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adaptations to captivity. Adaptations to captivity can be reduced by minimizing the number of generations in captivity and by maximizing the number of migrants from wild populations. Minimizing selection on captive populations by creating an environment that is similar to their natural environment is another method of reducing adaptations to captivity, but it is important to find a balance between an environment that minimizes adaptation to captivity and an environment that permits adequate reproduction. Adaptations to captivity can also be reduced by managing the captive population as a series of population fragments. In this management strategy, the captive population is split into several sub-populations or fragments which are maintained separately. Smaller populations have lower adaptive potentials, so the population fragments are less likely to accumulate adaptations associated with captivity. The fragments are maintained separately until
354:. During the initial growth phase, the population size is rapidly expanded until a target population size is reached. The target population size is the number of individuals that are required to maintain appropriate levels of genetic diversity, which is generally considered to be 90% of the current genetic diversity after 100 years. The number of individuals required to meet this goal varies based on potential growth rate, effective size, current genetic diversity, and generation time. Once the target population size is reached, the focus shifts to maintaining the population and avoiding genetic issues within the captive population.
455:. In this case, the best option is to attempt to minimize the frequency of the allele by selectively choosing mating pairs. In the process of eliminating genetic disorders, it is important to consider that when certain individuals are prevented from breeding, alleles and therefore genetic diversity are removed from the population; if these alleles are not present in other individuals, they may be lost completely. Preventing certain individuals from the breeding also reduces the effective population size, which is associated with problems such as the loss of genetic diversity and increased inbreeding.
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when one allele is taken randomly from each mating individual. The mean kinship value is the average kinship value between a given individual and every other member of the population. Mean kinship values can help determine which individuals should be mated. In choosing individuals for breeding, it
161:
conservation, all of which house whole, protected specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild when necessary and possible. These facilities provide not only housing and care for specimens of endangered species, but also have an educational value. They inform the public of the threatened
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populations, the frequencies of most deleterious alleles are relatively low, but when a population undergoes a bottleneck during the founding of a captive population, previously rare alleles may survive and increase in number. Further inbreeding within the captive population may also increase the
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conservation sites, with the WZCS (World Zoo
Conservation Strategy) estimating that the 1,100 organized zoos in the world receive more than 600 million visitors annually. Globally there is an estimated total of 2,107 aquaria and zoos in 125 countries. Additionally many private collectors or other
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potential. The loss of genetic diversity due to the founder effect can be minimized by ensuring that the founder population is large enough and genetically representative of the wild population. This is often difficult because removing large numbers of individuals from the wild populations may
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favors different traits in captive populations than it does in wild populations, so this may result in adaptations that are beneficial in captivity but are deleterious in the wild. This reduces the success of re-introductions, so it is important to manage captive populations in order to reduce
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are passed on, which helps to increase genetic diversity. It is also important to avoid mating two individuals with very different mean kinship values because such pairings propagate both the rare alleles that are present in the individual with the low mean kinship value as well as the common
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care in a constructed landscape, typically a botanic garden or arboreta. This technique is similar to a field gene bank in that plants are maintained in the ambient environment, but the collections are typically not as genetically diverse or extensive. These collections are susceptible to
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of plant or animal outside its natural habitat. For example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, an artificial environment which is similar to the natural habitat of the respective animal and within the care of humans, such as a
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further reduce the genetic diversity of a species that is already of conservation concern. An alternative to this is collecting sperm from wild individuals and using this via artificial insemination to bring in fresh genetic material. Maximizing the captive population size and the
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conservation techniques are often costly, with cryogenic storage being economically infeasible in most cases since species stored in this manner cannot provide a profit but instead slowly drain the financial resources of the government or organization determined to operate them.
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storage methods, the preserved specimen's adaptation processes are (quite literally) frozen altogether. The downside to this is that, when re-released, the species may lack the genetic adaptations and mutations which would allow it to thrive in its ever-changing natural habitat.
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Niasari-Naslaji, A.; Nikjou, D.; Skidmore, J. A.; Moghiseh, A.; Mostafaey, M.; Razavi, K.; Moosavi-Movahedi, A. A. (2009). "Interspecies embryo transfer in camelids: the birth of the first
Bactrian camel calves (Camelus bactrianus) from dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius)".
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conservation removes the species from its natural ecological contexts, preserving it under semi-isolated conditions whereby natural evolution and adaptation processes are either temporarily halted or altered by introducing the specimen to an unnatural habitat. In the case of
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Plants are under horticulture care, but the environment is managed to near natural conditions. This occurs with either restored or semi-natural environments. This technique is primarily used for taxa that are rare or in areas where habitat has been severely degraded.
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and adaptations to captivity. It is important to manage captive populations in a way that minimizes these issues so that the individuals to be introduced will resemble the original founders as closely as possible, which will increase the chances of successful
89:. The degree to which humans control or modify the natural dynamics of the managed population varies widely, and this may include alteration of living environments, reproductive patterns, access to resources, and protection from predation and mortality.
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alleles that are present in the individual with the high mean kinship value. This genetic management technique requires that ancestry is known, so in circumstances where ancestry is unknown, it might be necessary to use molecular genetics such as
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of wild, agricultural, or forestry species. Typically species that are either difficult or impossible to conserve in seed banks are conserved in field gene banks. Field gene banks may also be used grow and select progeny of species stored by other
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status of endangered species and of those factors which cause the threat, with the hope of creating public interest in stopping and reversing those factors which jeopardize a species' survival in the first place. They are the most publicly visited
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consist of the storage of seeds, pollen, tissue, or embryos in liquid nitrogen. This method can be used for virtually indefinite storage of material without deterioration over a much greater time-period relative to all other methods of
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within the population. The high occurrence of genetic disorders within a captive population can threaten both the survival of the captive population and its eventual reintroduction back into the wild. If the genetic disorder is
212:. Seed bank facilities vary from sealed boxes to climate controlled walk-in freezers or vaults. Taxa with recalcitrant seeds that do not tolerate desiccation are typically not held in seed banks for extended periods of time.
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Managing populations based on minimizing mean kinship values is often an effective way to increase genetic diversity and to avoid inbreeding within captive populations. Kinship is the probability that two alleles will be
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conservation technique tissue culture is primary used for clonal propagation of vegetative tissue or immature seeds. This allows for the proliferation of clonal plants from a relatively small amount of parent tissue.
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with recalcitrant seeds that do not remain fertile for long periods of time. Diseases and pests foreign to the species, to which the species has no natural defense, may also cripple crops of protected plants in
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not-for-profit groups hold animals and they engage in conservation or reintroduction efforts. Similarly there are approximately 2,000 botanical gardens in 148 counties cultivating or storing an estimated 80,000
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is important to choose individuals with the lowest mean kinship values because these individuals are least related to the rest of the population and have the least common alleles. This ensures that rarer
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conservation, while helpful in humankind's efforts to sustain and protect our environment, is rarely enough to save a species from extinction. It is to be used as a last resort, or as a supplement to
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447:, it may be possible to eliminate the disease completely in a single generation by avoiding breeding of the affected individuals. However, if the genetic disorder is
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496:, with a wild population of 14 birds as of early February 2017, are being bred in a captive breeding program. The captive population consists of around 300 birds.
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breeding grounds. These factors, combined with the specific environmental needs of many species, some of which are nearly impossible to recreate by man, make
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are often an issue within captive populations due to the fact that the populations are usually established from a small number of founders. In large,
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406:. Minimizing the number of generations in captivity is another effective method for reducing the loss of genetic diversity in captive populations.
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becomes a concern. Immigrants are then exchanged between the fragments to reduce inbreeding, and then the fragments are managed separately again.
329:, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. It has been carried out for the
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conservation and is critical for successful reintroductions and the long term success of the species, since more diverse populations have higher
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470:, is an example of a species that was thought to be extinct, but was rediscovered in 1993 in the form of a single plant at a site in western
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The storage of seeds in a temperature and moisture controlled environment. This technique is used for taxa with orthodox seeds that tolerate
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and subsequent small population sizes. Minimizing the loss of genetic diversity within the captive population is an important component of
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for short periods of time. This is done in a light and temperature controlled environment that regulates the growth of cells. As an
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hybridization, artificial selection, genetic drift, and disease transmission. Species that cannot be conserved by other
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1246:. Bioversity International, CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation), FAO, ILRI. Archived from
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counterparts, or those elements which, over time, might help a species adapt to its changing surroundings. Instead,
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Endangered animal species and breeds are preserved using similar techniques. Animal species can be preserved in
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103:. This means that they are not under the same selection pressures as wild populations, and they may undergo
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Laikre, Linda (1999). "Hereditary
Defects and Conservation Genetic Management of Captive Populations".
765:"IUCN Species Survival Commission Guidelines on the Use of Ex situ Management for Species Conservation"
290:, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a temperature of about −150 °C)
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management can occur within or outside a species' natural geographic range. Individuals maintained
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The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
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conservation. Cryopreservation is also used for the conservation of livestock genetics through
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932:) recipients induces abnormally high plasmatic levels of pregnancy-associated glycoprotein"
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can decrease the loss of genetic diversity by minimizing the random loss of alleles due to
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Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources. FAO Animal
Production and Health Guidelines.
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The Global Plan of Action for Animal
Genetic Resources and the Interlaken Declaration.
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conservation impossible for a great number of the world's endangered flora and fauna.
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conservation, as they are being grown in nurseries to be sold to the general public.
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Botanic
Gardens Conservation International – international organisation supporting
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is a field of active research, and many studies concerning plants are underway.
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U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Arcata Division, 1655 Heindon Road, Arcata, Ca.
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techniques from more than 355 species, including mammals, reptiles, and birds.
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1302:"The Challenges of Ex situ Orchid Conservation", Orchid Conservation Coalition
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A potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is
196:. Technical limitations prevent the cryopreservation of many species, but
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Kameswara, N.; J. Hanson; M. E. Dulloo; K. Ghosh; A. Nowell; M. Larinde.
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likelihood that deleterious alleles will be expressed due to increasing
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Wild
Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques for Zoo Management
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Fernández-Arias, A.; Alabart, J. L.; Folch, J.; Beckers, J. F. (1999).
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17:
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Genetic diversity is often lost within captive populations due to the
314:. For example, the Zoological Society of San Diego has established a "
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10.1002/(sici)1098-2361(1999)18:2<81::aid-zoo1>3.0.co;2-2
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Cloning to revive extinct species, May 28, 2002, Grant
Holloway, CNN
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Implementing the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources
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Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild
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Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild
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Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild
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1037:. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 430–471.
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Preservation of plants or animals outside their natural habitats
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because it cannot recreate the habitat as a whole: the entire
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Reproductive Technologies and Conservation of Endangered Cats
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Kleiman, Devra; Thompson, Katerina; Baer, Charlotte (2010).
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Koo, B.; Pardey, P. G.; Wright, B. D.; et al. (2004).
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is another example of a plant that is being preserved via
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techniques are often included in cultivated collections.
1191:
A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm Collections
814:
Ramanatha Rao, V.; Brown, A. H. D.; Jackson, M. (2001).
1131:"The race to save the endangered orange-bellied parrot"
850:
Guerrant, Edward; Havens, Karyi; Maunder, Mike (2004).
1315:
1160:"Update on the Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Program"
1059:"Zoo elephant conceived with wild male's frozen sperm"
153:, and aquariums are the most conventional methods of
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Frankham, Dick; Ballou, Jon; Briscoe, David (2011).
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Captive populations are subject to problems such as
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125:where samples are stored in order to conserve the
1596:Other effective area-based conservation measures
474:. Seeds were harvested and the species grown in
1591:Integrated Conservation and Development Project
121:collections. This is primarily in the form of
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1295:In situ conservation of livestock and poultry
220:An extensive open-air planting used maintain
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1316:Domestic Animal Diversity Information System
668:Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources
194:cryoconservation of animal genetic resources
538:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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1262:. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from
1194:. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from
924:"Interspecies pregnancy of Spanish ibex (
558:Learn how and when to remove this message
337:Genetic management of captive populations
1188:Engels, J.M.M.; L. Visser, eds. (2003).
881:Reproduction, Fertility, and Development
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259:Tissue culture (storage and propagation)
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1311:conservation of priority plant species
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142:Botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums
1165:. Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team
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1035:Introduction to Conservation Genetics
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619:plantations and in animals living in
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1243:Manual of Seed Handling in Genebanks
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790:"Convention on Biological Diversity"
693:Genetic erosion#Ex situ conservation
536:adding citations to reliable sources
1136:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
1108:Rediscovery of showy Indian clover
663:Convention on Biological Diversity
610:are ineffective for certain plant
381:Avoiding loss of genetic diversity
72:) is the process of protecting an
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1468:Conservation biology of parasites
410:Avoiding adaptations to captivity
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1584:Tropical rainforest conservation
1488:Vulnerability and susceptibility
817:Managing plant genetic diversity
698:Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
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302:facilities used to store living
2133:NatureServe conservation status
1418:Conservation-induced extinction
854:. Island Press. pp. 10–11.
377:data to help resolve unknowns.
129:of major crop plants and their
1524:Conservation management system
1408:Conservation-dependent species
1368:Index of conservation articles
1229:; Maunder, Mike, eds. (2004).
987:. University of Chicago Press.
318:" to store such samples using
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1750:Assisted natural regeneration
1554:Ecoregion conservation status
951:10.1016/S0093-691X(99)00086-2
263:Somatic tissue can be stored
2138:Special Area of Conservation
1676:Landscape-scale conservation
1671:High conservation value area
1549:Community-based conservation
2527:Zoo emergency response team
2156:List of conservation issues
1564:Evidence-based conservation
1458:Mutualisms and conservation
839:. Island Press. p. 91.
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1606:Roadless area conservation
1398:Compassionate conservation
928:) fetus in domestic goat (
723:List of introduced species
426:Managing genetic disorders
111:for multiple generations.
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2444:Former zoos and aquariums
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1217:18 September 2018 at the
400:effective population size
115:Agricultural biodiversity
37:Svalbard Global Seed Bank
1993:Central African Republic
1641:Conservation designation
1559:Environmental protection
1544:Conspicuous conservation
1534:Conservation photography
1509:Conservation development
1504:Conservation agriculture
835:; Maunder, Mike (2004).
743:World Conservation Union
1732:Human–wildlife conflict
1616:Site-based conservation
1539:Conservation psychology
1357:Conservation of species
638:Artificial insemination
358:Minimizing mean kinship
327:interspecific pregnancy
233:Cultivation collections
2391:Species reintroduction
1789:Species reintroduction
1448:Latent extinction risk
1288:Louisiana's frozen ark
1105:Connors, P. G. (1994)
795:. United Nations. 1992
708:In vitro fertilisation
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278:Techniques for animals
185:Plant cryopreservation
157:conservation. Also in
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2517:Wildlife conservation
2497:Behavioral enrichment
2161:List of organisations
1815:Hawaiian honeycreeper
1755:Ecosystem restoration
1727:Habitat fragmentation
1722:Fortress conservation
1681:Marine protected area
1651:Conservation easement
1646:Conservation district
1611:Roadside conservation
1529:Conservation movement
1473:Species translocation
1413:Conservation genetics
1403:Conservation behavior
1225:Guerrant, Edward O.;
738:Wildlife conservation
494:Orange-bellied parrot
343:inbreeding depression
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175:Techniques for plants
117:is also conserved in
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2605:Conservation biology
2487:Animals in captivity
2386:In situ conservation
2381:Ex situ conservation
2371:Conservation biology
2123:Planetary boundaries
2113:Conservation officer
1717:Conservation refugee
1666:Habitat conservation
1656:Conservation reserve
1621:Wetland conservation
1519:Conservation grazing
1514:Conservation finance
1478:Conservation welfare
1443:In-situ conservation
1438:Extinction threshold
1433:Ex-situ conservation
1266:on 11 December 2008.
658:Conservation biology
532:improve this section
365:identical by descent
105:artificial selection
2584:Category: Aquariums
2439:Conservation topics
1463:Nature conservation
1453:Marine conservation
1423:Conservation status
1250:on 21 January 2008.
1158:Pritchard, Rachel.
1111:. Fremontia 22: 3–7
820:. CABI. p. 89.
464:Showy Indian clover
298:, which consist of
2562:Animals portal
2537:Zoological society
2424:Animal sanctuaries
2376:Endangered species
2290:Marine mammal park
1760:Island restoration
1691:Open space reserve
1483:Threatened species
1139:. 14 February 2017
831:Guerrant, Edward;
703:Introduced species
683:Endangered species
584:of a species, its
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216:Field gene banking
87:wildlife sanctuary
74:endangered species
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1696:Wildlife corridor
1579:Forest protection
1574:Forest management
1065:. 14 August 2012.
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127:genetic resources
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1701:30 by 30 target
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1235:. Island Press.
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517:This section
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472:Sonoma County
469:
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453:heterozygotes
450:
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404:genetic drift
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239:horticultural
237:Plants under
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2459:WAZA members
2380:
2361:Biodiversity
2354:Conservation
2310:Penguinarium
2300:Night safari
2270:Dolphinarium
1891:Bengal Tiger
1847:Arabian oryx
1838:Land mammal
1825:Golden eagle
1661:Gap analysis
1388:Biodiversity
1378:Conservation
1308:
1294:
1264:the original
1259:Saving Seeds
1258:
1248:the original
1242:
1231:
1196:the original
1190:
1167:. Retrieved
1153:
1141:. Retrieved
1134:
1125:
1116:
1107:
1101:
1087:(2): 81–99.
1084:
1080:
1062:
1053:
1034:
984:
942:
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930:Capra hircus
929:
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917:
884:
880:
873:
860:
851:
845:
836:
826:
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797:. Retrieved
784:
772:. Retrieved
770:. IUCN. 2014
759:
624:
620:
616:
602:
600:
589:
578:conservation
575:
570:
569:
554:
548:October 2019
545:
530:Please help
518:
491:
486:
483:Wollemi pine
480:
478:facilities.
475:
467:
462:
440:homozygosity
429:
413:
390:
384:
361:
340:
331:Spanish ibex
324:
293:
270:
264:
262:
253:
243:
236:
229:techniques.
226:
219:
207:
204:Seed banking
189:
183:
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158:
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145:
118:
113:
108:
96:
92:
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66:conservation
51:conservation
48:
47:
46:
43:conservation
40:
29:
2610:Cryobiology
2335:Virtual zoo
2330:Safari park
2320:Petting zoo
2280:Insectarium
2275:Herpetarium
2063:South Sudan
2048:New Zealand
1742:Restoration
1143:14 February
1081:Zoo Biology
864:FAO. 2012.
435:outbreeding
210:desiccation
198:cryobiology
171:of plants.
2615:Cryogenics
2599:Categories
2502:Frozen zoo
2315:Pheasantry
2305:Oceanarium
1998:Costa Rica
1961:By country
1881:Slow loris
1857:Polar bear
1710:Key issues
1497:Approaches
751:References
688:Frozen zoo
420:inbreeding
345:, loss of
316:frozen zoo
286:A tank of
250:Inter situ
137:Facilities
123:gene banks
2522:Zookeeper
2412:Aquariums
2295:Menagerie
2222:aquariums
2038:Mauritius
2018:Indonesia
2003:Hong Kong
1973:Australia
1945:Seed bank
1935:Sea otter
1805:Arthropod
1777:Rewilding
1631:Protected
608:Seedbanks
595:cryogenic
586:symbiotic
519:does not
500:Drawbacks
449:recessive
415:Selection
300:cryogenic
296:genebanks
64:off-site
2340:Vivarium
2260:Bear pit
2250:Aquarium
2226:aviaries
2176:Category
2083:Scotland
2053:Pakistan
2033:Malaysia
1869:Elephant
1798:By taxon
1428:Endemism
1215:Archived
1169:6 August
1063:BBC News
959:10729070
909:20825507
901:19210924
631:See also
459:Examples
445:dominant
395:adaptive
266:in vitro
2542:Zoology
2532:Zoo key
2470:Related
2417:largest
2106:Related
2095:forests
2043:Namibia
2023:Ireland
2008:Iceland
1920:Manatee
1910:Dolphin
1864:Cheetah
1380:biology
1309:ex situ
653:Cloning
625:ex situ
621:ex situ
617:ex situ
603:ex situ
590:ex situ
576:in situ
571:Ex situ
540:removed
525:sources
487:ex situ
476:ex situ
391:ex situ
370:alleles
312:embryos
271:ex situ
244:ex situ
227:ex situ
190:ex situ
164:ex situ
159:ex situ
155:ex situ
119:ex situ
109:ex situ
97:ex situ
93:Ex situ
58:
49:Ex situ
41:ex situ
18:Ex-situ
2582:
2571:
2255:Aviary
2224:, and
2073:Uganda
2068:Sweden
1988:Canada
1983:Brazil
1978:Belize
1968:Angola
1941:Plant
1930:Salmon
1905:Marine
1820:Raptor
1782:marine
1686:Marxan
1252:147 p.
1200:174 p.
1041:
957:
907:
899:
799:27 May
774:27 May
745:(IUCN)
612:genera
2400:Lists
2028:Italy
2013:India
1886:Tiger
1834:Fungi
1633:areas
1221:Rome.
1207:Rome.
1163:(PDF)
935:(PDF)
905:S2CID
793:(PDF)
768:(PDF)
310:, or
304:sperm
78:breed
39:, an
2620:Zoos
2407:Zoos
2218:Zoos
1898:Wolf
1852:Bear
1810:Bird
1171:2012
1145:2017
1039:ISBN
955:PMID
897:PMID
801:2016
776:2016
523:any
521:cite
492:The
481:The
308:eggs
169:taxa
151:zoos
55:lit.
2345:Zoo
1089:doi
947:doi
889:doi
534:by
85:or
2601::
2220:,
1133:.
1085:18
1083:.
1071:^
1061:.
993:^
967:^
953:.
943:51
941:.
937:.
903:.
895:.
885:21
883:.
466:,
333:.
306:,
149:,
133:.
2210:e
2203:t
2196:v
1349:e
1342:t
1335:v
1173:.
1147:.
1095:.
1091::
1047:.
961:.
949::
911:.
891::
803:.
778:.
561:)
555:(
550:)
546:(
542:.
528:.
70:'
61:'
53:(
20:)
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