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claims of economic hardship and political oppression as motivating factors for black flight. They attributed feelings of discontent to a small group of leading black rabble-rousers and outside white meddling. In solidarity, the
Democratic party as a whole "refused to admit to the fact of Southern lawlessness because many of the crimes had been perpetrated by Democrats, usually for their party's own advancement". In contrast, the Senate minority opinion, represented in a report by Minnesota Senator William Windom and New Hampshire Senator Henry W. Blair, utilized the direct testimony of prominent black figures and sided with them. Ultimately, though, the Democratic majority in Congress ensured that no legislation would be passed in support of the Exodus Movement. Appropriation bills for refugee aid introduced by Kansas Senator
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1996:. Black settlement outside of the South as a result of emigration was termed "colonization", and the New Orleans committee meeting became a full-fledged organization dubbed "The Colonization Council". The Council held its first public meetings in 1877. Council meetings consisted of speechmaking and petition writing and signing, with some 98,000 men, women, and children from Louisiana signed onto emigration lists.
2077:"the sustained migration of some 9,500 Blacks from Tennessee and Kentucky to Kansas during the decade far exceeded the much publicized migration of 1879, which netted no more than about 4,000 people from Louisiana". During the 1870s and the decade that followed, blacks bought more than 20,000 acres (81 km) of land in Kansas, and several of the settlements established during this time (e.g.,
2100:
lynchings took place during that period nationwide. On the other hand, the
Exoduster migration seems to have had some impact on labor relations between southern black farm workers and their white employers. Temporary benefits accorded to counties with the highest black labor scarcity included better price terms in leasing contracts and shrinking long-term contract commitments.
1953:
1969:, formal politicians, and white philanthropists were in some ways crucial to the Exodus, the migration ultimately came about as a result of the collective misery of black southerners and the individual inquiry and initiative taken in response by would-be migrants. Black political leaders at the time, such as Adams and Singleton at the local level and
54:
1929:
and federal levels. Grassroots black political activism, exemplified by the leadership of Henry Adams in
Louisiana, functioned only in total secrecy and at great risk of assassination. Such efforts were eventually pushed out of rural communities and into New Orleans, where many organizers including Adams found themselves exiled.
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preferences for limited government. At the local level, Topeka Mayor
Michael C. Case refused to spend municipal funds to aid Exodusters, believing that the money would be better spent to return them to the South. Moreover, much of the poor white population resented the extent of relief efforts aimed at helping immigrant blacks.
2037:
Exodusters fell entirely on the St. Louis black community. Other private relief organizations were funded by
Quakers and other abolitionists in northern states and England. The Kansas Freedman's Aid Society raised some $ 70,000 in support of Exoduster migration and settlement, $ 13,000 of which came from England.
2061:, which Republicans did win. Such accusations, lobbed in particular at Kansas Governor St. John and Thomas Conway, were only seriously considered at the end of 1879, when more attention was being given to the black migrants from North Carolina, who, unable to reach Kansas, were being redirected to Indiana.
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Although the Exodus of 1879 saw a high volume of black migration during a shorter period of time, most of the black migration to Kansas occurred steadily throughout the decade. The black population of Kansas increased by some 26,000 people during the 1870s. Historian Nell
Painter further asserts that
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philanthropists, formed the
Colored Relief Board and the Kansas Freedmen's Aid Society to help those stranded in St. Louis reach Kansas. In contrast to fundraising success in Kansas, "St. Louis officials discouraged the Exodusters whenever possible", and therefore the burden of providing for stranded
1897:
ended. Vigilantes operated with almost total impunity, and no other issue was of more importance to the majority of southern blacks living in the countryside. Given the extreme level of discrimination and violent intimidation blacks faced in the rural South, the
Exodusters can be accurately described
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The most successful of the
Exodusters were those who moved to urban centers and found work as domestic or trade workers. Almost all of the Exodusters who attempted to homestead in the countryside settled in the Kansas uplands, which presented the most formidable obstacles to small-scale farmers. The
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The Exodus of 1879 consisted mostly of refugees fleeing
Mississippi and Louisiana between March and May and Texas later in the year. There was considerable uncertainty at the time as to the actual number of Exodusters that arrived in St. Louis. However, the Colored Relief Board estimated that about
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and the traumatic political campaigns of 1878 in Louisiana, the plight of organized black resistance had reached a point of hopelessness, leading to the Exodus of 1879. Political and economic oppression was enforced by means both legal and illegal, on the streets and in contracts, at both the local
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The impact of the Exoduster migration on subsequent white treatment of African Americans was mixed. On the one hand, the exodus did little to alleviate the national propensity for violence towards blacks. From the 1880s through the 1930s, the lynching of African Americans increased, and some 3,000
1991:
Before the Exodus of 1879 to Kansas, southern blacks convened to discuss the option of emigration both formally and informally. Delegates from Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, and Georgia met at a New Orleans conference in 1875 and discussed black emigration to western territories
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The political response of southern white Democrats, and of some conservative "representative" black men, was one of disgust and incomprehension. They distrusted the intentions of white philanthropy in aiding black migration; in fact, they were convinced of ulterior motives. They denied outright
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The failure of federal and state governments to financially support black migrants can be attributed to both bureaucratic incompetence (as in the case of the mayor of Kansas being denied temporary assistance from the secretary of war due to congressional jurisdiction) and to nineteenth-century
1909:
The Exodusters were not only fleeing extremist groups like the KKK. In fact, throughout Reconstruction a majority of the southern white population continued to resent black emancipation, resulting in an oppressive environment perpetuated by all segments of white society. Most black migration,
1905:
Although blacks greatly outnumbered whites in Louisiana, black armed resistance was practically inconceivable. According to William Murrell in testimony given to the United States Senate, "the white people in Louisiana are better armed and equipped now than during the war". As evidence of the
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frightening lawlessness, which empowered the terrorist activities of the White League in the mid-1870s, the League "managed to seize a huge cache of arms from the arsenal in New Orleans worth about $ 67,000" stolen directly from the United States government.
2088:, thrived for some period before, during, and after the Exoduster movement. Similarly, in the early 20th century, black migrations to the American West and Southwest would continue, and several additional all-black towns would be established, especially in
2003:, Kansas had fought bitterly for its Free State status, and took its fair treatment of black immigrants as a point of pride. Kansas did not actively encourage the Exodusters, but its equal-opportunity stance was more welcoming than most of the country.
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uplands were the only lands available for purchase after the squatters, railroads, and speculators had taken the best farmland. Given the agricultural challenge of farming these lands, many Exodusters were still destitute a year after their arrival.
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Senate investigations debated whether or not black migration fit into a greater conspiratorial political scheme on the part of Republicans, who were thought to be packing swing states to increase their chances of success in the upcoming
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at the national level, were limited in their ability to influence the southern black populace. For this reason, during the post-Reconstruction period, blacks did not enjoy any truly representative national leadership.
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1941:, in that many Exodusters created settlements they believed to be their new Promised Land. That the journey of these refugees was termed an "exodus", a word taken from the Old Testament in reference to the
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2068:, a former slave who escaped captivity, was a critic of the movement. Douglass did not disagree with the Exodusters in principle, but he felt that the movement was ill-timed and poorly organized.
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Most southern states completely undermined federal Reconstruction efforts to promote landowning as the blacks' ticket to economic freedom and equality. For example, in 1865 the
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served to exacerbate the racist policies of white merchants and planters, who sought to offset their agricultural losses by increasing prices and interest rates for blacks.
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Woods, Randall B. (1998). "Integration, Exclusion, or Segregation? The "Color Line" in Kansas, 1878-1900." Billington, Monroe Lee; Hardaway, Roger D., eds.
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The number one cause of black migration out of the South at this time was to escape racial violence or "bulldozing" by white supremacist groups such as the
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outlawed the selling or leasing of land to blacks. As a result, in large parts of Mississippi, less than 1 in 100 black workers owned land or a house.
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Exodus to Kansas: The 1880 Senate Investigation of the Beginnings of the African American Migration from the South.
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including the Exodus of 1879, was spurred on by the dire economic prospects of black labor in the rural South. The
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Of note, however, western migration of African-Americans was not limited to the Exoduster period, and places like
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2916:"This is Not Dixie:" The Imagined South, the Kansas Free State Narrative, and the Rhetoric of Racist Violence.
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1949:'s boisterous proselytizing mostly found an enthusiastic black following and a more amenable white audience.
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2576:""Pap" Singleton's Dunlap Colony: Relief Agencies and the Failure of a Black Settlement in Eastern Kansas"
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Liberia proved an unrealistic destination for black refugees financially and logistically. As the land of
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The Exodus was not universally praised by African Americans; indeed, Republican statesman
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The movement received substantial organizational support from prominent figures, such as
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While the roles of community leaders like Singleton and Adams, white facilitators like
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Movement of African Americans in Kansas to live freely from their former slave masters
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In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990
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of Chicago, and Henry Adams of Louisiana. As many as 40,000 Exodusters left the
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Bound for the Promised Land: African American Religion and the Great Migration
2188:(2). Association for the Study of African American Life and History: 111–129.
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African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement
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2649:"It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West
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Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience
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Civil War on the Western Border: The Missouri-Kansas Conflict, 1854-1865
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2586:(1). University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Center for Great Plains Studies.
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2682:"Seeking the Promised Land: African American Migrations to Kansas"
1951:
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Reality of life for black people in the post-Reconstruction South
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The Exoduster movement has been characterized as an example of
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20,000 Exodusters reached the city between 1879 and 1880; the
2464:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 110–111.
2028:
Many steamboat captains refused to carry migrants across the
2025:
quoted 6,206 arriving between March and April 1879 alone.
2901:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 210.
2886:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 147.
2871:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 146.
2785:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 252.
2770:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 250.
2755:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 255.
2740:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 254.
2722:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 253.
2707:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 233.
2666:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 232.
2651:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 198.
2636:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 184.
2621:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 185.
2542:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 231.
2527:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 159.
2449:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 133.
2226:
Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History
2512:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 87.
2494:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 83.
2479:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 89.
2434:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 68.
2404:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 62.
2389:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 17.
2374:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 23.
2356:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 27.
2419:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 7.
2799:
I Too Am America: Documents from 1619 to the Present
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African American Women Confront the West, 1600-2000
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Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers
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3001:(Kansas State Historical Society, Exoduster Flier)
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2178:Van Deusen, JohnG. (1936). "The Exodus of 1879".
2081:, which was founded in 1877) still exist today.
130:Around 26,000 African Americans arrive in Kansas
1830:in the late nineteenth century, as part of the
92:Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
2155:African American settlements in Western Canada
417:Education of freed people during the Civil War
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2223:Johnson, Daniel M.; Campbell, Rex R. (1981).
1885:, as well as widespread repression under the
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8:
2503:
2501:
2268:"Henry Adams [Louisiana] (1843-?) •"
428:Historically black colleges and universities
46:
2960:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
2953:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
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2595:
2593:
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2363:
2347:
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1889:, discriminatory laws that rendered blacks
412:Education during the slave period in the US
2974:. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado.
2914:Campney, Brent M. S. (September 6, 2007) "
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191:Slavery in the colonial history of the US
102:Mass racial violence in the United States
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2150:Camp Nelson Heritage National Monument
3051:History of the Southern United States
933:Athletic associations and conferences
422:History of African-American education
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856:Association for the Study of African
1956:"Ho For Kansas!" Copyprint handbill
1670:Race and ethnicity in the US census
1171:African-American Vernacular English
740:National Conference of Black Mayors
3021:African-American history of Kansas
2160:Great Migration (African American)
2092:, which would become the state of
873:National Black Chamber of Commerce
25:
2796:Romero, Patricia W., ed. (1978).
2574:Hickey, Joseph V. (Winter 1991).
2560:. Facts on File History Database.
2282:"Slavery in America Encyclopedia"
1577:Places by plurality of population
243:Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
233:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
186:Abolitionism in the United States
3061:Politically motivated migrations
2981:. New York: Russell and Russell.
2967:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
2942:. Seattle: Open Hand Publishing.
1752:
274:Black Belt in the American South
52:
2925:Davis, Damani. (Summer 2008). "
2266:Wang, Tabitha (June 24, 2008).
878:National Council of Negro Women
114:Government of the United States
1842:of black people following the
1675:Racism against Black Americans
1:
3031:African-American demographics
2802:. Publishers Agency. p.
2606:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
883:National Pan-Hellenic Council
127:98,000 sign emigration papers
2979:A Century of Negro Migration
2897:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2882:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2867:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2781:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2766:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2751:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2736:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2718:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2703:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2662:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2632:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2617:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2538:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2523:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2508:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2490:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2475:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2460:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2445:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2430:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2415:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2400:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2385:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2370:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2352:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2181:The Journal of Negro History
1685:School segregation in the US
1223:Black American Sign Language
1197:Languages and other dialects
2977:Woodson, Carter G. (1969).
2963:Savage, W. Sherman (1976).
512:African-American businesses
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2690:Kansas City Public Library
2059:1880 presidential election
1050:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
725:Congressional Black Caucus
692:African Diaspora Religions
479:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
3046:1879 in the United States
3036:African-American refugees
2602:Quintard, Taylor (1998).
2128:, by Mildred Pitts Walker
2114:, by David Anthony Durham
1557:US states and territories
858:American Life and History
580:Lift Every Voice and Sing
289:Treatment of the enslaved
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2956:Ravage, John W. (1997).
2072:Impact of the Exodusters
2049:and Ohio Representative
2023:St. Louis Globe-Democrat
1973:and Mississippi Senator
1961:Role of black leadership
1947:Benjamin "Pap" Singleton
1924:In the aftermath of the
1759:United States portal
1166:African-American English
677:African-American Muslims
238:Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
2647:White, Richard (1991).
1943:Jews' flight from Egypt
1912:depression of the 1870s
1680:Reparations for slavery
768:Back-to-Africa movement
667:Black Hebrew Israelites
545:African-American beauty
58:Refugees on Levee, 1879
2938:Katz, William (1987).
2580:Great Plains Quarterly
2132:Why the Dark Man Cries
2016:Response to the exodus
1957:
1919:Mississippi Black Code
1150:Dialects and languages
310:Second Great Migration
41:considered for merging
2844:Duke University Press
2231:Duke University Press
2134:, by Connie Fredricks
2104:Exodusters in fiction
1955:
1891:second-class citizens
1861:to settle in Kansas,
1562:US metropolitan areas
1389:List of neighborhoods
1003:Alabama Creole people
993:African-American Jews
925:Negro league baseball
888:National Urban League
840:Civic/economic groups
672:African-American Jews
562:African-American hair
424:, after the Civil War
253:Post–civil rights era
1810:was a name given to
1719:Criminal stereotypes
1494:District of Columbia
1211:Afro-Seminole Creole
653:Non-Christian groups
248:Black power movement
212:during the Civil War
181:Atlantic slave trade
2322:Basic Civitas Books
2053:died in committee.
1838:. It was the first
1115:Sierra Leone Creole
1076:Specific ancestries
961:Southwestern (SWAC)
484:Black History Month
315:New Great Migration
269:Agriculture history
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2965:Blacks in the West
2836:Sernett, Milton C.
2310:Gates, Henry Louis
2122:, by Toni Morrison
2066:Frederick Douglass
1987:Kansas vs. Liberia
1971:Frederick Douglass
1958:
1926:Compromise of 1877
1851:Benjamin Singleton
1832:Exoduster Movement
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998:Afro-Puerto Ricans
951:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
586:Self-determination
550:Black is beautiful
216:Reconstruction era
47:Exoduster movement
3041:History of Kansas
2922:. ISSN 1551-2754.
2079:Nicodemus, Kansas
2051:James A. Garfield
2007:Reality in Kansas
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1824:Mississippi River
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2480:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2367:
2358:
2357:
2349:
2340:
2339:
2319:
2306:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2284:. Archived from
2278:
2272:
2271:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2175:
2090:Indian Territory
2086:Quindaro, Kansas
1975:Blanche K. Bruce
1967:Thomas W. Conway
1855:Philip D. Armour
1797:
1790:
1783:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1704:media depictions
1653:
1548:Population count
1244:
1178:Liberian English
1157:English dialects
1154:
1110:Samaná Americans
1035:Creoles of color
981:
919:
863:Black conductors
844:
713:
687:Louisiana Voodoo
609:
354:Family structure
337:
284:Military history
279:Business history
210:military history
165:
138:
97:Jim Crow economy
56:
49:
21:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3066:
3065:
3011:
3010:
2988:
2935:Vol. 40, No. 2.
2920:Southern Spaces
2911:
2909:Further reading
2906:
2896:
2895:
2891:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2854:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2814:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2750:
2749:
2745:
2735:
2734:
2727:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2679:
2678:
2671:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2645:
2641:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2615:
2611:
2601:
2600:
2591:
2573:
2572:
2565:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2507:
2506:
2499:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2368:
2361:
2351:
2350:
2343:
2336:
2308:
2307:
2300:
2291:
2289:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2245:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2194:10.2307/2714567
2177:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2145:Freedmen's town
2141:
2111:Gabriel's Story
2106:
2074:
2047:John J. Ingalls
2018:
2009:
1989:
1984:
1963:
1935:
1875:
1801:
1753:
1751:
1744:
1743:
1738:
1694:
1650:
1642:
1641:
1636:
1581:
1543:
1519:Omaha, Nebraska
1484:Historic places
1478:
1370:
1241:
1233:
1232:
1227:
1192:
1151:
1143:
1142:
1137:
1119:
1071:
1013:Black Seminoles
978:
977:Sub-communities
970:
969:
956:Southern (SIAC)
916:
908:
907:
902:
857:
841:
833:
832:
827:
744:
710:
702:
701:
696:
682:Nation of Islam
648:
625:
606:
596:
595:
590:
531:
498:
465:
437:
398:
374:Musical theater
334:
324:
323:
305:Great Migration
162:
116:
59:
44:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3074:
3072:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3056:1879 in Kansas
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2987:
2986:External links
2984:
2983:
2982:
2975:
2968:
2961:
2958:Black Pioneers
2954:
2943:
2940:The Black West
2936:
2923:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2889:
2874:
2859:
2852:
2846:. p. 14.
2827:
2812:
2788:
2773:
2758:
2743:
2725:
2710:
2695:
2669:
2654:
2639:
2624:
2609:
2589:
2563:
2558:www.fofweb.com
2545:
2530:
2515:
2497:
2482:
2467:
2452:
2437:
2422:
2407:
2392:
2377:
2359:
2341:
2334:
2298:
2273:
2258:
2243:
2229:. Durham, NC:
2215:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2115:
2105:
2102:
2073:
2070:
2030:Missouri River
2017:
2014:
2008:
2005:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1982:Promised lands
1980:
1962:
1959:
1939:millenarianism
1934:
1933:Millenarianism
1931:
1895:Reconstruction
1874:
1871:
1853:of Tennessee,
1836:Exodus of 1879
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1792:
1785:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1665:Black genocide
1661:
1658:
1657:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1574:
1572:US communities
1569:
1564:
1559:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1529:South Carolina
1526:
1524:North Carolina
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1346:South Carolina
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1326:North Carolina
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1228:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1183:Samaná English
1180:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1152:
1149:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1135:
1133:LGBT community
1129:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1090:Creek Freedmen
1087:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1060:Carmel Indians
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1015:
1005:
1000:
995:
989:
986:
985:
979:
976:
975:
972:
971:
966:
965:
964:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
941:Central (CIAA)
935:
934:
930:
929:
928:
927:
917:
914:
913:
910:
909:
904:
903:
901:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
852:
849:
848:
842:
839:
838:
835:
834:
829:
828:
826:
825:
820:
815:
810:
808:Pan-Africanism
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
754:
751:
750:
746:
745:
743:
742:
737:
732:
727:
721:
718:
717:
711:
708:
707:
704:
703:
698:
697:
695:
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
658:
655:
654:
650:
649:
647:
646:
641:
639:Black theology
635:
632:
631:
627:
626:
624:
623:
617:
614:
613:
607:
602:
601:
598:
597:
592:
591:
589:
588:
583:
576:
571:
570:
569:
559:
554:
553:
552:
541:
538:
537:
533:
532:
530:
529:
524:
519:
514:
508:
505:
504:
503:Economic class
500:
499:
497:
496:
491:
486:
481:
475:
472:
471:
467:
466:
464:
463:
458:
453:
447:
444:
443:
442:Academic study
439:
438:
436:
435:
430:
425:
419:
414:
408:
405:
404:
400:
399:
397:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
345:
342:
341:
335:
330:
329:
326:
325:
320:
319:
318:
317:
312:
307:
299:
298:
294:
293:
292:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
263:
262:
258:
257:
256:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
224:
223:
213:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
170:
169:
163:
158:
157:
154:
153:
147:
146:
134:
133:
132:
131:
128:
123:
119:
118:
111:
107:
106:
105:
104:
99:
89:
85:
84:
83:Exodus of 1879
81:
77:
76:
73:
69:
68:
65:
61:
60:
57:
29:
26:
24:
18:Exodus of 1879
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3073:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2996:"Exodusters")
2995:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2973:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2955:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2900:
2893:
2890:
2885:
2878:
2875:
2870:
2863:
2860:
2855:
2853:0-8223-1993-4
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2828:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2813:0-87781-206-3
2809:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2792:
2789:
2784:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2762:
2759:
2754:
2747:
2744:
2739:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2714:
2711:
2706:
2699:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2680:Warren, Kim.
2676:
2674:
2670:
2665:
2658:
2655:
2650:
2643:
2640:
2635:
2628:
2625:
2620:
2613:
2610:
2605:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2541:
2534:
2531:
2526:
2519:
2516:
2511:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2486:
2483:
2478:
2471:
2468:
2463:
2456:
2453:
2448:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2426:
2423:
2418:
2411:
2408:
2403:
2396:
2393:
2388:
2381:
2378:
2373:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2337:
2335:0-465-00071-1
2331:
2327:
2323:
2318:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2288:on 2007-08-27
2287:
2283:
2277:
2274:
2269:
2262:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2244:0-8223-0449-X
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2219:
2216:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2174:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2062:
2060:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2038:
2035:
2031:
2026:
2024:
2015:
2013:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1997:
1995:
1986:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1954:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1920:
1915:
1913:
1907:
1903:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1786:
1784:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1735:
1734:Minstrel show
1732:
1730:
1729:Magical Negro
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1659:
1654:
1646:
1645:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1551:
1546:
1540:
1539:West Virginia
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1475:
1474:San Francisco
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1454:New York City
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1251:
1250:
1245:
1237:
1236:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1147:
1146:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1105:Nova Scotians
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1079:
1074:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1008:Black Indians
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
990:
988:
987:
982:
974:
973:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
946:HBCU (HBCUAC)
944:
942:
939:
938:
937:
936:
931:
926:
923:
922:
921:
920:
912:
911:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
854:
853:
851:
850:
847:Organizations
845:
837:
836:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
755:
753:
752:
747:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
722:
720:
719:
716:Organizations
714:
706:
705:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
659:
657:
656:
651:
645:
642:
640:
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1964:
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1904:
1883:White League
1879:Ku Klux Klan
1876:
1848:
1835:
1831:
1807:
1806:
1632:Sierra Leone
1464:Philadelphia
1434:Jacksonville
1030:Brass Ankles
783:Conservatism
758:Afrocentrism
730:Joint Center
621:Black church
612:Institutions
527:Billionaires
517:Middle class
470:Celebrations
433:Fraternities
110:Participants
34:
2324:. pp.
1887:Black Codes
1700:Stereotypes
1627:Nova Scotia
1509:Mississippi
1469:San Antonio
1449:Los Angeles
1384:Black mecca
1311:Mississippi
1218:Negro Dutch
1040:Dominickers
984:Multiethnic
893:TransAfrica
803:Nationalism
773:Black power
557:Black pride
522:Upper class
221:Politicians
30:‹ The
3015:Categories
2899:Exodusters
2884:Exodusters
2869:Exodusters
2783:Exodusters
2768:Exodusters
2753:Exodusters
2738:Exodusters
2720:Exodusters
2705:Exodusters
2664:Exodusters
2634:Exodusters
2619:Exodusters
2540:Exodusters
2525:Exodusters
2510:Exodusters
2492:Exodusters
2477:Exodusters
2462:Exodusters
2447:Exodusters
2432:Exodusters
2417:Exodusters
2402:Exodusters
2387:Exodusters
2372:Exodusters
2354:Exodusters
2292:2007-10-19
2233:. p.
2166:References
2001:John Brown
1822:along the
1808:Exodusters
1266:California
1240:Population
813:Patriotism
798:Liberalism
778:Capitalism
749:Ideologies
630:Theologies
489:Juneteenth
461:Literature
389:Newspapers
297:Migrations
228:Juneteenth
2210:224830636
1844:Civil War
1724:Hollywood
1714:Blackface
1649:Prejudice
1567:US cities
1444:Lexington
1419:Davenport
1399:Baltimore
1375:US cities
1351:Tennessee
1301:Louisiana
1247:US states
1055:Melungeon
1025:Blaxicans
823:Socialism
788:Garveyism
763:Anarchism
567:Good hair
394:Soul food
364:Folktales
39:is being
2994:The West
2949:(2003).
2932:Prologue
2838:(1997).
2312:(1999).
2139:See also
2119:Paradise
2094:Oklahoma
1900:refugees
1881:and the
1867:Colorado
1863:Oklahoma
1816:migrated
1764:Category
1587:Diaspora
1514:Missouri
1439:Kentucky
1366:Virginia
1336:Oklahoma
1321:New York
1316:Nebraska
1306:Maryland
1281:Illinois
1261:Arkansas
1100:Merikins
1045:Freedmen
1018:Mascogos
818:Populism
709:Politics
604:Religion
574:Stepping
340:Lifeways
176:Timeline
143:a series
141:Part of
72:Location
43:. ›
32:template
2822:4662987
2253:6421175
2202:2714567
2034:eastern
1994:Liberia
1622:Liberia
1504:Georgia
1499:Florida
1429:Houston
1424:Detroit
1409:Chicago
1394:Atlanta
1286:Indiana
1276:Georgia
1271:Florida
1256:Alabama
1188:Tutnese
1067:Redbone
793:Leftism
494:Kwanzaa
451:Studies
403:Schools
332:Culture
261:Aspects
206:Slavery
168:Periods
160:History
122:Outcome
2850:
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2208:
2200:
1893:after
1828:Kansas
1820:states
1656:Racism
1617:Israel
1607:France
1602:Canada
1597:Africa
1404:Boston
1341:Oregon
1296:Kansas
1206:Gullah
1095:Gullah
915:Sports
662:Hoodoo
2992:(PBS
2206:S2CID
2198:JSTOR
1859:South
1818:from
1769:Index
1612:Ghana
1534:Texas
1459:Omaha
1356:Texas
868:NAACP
379:Names
369:Music
349:Dance
88:Cause
2848:ISBN
2818:OCLC
2808:ISBN
2330:ISBN
2249:OCLC
2239:ISBN
1992:and
1865:and
1814:who
1702:and
1361:Utah
1331:Ohio
1291:Iowa
898:UNCF
359:Film
208:and
67:1879
64:Date
2804:150
2326:722
2190:doi
1898:as
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1834:or
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456:Art
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