science Help Determine what is Moral?
1408:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1554:, Evolution of a Universal Moral Grammar,
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172:response to the social rules of the group
2828:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1590:"Evolutionary Ethics and Mate Selection"
1197:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
141:Humanity's closest living relatives are
751:"Barbara J. King - What Binti Jua Knew"
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115:that rivals that of the human species.
187:to take down large or dangerous prey.
2320:Psychological effects of Internet use
284:with individuals who have previously
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2300:Digital media use and mental health
1538:Evolution of Morality on PhilPapers
864:"Chimpanzees Share Forbidden Fruit"
749:King, Barbara J. (15 August 2008).
1931:Automatic and controlled processes
794:. New York: Times Books. pp.
533:, and various body fluids such as
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2340:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
841:10.1038/scientificamerican0208-35
328:Some evolutionary biologists and
71:argue that there is an objective
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2365:Mobile phones and driving safety
1332:Wade, Nicholas (20 March 2007).
702:Journal of Consciousness Studies
472:Evolutionary origin of religions
425:are taken into account; meaning
2268:Computer-mediated communication
1209:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.08.001
2545:Empathising–systemising theory
1848:female intrasexual competition
1785:Evolutionarily stable strategy
1478:. W. W. Norton & Company.
1376:"The science of good and evil"
1:
2905:Standard social science model
1958:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
1384:. No. 17. Archived from
1101:Nietzsche, Friedrich (1886).
2753:Missing heritability problem
2345:Social aspects of television
1968:Evolution of nervous systems
1936:Computational theory of mind
1619:Five foundations of morality
1043:10.1007/978-3-319-19671-8_14
889:10.1371/journal.pone.0000886
791:The Science of Good and Evil
415:The Nature of Human Altruism
2999:Evolutionary biology portal
1353:"The evolution of morality"
641:"The origin of cooperation"
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2960:Evolutionary psychologists
2833:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
2748:Human–animal communication
2460:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
2310:Imprinted brain hypothesis
2278:Human–computer interaction
1455:Christopher Boehm (2012).
1374:Dean, Tim (October 2007).
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192:Social evolution of humans
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67:, although others such as
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2880:Environmental determinism
2851:Cultural selection theory
2738:Evolutionary epistemology
2652:evolutionary neuroscience
2325:Rank theory of depression
1827:Parent–offspring conflict
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1514:The evolution of morality
1303:10.1007/s12110-007-9002-4
1163:10.1080/03014460902960289
1118:Dawkins, Richard (1979).
1035:The Evolution of Morality
373:Human social intelligence
149:. These primates share a
39:. The emerging fields of
2773:Cultural group selection
2657:Biocultural anthropology
2350:Societal impacts of cars
2283:Media naturalness theory
1973:Fight-or-flight response
1493:Virginia Morell (2013).
1136:"Against 'Sociobiology'"
588:Moral foundations theory
510:Moral foundations theory
318:more than 100–200 people
3026:Evolutionary psychology
2973:Evolutionary psychology
2937:Sociocultural evolution
2778:Dual inheritance theory
2235:Personality development
1696:Theoretical foundations
1673:Evolutionary psychology
1600:Center for Open Science
1512:Joyce, Richard (2007).
1351:Rutherford, M. (2007).
1151:Annals of Human Biology
1001:10.1073/pnas.0810957105
379:social brain hypothesis
45:evolutionary psychology
2895:Social constructionism
2890:Psychological nativism
2865:Biological determinism
2813:Recent human evolution
2808:Punctuated equilibrium
2631:Behavioral epigenetics
2626:evolutionary economics
2595:Variability hypothesis
2540:Emotional intelligence
2273:Engineering psychology
1963:Evolution of the brain
1474:Frans de Waal (2014).
207:Number of individuals
2922:Multilineal evolution
2885:Nature versus nurture
2844:Theoretical positions
2692:Functional psychology
2687:Evolutionary medicine
2662:Biological psychiatry
2370:Texting while driving
2360:Lead–crime hypothesis
2220:Cognitive development
2205:Caregiver deprivation
1716:Gene selection theory
1608:10.31234/osf.io/c659q
582:The Origins of Virtue
466:Evolution of religion
336:in populations where
297:fission-fusion groups
21:evolution of morality
3021:Evolutionary biology
2875:Cultural determinism
2682:Evolutionary biology
2667:Cognitive psychology
2615:Academic disciplines
2263:Cognitive ergonomics
2230:Language acquisition
2210:Childhood attachment
2023:Wason selection task
1917:Behavioral modernity
1706:Cognitive revolution
1689:Evolutionary thought
1497:. Crown Publishers.
1104:Beyond Good and Evil
608:Triune ethics theory
487:Wason selection task
481:Wason selection task
427:reproductive success
295:Chimpanzees live in
43:, and in particular
41:evolutionary biology
2942:Unilineal evolution
2707:Population genetics
2492:Sexy son hypothesis
2430:Hormonal motivation
2410:Concealed ovulation
1951:Dual process theory
1822:Parental investment
1569:Is morality innate?
1260:10.1038/nature02043
1252:2003Natur.425..785F
935:1984Natur.308..181W
880:2007PLoSO...2..886H
833:2008SciAm.298b..35S
821:Scientific American
755:The Washington Post
646:Journey to the Ants
603:Science of morality
576:Evolutionary ethics
403:social intelligence
364:Punishment problems
347:necessary condition
310:conflict resolution
273:100,000–1,000,000s
194:
137:Altruism in animals
73:science of morality
65:culturally relative
19:The concept of the
2900:Social determinism
2783:Fisher's principle
2743:Great ape language
2733:Cultural evolution
2702:Philosophy of mind
2535:Division of labour
2497:Westermarck effect
2445:Mating preferences
2355:Distracted driving
2089:Literary criticism
1946:Domain specificity
1926:modularity of mind
1338:The New York Times
708:(10–11): 204–225.
680:The New York Times
523:infectious disease
432:prisoner's dilemma
413:, in the article,
190:
143:common chimpanzees
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2986:Psychology portal
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2793:Hologenome theory
2763:Unit of selection
2758:Primate cognition
2672:Cognitive science
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2474:Sexual attraction
2450:Mating strategies
2215:Cinderella effect
2145:Moral foundations
2049:Visual perception
1941:Domain generality
1910:Facial expression
1858:Sexual dimorphism
1817:Natural selection
1763:Hamiltonian spite
1523:978-0-262-10112-7
1246:(6960): 785–791.
1052:978-3-319-19670-1
929:(5955): 181–184.
805:978-0-8050-7520-5
673:(July 15, 2008).
656:978-0-674-48525-9
423:inclusive fitness
277:
276:
262:10,000s–100,000s
131:Primate sociality
3048:
3041:Moral psychology
2995:
2982:
2969:
2968:
2612:
2608:Related subjects
2395:Adult attachment
1922:Cognitive module
1878:
1865:Social selection
1839:Costly signaling
1834:Sexual selection
1721:Modern synthesis
1666:
1659:
1652:
1643:
1611:
1527:
1508:
1489:
1470:
1442:
1441:
1430:10.1037/a0015474
1423:
1403:
1397:
1396:
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1342:
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1063:
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1024:
1023:
1013:
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979:
973:
972:
969:www.primates.com
961:
955:
954:
943:10.1038/308181a0
918:
912:
911:
901:
891:
859:
853:
852:
816:
810:
809:
786:Shermer, Michael
782:
776:
765:
759:
758:
746:
740:
729:
720:
719:
717:
697:
691:
690:
688:
687:
667:
661:
660:
629:
491:Social selection
454:, some forms of
452:bipolar disorder
195:
79:Animal sociality
49:social behaviors
3056:
3055:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2946:
2932:Neoevolutionism
2839:
2823:Species complex
2788:Group selection
2726:Research topics
2721:
2697:Neuropsychology
2599:
2585:Substance abuse
2507:Sex differences
2501:
2415:Coolidge effect
2376:
2288:Neuroergonomics
2253:
2244:
2168:
2070:
2004:Folk psychology
1885:
1869:
1739:
1732:
1675:
1670:
1588:Muus, Harriet.
1587:
1543:Richard Dawkins
1534:
1524:
1511:
1505:
1492:
1486:
1473:
1467:
1459:. Basic Books.
1454:
1451:
1449:Further reading
1446:
1445:
1421:10.1.1.186.6114
1405:
1404:
1400:
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818:
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813:
806:
784:
783:
779:
766:
762:
748:
747:
743:
730:
723:
715:10.1.1.669.4360
699:
698:
694:
685:
683:
669:
668:
664:
657:
637:Bert Hölldobler
631:
630:
626:
621:
567:
512:
502:
493:
485:Main articles:
483:
474:
468:
434:, theorized by
385:in the article
375:
366:
343:adaptive valley
326:
251:1,000s–10,000s
193:
164:Michael Shermer
151:common ancestor
139:
133:
87:
81:
57:Sociobiological
37:animal behavior
25:human evolution
17:
12:
11:
5:
3054:
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3044:
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3038:
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3028:
3023:
3013:
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2407:
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2397:
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2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2315:Mind-blindness
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2259:
2257:
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2237:
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2227:
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2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2189:
2184:
2178:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2167:
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2161:
2160:
2159:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2080:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2010:
2008:theory of mind
2001:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1919:
1914:
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1912:
1907:
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1891:
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1875:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1841:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1803:
1802:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1775:Baldwin effect
1772:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1750:
1744:
1742:
1734:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1693:
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1680:
1677:
1676:
1671:
1669:
1668:
1661:
1654:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1621:
1615:Jonathan Haidt
1612:
1585:
1572:
1566:
1549:
1545:video clip on
1540:
1533:
1532:External links
1530:
1529:
1528:
1522:
1509:
1504:978-0307461445
1503:
1490:
1485:978-0393347791
1484:
1471:
1466:978-0465020485
1465:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1414:(1): 103–122.
1398:
1366:
1343:
1324:
1297:(3): 272–294.
1281:
1230:
1203:(4): 437–455.
1184:
1157:(5): 562–572.
1141:
1125:
1110:
1093:
1080:10.1086/682188
1058:
1051:
1025:
994:(1): 340–345.
974:
956:
913:
854:
811:
804:
777:
760:
741:
721:
692:
671:Wade, Nicholas
662:
655:
633:Wilson, Edward
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610:
605:
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593:Moral progress
590:
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578:
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566:
563:
519:basic emotions
506:Moral emotions
501:
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482:
479:
467:
464:
399:theory of mind
381:, detailed by
374:
371:
365:
362:
330:game theorists
325:
322:
306:social control
275:
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223:100,000–10,000
220:
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209:
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191:
181:group cohesion
176:
175:
132:
129:
80:
77:
63:, and thus as
53:social animals
33:human behavior
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3042:
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2961:
2957:
2956:
2953:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2927:Neo-Darwinism
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2912:Functionalism
2910:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2870:Connectionism
2868:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2860:indeterminism
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
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2619:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2580:Schizophrenia
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2565:Mental health
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
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2518:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2508:
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2468:
2466:
2463:
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2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2440:Mate guarding
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2400:Age disparity
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
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2356:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2330:Schizophrenia
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
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2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2255:Mental health
2251:
2250:Human factors
2247:
2241:
2240:Socialization
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
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2203:
2201:
2200:paternal bond
2197:
2193:
2190:
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2171:
2165:
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2138:
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2092:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2065:
2064:NaĂŻve physics
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2030:Motor control
2028:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1988:Ophidiophobia
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1978:Arachnophobia
1976:
1975:
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1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
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1920:
1918:
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1911:
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1905:Display rules
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1898:
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1832:
1828:
1825:
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1820:
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1813:
1810:
1808:
1807:Kin selection
1805:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1793:
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1778:
1776:
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1729:
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1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1701:Adaptationism
1699:
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1694:
1690:
1687:
1686:
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1681:
1678:
1674:
1667:
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1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1624:Peter Swirski
1622:
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1553:
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1525:
1519:
1516:. MIT press.
1515:
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1402:
1399:
1388:on 2012-05-06
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909:
905:
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890:
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869:
865:
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850:
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797:
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781:
778:
774:
773:0-385-52155-3
770:
764:
761:
756:
752:
745:
742:
738:
737:1-475-91933-6
734:
728:
726:
722:
716:
711:
707:
703:
696:
693:
682:
681:
676:
672:
666:
663:
658:
652:
648:
647:
642:
638:
634:
628:
625:
618:
614:
613:Veneer theory
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
598:Moral realism
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
583:
579:
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574:
572:
569:
568:
564:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
527:decomposition
524:
520:
517:, one of the
516:
511:
507:
499:
497:
492:
488:
480:
478:
473:
465:
463:
461:
457:
453:
449:
448:schizophrenia
445:
439:
437:
433:
428:
424:
420:
419:kin selection
416:
412:
406:
404:
400:
396:
395:consciousness
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388:
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272:
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267:3,000–present
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261:
258:
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2018:Flynn effect
2013:Intelligence
1995:Folk biology
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2768:Coevolution
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2550:Gender role
2455:Orientation
2335:Screen time
2192:Affectional
2174:Development
1853:Mate choice
1780:By-products
1748:Adaptations
1711:Cognitivism
1628:God's Grace
1552:Marc Hauser
874:(9): e886.
460:psychopathy
304:a means of
256:4,000–3,000
245:5,000–4,000
3015:Categories
2803:Population
2798:Lamarckism
2644:behavioral
2622:Behavioral
2570:Narcissism
2515:Aggression
2305:Hypophobia
2295:Depression
2182:Attachment
2164:Universals
2128:Psychology
2106:Biological
2094:Musicology
2084:Aesthetics
1983:Basophobia
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1768:Reciprocal
1634:New York,
1575:Sam Harris
1392:2010-06-19
1357:Groundings
686:2008-08-27
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470:See also:
282:share food
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83:See also:
69:Sam Harris
2648:cognitive
2640:Affective
2525:Cognition
2479:Sexuality
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1882:Cognition
1800:Inclusive
1740:processes
1728:Criticism
1636:Routledge
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1088:146760529
710:CiteSeerX
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212:6,000,000
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2140:Morality
2118:Language
1999:taxonomy
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1547:morality
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908:17849015
868:PLOS ONE
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788:(2004).
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565:See also
456:dementia
334:altruism
125:altruism
100:termites
29:Morality
2818:Species
2590:Suicide
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2187:Bonding
2076:Culture
1900:Display
1887:Emotion
1795:Fitness
1684:History
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1617:on the
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515:Disgust
500:Emotion
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