2018:
claims of economic hardship and political oppression as motivating factors for black flight. They attributed feelings of discontent to a small group of leading black rabble-rousers and outside white meddling. In solidarity, the
Democratic party as a whole "refused to admit to the fact of Southern lawlessness because many of the crimes had been perpetrated by Democrats, usually for their party's own advancement". In contrast, the Senate minority opinion, represented in a report by Minnesota Senator William Windom and New Hampshire Senator Henry W. Blair, utilized the direct testimony of prominent black figures and sided with them. Ultimately, though, the Democratic majority in Congress ensured that no legislation would be passed in support of the Exodus Movement. Appropriation bills for refugee aid introduced by Kansas Senator
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1969:. Black settlement outside of the South as a result of emigration was termed "colonization", and the New Orleans committee meeting became a full-fledged organization dubbed "The Colonization Council". The Council held its first public meetings in 1877. Council meetings consisted of speechmaking and petition writing and signing, with some 98,000 men, women, and children from Louisiana signed onto emigration lists.
2050:"the sustained migration of some 9,500 Blacks from Tennessee and Kentucky to Kansas during the decade far exceeded the much publicized migration of 1879, which netted no more than about 4,000 people from Louisiana". During the 1870s and the decade that followed, blacks bought more than 20,000 acres (81 km) of land in Kansas, and several of the settlements established during this time (e.g.,
2073:
lynchings took place during that period nationwide. On the other hand, the
Exoduster migration seems to have had some impact on labor relations between southern black farm workers and their white employers. Temporary benefits accorded to counties with the highest black labor scarcity included better price terms in leasing contracts and shrinking long-term contract commitments.
1926:
1942:, formal politicians, and white philanthropists were in some ways crucial to the Exodus, the migration ultimately came about as a result of the collective misery of black southerners and the individual inquiry and initiative taken in response by would-be migrants. Black political leaders at the time, such as Adams and Singleton at the local level and
27:
1902:
and federal levels. Grassroots black political activism, exemplified by the leadership of Henry Adams in
Louisiana, functioned only in total secrecy and at great risk of assassination. Such efforts were eventually pushed out of rural communities and into New Orleans, where many organizers including Adams found themselves exiled.
2014:
preferences for limited government. At the local level, Topeka Mayor
Michael C. Case refused to spend municipal funds to aid Exodusters, believing that the money would be better spent to return them to the South. Moreover, much of the poor white population resented the extent of relief efforts aimed at helping immigrant blacks.
2010:
Exodusters fell entirely on the St. Louis black community. Other private relief organizations were funded by
Quakers and other abolitionists in northern states and England. The Kansas Freedman's Aid Society raised some $ 70,000 in support of Exoduster migration and settlement, $ 13,000 of which came from England.
2034:, which Republicans did win. Such accusations, lobbed in particular at Kansas Governor St. John and Thomas Conway, were only seriously considered at the end of 1879, when more attention was being given to the black migrants from North Carolina, who, unable to reach Kansas, were being redirected to Indiana.
2049:
Although the Exodus of 1879 saw a high volume of black migration during a shorter period of time, most of the black migration to Kansas occurred steadily throughout the decade. The black population of Kansas increased by some 26,000 people during the 1870s. Historian Nell
Painter further asserts that
2009:
philanthropists, formed the
Colored Relief Board and the Kansas Freedmen's Aid Society to help those stranded in St. Louis reach Kansas. In contrast to fundraising success in Kansas, "St. Louis officials discouraged the Exodusters whenever possible", and therefore the burden of providing for stranded
1870:
ended. Vigilantes operated with almost total impunity, and no other issue was of more importance to the majority of southern blacks living in the countryside. Given the extreme level of discrimination and violent intimidation blacks faced in the rural South, the
Exodusters can be accurately described
1984:
The most successful of the
Exodusters were those who moved to urban centers and found work as domestic or trade workers. Almost all of the Exodusters who attempted to homestead in the countryside settled in the Kansas uplands, which presented the most formidable obstacles to small-scale farmers. The
1993:
The Exodus of 1879 consisted mostly of refugees fleeing
Mississippi and Louisiana between March and May and Texas later in the year. There was considerable uncertainty at the time as to the actual number of Exodusters that arrived in St. Louis. However, the Colored Relief Board estimated that about
1901:
and the traumatic political campaigns of 1878 in Louisiana, the plight of organized black resistance had reached a point of hopelessness, leading to the Exodus of 1879. Political and economic oppression was enforced by means both legal and illegal, on the streets and in contracts, at both the local
2072:
The impact of the Exoduster migration on subsequent white treatment of African Americans was mixed. On the one hand, the exodus did little to alleviate the national propensity for violence towards blacks. From the 1880s through the 1930s, the lynching of African Americans increased, and some 3,000
1964:
Before the Exodus of 1879 to Kansas, southern blacks convened to discuss the option of emigration both formally and informally. Delegates from Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, and Georgia met at a New Orleans conference in 1875 and discussed black emigration to western territories
2017:
The political response of southern white Democrats, and of some conservative "representative" black men, was one of disgust and incomprehension. They distrusted the intentions of white philanthropy in aiding black migration; in fact, they were convinced of ulterior motives. They denied outright
2013:
The failure of federal and state governments to financially support black migrants can be attributed to both bureaucratic incompetence (as in the case of the mayor of Kansas being denied temporary assistance from the secretary of war due to congressional jurisdiction) and to nineteenth-century
1882:
The Exodusters were not only fleeing extremist groups like the KKK. In fact, throughout Reconstruction a majority of the southern white population continued to resent black emancipation, resulting in an oppressive environment perpetuated by all segments of white society. Most black migration,
1878:
Although blacks greatly outnumbered whites in Louisiana, black armed resistance was practically inconceivable. According to William Murrell in testimony given to the United States Senate, "the white people in Louisiana are better armed and equipped now than during the war". As evidence of the
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frightening lawlessness, which empowered the terrorist activities of the White League in the mid-1870s, the League "managed to seize a huge cache of arms from the arsenal in New Orleans worth about $ 67,000" stolen directly from the United States government.
2061:, thrived for some period before, during, and after the Exoduster movement. Similarly, in the early 20th century, black migrations to the American West and Southwest would continue, and several additional all-black towns would be established, especially in
1976:, Kansas had fought bitterly for its Free State status, and took its fair treatment of black immigrants as a point of pride. Kansas did not actively encourage the Exodusters, but its equal-opportunity stance was more welcoming than most of the country.
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1985:
uplands were the only lands available for purchase after the squatters, railroads, and speculators had taken the best farmland. Given the agricultural challenge of farming these lands, many Exodusters were still destitute a year after their arrival.
2029:
Senate investigations debated whether or not black migration fit into a greater conspiratorial political scheme on the part of Republicans, who were thought to be packing swing states to increase their chances of success in the upcoming
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at the national level, were limited in their ability to influence the southern black populace. For this reason, during the post-Reconstruction period, blacks did not enjoy any truly representative national leadership.
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1914:, in that many Exodusters created settlements they believed to be their new Promised Land. That the journey of these refugees was termed an "exodus", a word taken from the Old Testament in reference to the
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2041:, a former slave who escaped captivity, was a critic of the movement. Douglass did not disagree with the Exodusters in principle, but he felt that the movement was ill-timed and poorly organized.
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Most southern states completely undermined federal Reconstruction efforts to promote landowning as the blacks' ticket to economic freedom and equality. For example, in 1865 the
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served to exacerbate the racist policies of white merchants and planters, who sought to offset their agricultural losses by increasing prices and interest rates for blacks.
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Woods, Randall B. (1998). "Integration, Exclusion, or Segregation? The "Color Line" in Kansas, 1878-1900." Billington, Monroe Lee; Hardaway, Roger D., eds.
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The number one cause of black migration out of the South at this time was to escape racial violence or "bulldozing" by white supremacist groups such as the
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outlawed the selling or leasing of land to blacks. As a result, in large parts of Mississippi, less than 1 in 100 black workers owned land or a house.
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1918:, indicates that the movement had spiritual motivations. The millenarian aspect of the Exodus was most realized in Tennessee, where
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Access documents, photographs, and other primary sources on Kansas Memory, the Kansas State Historical Society's digital portal
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2005:, and thousands of Exodusters found themselves stranded for months in St. Louis. Black churches in St. Louis, together with
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Exodus to Kansas: The 1880 Senate Investigation of the Beginnings of the African American Migration from the South.
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including the Exodus of 1879, was spurred on by the dire economic prospects of black labor in the rural South. The
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Of note, however, western migration of African-Americans was not limited to the Exoduster period, and places like
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2889:"This is Not Dixie:" The Imagined South, the Kansas Free State Narrative, and the Rhetoric of Racist Violence.
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1922:'s boisterous proselytizing mostly found an enthusiastic black following and a more amenable white audience.
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2549:""Pap" Singleton's Dunlap Colony: Relief Agencies and the Failure of a Black Settlement in Eastern Kansas"
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Liberia proved an unrealistic destination for black refugees financially and logistically. As the land of
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The Exodus was not universally praised by African Americans; indeed, Republican statesman
2019:
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The movement received substantial organizational support from prominent figures, such as
2002:
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While the roles of community leaders like Singleton and Adams, white facilitators like
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Movement of African Americans in Kansas to live freely from their former slave masters
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In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990
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of Chicago, and Henry Adams of Louisiana. As many as 40,000 Exodusters left the
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Bound for the Promised Land: African American Religion and the Great Migration
2161:(2). Association for the Study of African American Life and History: 111–129.
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African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement
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2622:"It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West
2289:
Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience
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Civil War on the Western Border: The Missouri-Kansas Conflict, 1854-1865
26:
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2559:(1). University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Center for Great Plains Studies.
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2655:"Seeking the Promised Land: African American Migrations to Kansas"
1924:
840:
1846:
Reality of life for black people in the post-Reconstruction South
870:
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1910:
The Exoduster movement has been characterized as an example of
1994:
20,000 Exodusters reached the city between 1879 and 1880; the
2437:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 110–111.
2001:
Many steamboat captains refused to carry migrants across the
1998:
quoted 6,206 arriving between March and April 1879 alone.
2874:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 210.
2859:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 147.
2844:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 146.
2758:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 252.
2743:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 250.
2728:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 255.
2713:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 254.
2695:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 253.
2680:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 233.
2639:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 232.
2624:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 198.
2609:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 184.
2594:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 185.
2515:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 231.
2500:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 159.
2422:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 133.
2199:
Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History
2485:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 87.
2467:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 83.
2452:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 89.
2407:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 68.
2377:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 62.
2362:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 17.
2347:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 23.
2329:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 27.
2392:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 7.
2772:
I Too Am America: Documents from 1619 to the Present
2924:
African American Women Confront the West, 1600-2000
1663:
Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers
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60:
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2974:(Kansas State Historical Society, Exoduster Flier)
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2151:Van Deusen, JohnG. (1936). "The Exodus of 1879".
2054:, which was founded in 1877) still exist today.
103:Around 26,000 African Americans arrive in Kansas
1803:in the late nineteenth century, as part of the
65:Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
2128:African American settlements in Western Canada
390:Education of freed people during the Civil War
2704:
2702:
2196:Johnson, Daniel M.; Campbell, Rex R. (1981).
1858:, as well as widespread repression under the
1761:
8:
2476:
2474:
2241:"Henry Adams [Louisiana] (1843-?) •"
401:Historically black colleges and universities
19:
2933:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
2926:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
2570:
2568:
2566:
2338:
2336:
2320:
2318:
1862:, discriminatory laws that rendered blacks
385:Education during the slave period in the US
2947:. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado.
2887:Campney, Brent M. S. (September 6, 2007) "
2277:
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708:National Black Caucus of State Legislators
685:
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309:
137:
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2945:African Americans on the Western Frontier
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2099:Justin and the Best Biscuits in the World
164:Slavery in the colonial history of the US
75:Mass racial violence in the United States
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2123:Camp Nelson Heritage National Monument
3024:History of the Southern United States
906:Athletic associations and conferences
395:History of African-American education
7:
829:Association for the Study of African
1929:"Ho For Kansas!" Copyprint handbill
1643:Race and ethnicity in the US census
1144:African-American Vernacular English
713:National Conference of Black Mayors
2994:African-American history of Kansas
2133:Great Migration (African American)
2065:, which would become the state of
846:National Black Chamber of Commerce
14:
2769:Romero, Patricia W., ed. (1978).
2547:Hickey, Joseph V. (Winter 1991).
2533:. Facts on File History Database.
2255:"Slavery in America Encyclopedia"
1550:Places by plurality of population
216:Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
206:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
159:Abolitionism in the United States
3034:Politically motivated migrations
2954:. New York: Russell and Russell.
2940:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
2915:. Seattle: Open Hand Publishing.
1725:
247:Black Belt in the American South
25:
2898:Davis, Damani. (Summer 2008). "
2239:Wang, Tabitha (June 24, 2008).
851:National Council of Negro Women
87:Government of the United States
1815:of black people following the
1648:Racism against Black Americans
1:
3004:African-American demographics
2775:. Publishers Agency. p.
2579:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
856:National Pan-Hellenic Council
100:98,000 sign emigration papers
2952:A Century of Negro Migration
2870:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2855:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2840:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2754:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2739:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2724:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2709:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2691:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2676:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2635:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2605:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2590:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2511:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2496:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2481:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2463:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2448:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2433:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2418:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2403:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2388:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2373:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2358:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2343:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2325:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2154:The Journal of Negro History
1658:School segregation in the US
1196:Black American Sign Language
1170:Languages and other dialects
2950:Woodson, Carter G. (1969).
2936:Savage, W. Sherman (1976).
485:African-American businesses
3050:
2663:Kansas City Public Library
2032:1880 presidential election
1023:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
698:Congressional Black Caucus
665:African Diaspora Religions
452:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
3019:1879 in the United States
3009:African-American refugees
2575:Quintard, Taylor (1998).
2101:, by Mildred Pitts Walker
2087:, by David Anthony Durham
1530:US states and territories
831:American Life and History
553:Lift Every Voice and Sing
262:Treatment of the enslaved
24:
2929:Ravage, John W. (1997).
2045:Impact of the Exodusters
2022:and Ohio Representative
1996:St. Louis Globe-Democrat
1946:and Mississippi Senator
1934:Role of black leadership
1920:Benjamin "Pap" Singleton
1897:In the aftermath of the
1732:United States portal
1139:African-American English
650:African-American Muslims
211:Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
2620:White, Richard (1991).
1916:Jews' flight from Egypt
1885:depression of the 1870s
1653:Reparations for slavery
741:Back-to-Africa movement
640:Black Hebrew Israelites
518:African-American beauty
31:Refugees on Levee, 1879
2911:Katz, William (1987).
2553:Great Plains Quarterly
2105:Why the Dark Man Cries
1989:Response to the exodus
1930:
1892:Mississippi Black Code
1123:Dialects and languages
283:Second Great Migration
2817:Duke University Press
2204:Duke University Press
2107:, by Connie Fredricks
2077:Exodusters in fiction
1928:
1864:second-class citizens
1834:to settle in Kansas,
1535:US metropolitan areas
1362:List of neighborhoods
976:Alabama Creole people
966:African-American Jews
898:Negro league baseball
861:National Urban League
813:Civic/economic groups
645:African-American Jews
535:African-American hair
397:, after the Civil War
226:Post–civil rights era
1783:was a name given to
1692:Criminal stereotypes
1467:District of Columbia
1184:Afro-Seminole Creole
626:Non-Christian groups
221:Black power movement
185:during the Civil War
154:Atlantic slave trade
2295:Basic Civitas Books
2026:died in committee.
1811:. It was the first
1088:Sierra Leone Creole
1049:Specific ancestries
934:Southwestern (SWAC)
457:Black History Month
288:New Great Migration
242:Agriculture history
21:
2938:Blacks in the West
2809:Sernett, Milton C.
2283:Gates, Henry Louis
2095:, by Toni Morrison
2039:Frederick Douglass
1960:Kansas vs. Liberia
1944:Frederick Douglass
1931:
1899:Compromise of 1877
1824:Benjamin Singleton
1805:Exoduster Movement
1097:Sexual orientation
971:Afro-Puerto Ricans
924:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
559:Self-determination
523:Black is beautiful
189:Reconstruction era
20:Exoduster movement
3014:History of Kansas
2895:. ISSN 1551-2754.
2052:Nicodemus, Kansas
2024:James A. Garfield
1980:Reality in Kansas
1813:general migration
1797:Mississippi River
1785:African Americans
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2424:
2423:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2340:
2331:
2330:
2322:
2313:
2312:
2292:
2279:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2257:. Archived from
2251:
2245:
2244:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2148:
2063:Indian Territory
2059:Quindaro, Kansas
1948:Blanche K. Bruce
1940:Thomas W. Conway
1828:Philip D. Armour
1770:
1763:
1756:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1677:media depictions
1626:
1521:Population count
1217:
1151:Liberian English
1130:English dialects
1127:
1083:Samaná Americans
1008:Creoles of color
954:
892:
836:Black conductors
817:
686:
660:Louisiana Voodoo
582:
327:Family structure
310:
257:Military history
252:Business history
183:military history
138:
111:
70:Jim Crow economy
29:
22:
3049:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3038:
2984:
2983:
2961:
2908:Vol. 40, No. 2.
2893:Southern Spaces
2884:
2882:Further reading
2879:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2787:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2723:
2722:
2718:
2708:
2707:
2700:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2652:
2651:
2644:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2619:
2618:
2614:
2604:
2603:
2599:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2574:
2573:
2564:
2546:
2545:
2538:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2479:
2472:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2372:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2342:
2341:
2334:
2324:
2323:
2316:
2309:
2281:
2280:
2273:
2264:
2262:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2218:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2167:10.2307/2714567
2150:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2118:Freedmen's town
2114:
2084:Gabriel's Story
2079:
2047:
2020:John J. Ingalls
1991:
1982:
1962:
1957:
1936:
1908:
1848:
1774:
1726:
1724:
1717:
1716:
1711:
1667:
1623:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1554:
1516:
1492:Omaha, Nebraska
1457:Historic places
1451:
1343:
1214:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1165:
1124:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1092:
1044:
986:Black Seminoles
951:
950:Sub-communities
943:
942:
929:Southern (SIAC)
889:
881:
880:
875:
830:
814:
806:
805:
800:
717:
683:
675:
674:
669:
655:Nation of Islam
621:
598:
579:
569:
568:
563:
504:
471:
438:
410:
371:
347:Musical theater
307:
297:
296:
278:Great Migration
135:
89:
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3047:
3045:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3029:1879 in Kansas
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2960:
2959:External links
2957:
2956:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2931:Black Pioneers
2927:
2916:
2913:The Black West
2909:
2896:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2862:
2847:
2832:
2825:
2819:. p. 14.
2800:
2785:
2761:
2746:
2731:
2716:
2698:
2683:
2668:
2642:
2627:
2612:
2597:
2582:
2562:
2536:
2531:www.fofweb.com
2518:
2503:
2488:
2470:
2455:
2440:
2425:
2410:
2395:
2380:
2365:
2350:
2332:
2314:
2307:
2271:
2246:
2231:
2216:
2202:. Durham, NC:
2188:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2102:
2096:
2088:
2078:
2075:
2046:
2043:
2003:Missouri River
1990:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1955:Promised lands
1953:
1935:
1932:
1912:millenarianism
1907:
1906:Millenarianism
1904:
1868:Reconstruction
1847:
1844:
1826:of Tennessee,
1809:Exodus of 1879
1776:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1638:Black genocide
1634:
1631:
1630:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1545:US communities
1542:
1537:
1532:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1502:South Carolina
1499:
1497:North Carolina
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1319:South Carolina
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1299:North Carolina
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1187:
1186:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1167:
1166:
1164:
1163:
1158:
1156:Samaná English
1153:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1108:
1106:LGBT community
1102:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1063:Creek Freedmen
1060:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1033:Carmel Indians
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
994:
993:
988:
978:
973:
968:
962:
959:
958:
952:
949:
948:
945:
944:
939:
938:
937:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
914:Central (CIAA)
908:
907:
903:
902:
901:
900:
890:
887:
886:
883:
882:
877:
876:
874:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
825:
822:
821:
815:
812:
811:
808:
807:
802:
801:
799:
798:
793:
788:
783:
781:Pan-Africanism
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
727:
724:
723:
719:
718:
716:
715:
710:
705:
700:
694:
691:
690:
684:
681:
680:
677:
676:
671:
670:
668:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
631:
628:
627:
623:
622:
620:
619:
614:
612:Black theology
608:
605:
604:
600:
599:
597:
596:
590:
587:
586:
580:
575:
574:
571:
570:
565:
564:
562:
561:
556:
549:
544:
543:
542:
532:
527:
526:
525:
514:
511:
510:
506:
505:
503:
502:
497:
492:
487:
481:
478:
477:
476:Economic class
473:
472:
470:
469:
464:
459:
454:
448:
445:
444:
440:
439:
437:
436:
431:
426:
420:
417:
416:
415:Academic study
412:
411:
409:
408:
403:
398:
392:
387:
381:
378:
377:
373:
372:
370:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
318:
315:
314:
308:
303:
302:
299:
298:
293:
292:
291:
290:
285:
280:
272:
271:
267:
266:
265:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
236:
235:
231:
230:
229:
228:
223:
218:
213:
208:
203:
198:
197:
196:
186:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
143:
142:
136:
131:
130:
127:
126:
120:
119:
107:
106:
105:
104:
101:
96:
92:
91:
84:
80:
79:
78:
77:
72:
62:
58:
57:
56:Exodus of 1879
54:
50:
49:
46:
42:
41:
38:
34:
33:
30:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3046:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2969:"Exodusters")
2968:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2935:
2932:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2885:
2881:
2873:
2866:
2863:
2858:
2851:
2848:
2843:
2836:
2833:
2828:
2826:0-8223-1993-4
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2786:0-87781-206-3
2782:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2750:
2747:
2742:
2735:
2732:
2727:
2720:
2717:
2712:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2694:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2672:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2653:Warren, Kim.
2649:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2631:
2628:
2623:
2616:
2613:
2608:
2601:
2598:
2593:
2586:
2583:
2578:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2522:
2519:
2514:
2507:
2504:
2499:
2492:
2489:
2484:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2466:
2459:
2456:
2451:
2444:
2441:
2436:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2414:
2411:
2406:
2399:
2396:
2391:
2384:
2381:
2376:
2369:
2366:
2361:
2354:
2351:
2346:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2328:
2321:
2319:
2315:
2310:
2308:0-465-00071-1
2304:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2290:
2284:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2261:on 2007-08-27
2260:
2256:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2235:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2217:0-8223-0449-X
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2200:
2192:
2189:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2155:
2147:
2144:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2053:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1988:
1986:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1959:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1933:
1927:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1893:
1888:
1886:
1880:
1876:
1874:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1759:
1757:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1748:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1708:
1707:Minstrel show
1705:
1703:
1702:Magical Negro
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1619:
1618:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1561:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1513:
1512:West Virginia
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1447:San Francisco
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1427:New York City
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1210:
1209:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1120:
1119:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1095:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1078:Nova Scotians
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
992:
989:
987:
984:
983:
982:
981:Black Indians
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
963:
961:
960:
955:
947:
946:
935:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
919:HBCU (HBCUAC)
917:
915:
912:
911:
910:
909:
904:
899:
896:
895:
894:
893:
885:
884:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
827:
826:
824:
823:
820:Organizations
818:
810:
809:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
728:
726:
725:
720:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
695:
693:
692:
689:Organizations
687:
679:
678:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
632:
630:
629:
624:
618:
615:
613:
610:
609:
607:
606:
601:
595:
592:
591:
589:
588:
583:
578:
573:
572:
560:
557:
554:
550:
548:
545:
541:
538:
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2527:"Exodusters"
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1856:White League
1852:Ku Klux Klan
1849:
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1808:
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1780:
1779:
1605:Sierra Leone
1437:Philadelphia
1407:Jacksonville
1003:Brass Ankles
756:Conservatism
731:Afrocentrism
703:Joint Center
594:Black church
585:Institutions
500:Billionaires
490:Middle class
443:Celebrations
406:Fraternities
83:Participants
2297:. pp.
1860:Black Codes
1673:Stereotypes
1600:Nova Scotia
1482:Mississippi
1442:San Antonio
1422:Los Angeles
1357:Black mecca
1284:Mississippi
1191:Negro Dutch
1013:Dominickers
957:Multiethnic
866:TransAfrica
776:Nationalism
746:Black power
530:Black pride
495:Upper class
194:Politicians
2988:Categories
2872:Exodusters
2857:Exodusters
2842:Exodusters
2756:Exodusters
2741:Exodusters
2726:Exodusters
2711:Exodusters
2693:Exodusters
2678:Exodusters
2637:Exodusters
2607:Exodusters
2592:Exodusters
2513:Exodusters
2498:Exodusters
2483:Exodusters
2465:Exodusters
2450:Exodusters
2435:Exodusters
2420:Exodusters
2405:Exodusters
2390:Exodusters
2375:Exodusters
2360:Exodusters
2345:Exodusters
2327:Exodusters
2265:2007-10-19
2206:. p.
2139:References
1974:John Brown
1795:along the
1781:Exodusters
1239:California
1213:Population
786:Patriotism
771:Liberalism
751:Capitalism
722:Ideologies
603:Theologies
462:Juneteenth
434:Literature
362:Newspapers
270:Migrations
201:Juneteenth
2183:224830636
1817:Civil War
1697:Hollywood
1687:Blackface
1622:Prejudice
1540:US cities
1417:Lexington
1392:Davenport
1372:Baltimore
1348:US cities
1324:Tennessee
1274:Louisiana
1220:US states
1028:Melungeon
998:Blaxicans
796:Socialism
761:Garveyism
736:Anarchism
540:Good hair
367:Soul food
337:Folktales
2967:The West
2922:(2003).
2905:Prologue
2811:(1997).
2285:(1999).
2112:See also
2092:Paradise
2067:Oklahoma
1873:refugees
1854:and the
1840:Colorado
1836:Oklahoma
1789:migrated
1737:Category
1560:Diaspora
1487:Missouri
1412:Kentucky
1339:Virginia
1309:Oklahoma
1294:New York
1289:Nebraska
1279:Maryland
1254:Illinois
1234:Arkansas
1073:Merikins
1018:Freedmen
991:Mascogos
791:Populism
682:Politics
577:Religion
547:Stepping
313:Lifeways
149:Timeline
116:a series
114:Part of
45:Location
2795:4662987
2226:6421175
2175:2714567
2007:eastern
1967:Liberia
1595:Liberia
1477:Georgia
1472:Florida
1402:Houston
1397:Detroit
1382:Chicago
1367:Atlanta
1259:Indiana
1249:Georgia
1244:Florida
1229:Alabama
1161:Tutnese
1040:Redbone
766:Leftism
467:Kwanzaa
424:Studies
376:Schools
305:Culture
234:Aspects
179:Slavery
141:Periods
133:History
95:Outcome
2823:
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2173:
1866:after
1801:Kansas
1793:states
1629:Racism
1590:Israel
1580:France
1575:Canada
1570:Africa
1377:Boston
1314:Oregon
1269:Kansas
1179:Gullah
1068:Gullah
888:Sports
635:Hoodoo
2965:(PBS
2179:S2CID
2171:JSTOR
1832:South
1791:from
1742:Index
1585:Ghana
1507:Texas
1432:Omaha
1329:Texas
841:NAACP
352:Names
342:Music
322:Dance
61:Cause
2821:ISBN
2791:OCLC
2781:ISBN
2303:ISBN
2222:OCLC
2212:ISBN
1965:and
1838:and
1787:who
1675:and
1334:Utah
1304:Ohio
1264:Iowa
871:UNCF
332:Film
181:and
40:1879
37:Date
2777:150
2299:722
2163:doi
1871:as
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1807:or
1799:to
429:Art
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