Exosome (vesicle) - Knowledge (XXG)

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Traditional methods for isolating exosomes are often hindered by low purity, inefficiency, lengthy processing times, and the need for substantial sample volumes and specialized equipment. Recent advancements in microfluidic devices, particularly those integrating nanostructures, offer promising alternatives for exosome isolation. These devices can be categorized based on their capture mechanisms: passive-structure-based affinity, immunomagnetic-based affinity, filtration, acoustofluidics, electrokinetics, and optofluidics. Microfluidic platforms not only improve the efficiency and purity of exosome isolation but also address the limitations of conventional methods, paving the way for their application in both research and clinical settings.

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vesicle types. To isolate a pure population of exosomes a combination of techniques is necessary, based on both physical (e.g. size, density) and biochemical parameters (e.g. presence/absence of certain proteins involved in their biogenesis). The use of reference materials such as trackable recombinant EV will assist in mitigating technical variation introduced during sample preparation and analysis. Novel selective isolation methodology has been using a combination of immunoaffinity chromatography and asymmetric-flow field-flow fractionation to reduce the contamination from lipoproteins and other proteins when isolating from blood plasma.

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required for transport (ESCRT) dependent pathway. ESCRT machinery mediates the ubiquitinated pathway consisting of protein complexes; ESCRT-0, -I, -II, -III, and associated ATPase Vps4. ESCRT 0 recognizes and retains ubiquitinated proteins marked for packaging in the late endosomal membrane. ESCRT I/II recognizes the ESCRT 0 and starts creating involution of the membrane into the MVB. ESCRTIII forms a spiral-shaped structure constricting the neck. ATPase VPS4 protein drives the membrane scission. Syndecan-syntenin-ALIX exosome biogenesis pathway are one of the ESCRT-independent or non-canonical pathways for exosome biogenesis.

418:. Exosomes can also be released into urine by the kidneys, and their detection might serve as a diagnostic tool. Urinary exosomes may be useful as treatment response markers in prostate cancer. Exosomes secreted from tumour cells can deliver signals to surrounding cells and have been shown to regulate myofibroblast differentiation. In melanoma, tumor-derived vesicles can enter lymphatics and interact with subcapsular sinus macrophages and B cells in lymph nodes. A recent investigation showed that exosome release positively correlates with the invasiveness of 548:

packaged in exosomes. Villarroya-Beltri and colleagues identified a conserved GGAG specific motif, EXOmotif, in the miRNA packaged in the exosomes which was absent in the cytosolic miRNA (CLmiRNA), which binds to sumoylated heterogeneous nuclear riboprotein (hnRNP) A2B1 for exosome specific miRNA packaging Proteins are packaged in ESCRT, tertraspanins, lipid- dependent mechanisms. Exosomes are enriched in cholesterol, sphingomyelin, saturated phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine as compared to the plasma membrane of the cell.

358:-associated proteins in these exosomes, they suggested that only the pre-miRNAs, but not the mature miRNAs in MSC exosomes, have the potential to be biologically active in the recipient cells. Multiple mechanisms have been reported to be involved in loading miRNAs into exosomes, including specific motifs in the miRNA sequences, interactions with lncRNAs localized to the exosomes, interactions with RBPs, and post-translational modifications of Ago. 422:. Exosomes released from tumors into the blood may also have diagnostic potential. Exosomes are remarkably stable in bodily fluids strengthening their utility as reservoirs for disease biomarkers. Patient blood samples stored in biorepositories can be used for biomarker analysis as colorectal cancer cell-derived exosomes spiked into blood plasma could be recovered after 90 days of storage at various temperatures. 93: 513: 593:, exosomes are below the detection range of many currently used techniques. A number of miniaturized systems, exploiting nanotechnology and microfluidics, have been developed to expedite exosome analyses. These new systems include a microNMR device, a nanoplasmonic chip, and a magneto-electrochemical sensor for protein profiling; and an integrated fluidic cartridge for RNA detection. 34: 496:-infected macrophages but not exosomes from uninfected cells stimulate naive macrophages and dendritic cells to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, RANTES, IL-1ra, MIP-2, CXCL1, MCP-1, sICAM-1, GM-CSF, and G-CSF. Proinflammatory effects of exosomes are partially attributed to lipopolysaccharide, which is encapsulated within exosomes. 465:), they may influence processes in the recipient cell. For example, RNA that is shuttled from one cell to another, known as "exosomal shuttle RNA," could potentially affect protein production in the recipient cell. The role played by exosomes in cell-cell or interorgan communication and metabolic regulation was reviewed by Samuelson and 679:

noncompliant marketing of exosomes and injuries to patients in Nebraska related to injections of exosomes. The agency also indicated that exosomes are officially drug products requiring pre-market approval. In 2020, the FDA cautioned several firms about marketing or use of exosomes for COVID-19 and other health conditions.

285:). In the reticulocyte, as in most mammalian cells, portions of the plasma membrane are regularly internalized as endosomes, with 50 to 180% of the plasma membrane being recycled every hour. In turn, parts of the membranes of some endosomes are subsequently internalized as smaller vesicles. Such endosomes are called 425:

In malignancies such as cancer, the regulatory circuit that guards exosome homeostasis is co-opted to promote cancer cell survival and metastasis. In breast cancers, neratinib, a novel pan-ERBB inhibitor, is able to downmodulate the amount of HER2 released by exosomes, thus potentially reducing tumor

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EVs in circulation carry genetic material and proteins from their cell of origin, proteo-transcriptomic signatures that act as biomarkers. In the case of cancer cells, exosomes may show differences in size, shape, morphology, and canonical markers from their donor cells. They may encapsulate relevant

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is often performed. Currently, to analyse these data, non-commercial tools such as FunRich can be used to identify over-represented groups of molecules. With the advent of Next generation sequencing technologies, the research on exosomes have been accelerated in not only cancer but various diseases.

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The isolation and detection of exosomes has proven to be complicated. Due to the complexity of body fluids, physical separation of exosomes from cells and similar-sized particles is challenging. Isolation of exosomes using differential ultracentrifugation results in co-isolation of protein and other

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The MVBs once formed are trafficked to the internal side of the plasma membrane. These MVBs are transported to the plasma membrane leading to fusion. Many studies have shown that MVBs having higher cholesterol content fuse with the plasma membrane thus releasing exosomes. The Rab proteins especially

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A study hypothesized that intercellular communication of tumor exosomes could mediate further regions of metastasis for cancer. Hypothetically, exosomes can plant tumor information, such as tainted RNA, into new cells to prepare for cancer to travel to that organ for metastasis. The study found that

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Exosomes therapy is a cutting-edge treatment that helps rejuvenate both skin and hair. It uses tiny particles called exosomes, which are packed with growth factors to repair and renew cells. For the face, exosomes treatments reduce wrinkles, acne scars, and dark spots, leaving skin smoother and more

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Exosomes contain various molecular constituents of their cell of origin, including proteins and RNA. Although the exosomal protein composition varies with the cell and tissue of origin, most exosomes contain an evolutionarily-conserved common set of protein molecules. The protein content of a single

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Exosome formation starts with the invagination of the multi-vesicular bodies (MVBs) or late endosomes to generate intraluminal vesicles (ILVs). There are various proposed mechanisms for formation of MVBs, vesicle budding, and sorting. The most studied and well known is the endosomal sorting complex

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Exosomes contain different cargoes; proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These cargoes are specifically sorted and packaged into exosomes. The contents packaged into exosomes are cell type specific and also influenced by cellular conditions. Exosomal microRNAs (exomiRs) and proteins are sorted and

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Specific targeting by exosomes is an active area of research. The exact mechanisms of exosome targeting is limited to a few general mechanisms like docking of the exosomes with specific proteins, sugars, and lipid, or micropinocytosis. The internalized exosomes are targeted to the endosomes which

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can improve purity. Single step isolation of extracellular vesicles by size-exclusion chromatography has been demonstrated to provide greater efficiency for recovering intact vesicles over centrifugation, although a size-based technique alone will not be able to distinguish exosomes from other

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Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles that play a crucial role in cell-to-cell communication by transporting proteins, lipids, microRNAs, and functional mRNAs. Their potential in disease diagnostics, prognostics, and therapeutics has garnered significant interest in the biomedical field.

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Conversely, exosome production and content may be influenced by molecular signals received by the cell of origin. As evidence for this hypothesis, tumor cells exposed to hypoxia secrete exosomes with enhanced angiogenic and metastatic potential, suggesting that tumor cells adapt to a hypoxic

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Different forms of unproven exosomes are being marketed in the U.S. for a wide variety of health conditions by clinic firms, without authorization from the FDA. Often, these firms also sell non-FDA-approved stem cell injections as well. In late 2019, the FDA issued an advisory warning about

281:(immature red blood cell) by Stahl and group in 1983 and Johnstone and group in 1983 further termed 'exosomes' by Johnstone and group in 1987. Exosomes were shown to participate in selective removal of many plasma membrane proteins as the reticulocyte becomes a mature red blood cell ( 597:

is an optical method to detect exosomes in suspension. Nevertheless, the applicability of flow cytometry to detect single exosomes is still inadequate due to limited sensitivity and potential measurement artifacts such as swarm detection. Other methods to detect single exosomes are

577:. However, a limitation of these methods is that contaminants may be present that affect the information obtained from such assays. Preferably, information is derived from single exosomes. Relevant properties of exosomes to detect include size, density, morphology, composition, and 353:

in exosomes has been suggested to affect protein production in the recipient cell. However, another study has suggested that miRNAs in exosomes secreted by mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) are predominantly pre- and not mature miRNAs. Because the authors of this study did not find

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Evolving consensus in the field is that the term "exosome" should be applied strictly to an EV of endosomal origin. Since it can be difficult to prove such an origin after an EV has left the cell, variations on the term "extracellular vesicle" are often appropriate instead.

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The content of exosomes changes depending on the cells of origin, and they thereby reflect their originating cells. Analysis of the dynamic variation of exosomes may provide a valuable means of monitoring diseases. In that study, the differences in cellular and exosomal

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tumor exosomal communication has the ability to mediate metastasis to different organs. Furthermore, even when tumor cells have a disadvantage for replicating, the information planted at these new regions, organs, can aid in the expansion of organ specific metastasis.

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Tauro BJ, Greening DW, Mathias RA, Ji H, Mathivanan S, Scott AM, et al. (February 2012). "Comparison of ultracentrifugation, density gradient separation, and immunoaffinity capture methods for isolating human colon cancer cell line LIM1863-derived exosomes".

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Multia E, Tear CJ, Palviainen M, Siljander P, Riekkola ML (December 2019). "Fast isolation of highly specific population of platelet-derived extracellular vesicles from blood plasma by affinity monolithic column, immobilized with anti-human CD61 antibody".

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because of their appearance, with many small vesicles, (ILVs or "intralumenal endosomal vesicles"), inside the larger body. The ILVs become exosomes if the MVB merges with the cell membrane, releasing the internal vesicles into the extracellular space.

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youthful. For hair, exosomes stimulate new growth and prevent hair loss, leading to thicker, fuller hair. Most people see noticeable improvements after 2-3 sessions, making it a highly effective, non-invasive option for improving skin and hair health.

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microenvironment by secreting exosomes to stimulate angiogenesis or facilitate metastasis to more favorable environment. It has recently been shown that exosomal protein content may change during the progression of chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

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Kalra H, Adda CG, Liem M, Ang CS, Mechler A, Simpson RJ, et al. (November 2013). "Comparative proteomics evaluation of plasma exosome isolation techniques and assessment of the stability of exosomes in normal human blood plasma".

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Scientists are actively researching the role that exosomes may play in cell-to-cell signaling, hypothesizing that because exosomes can merge with and release their contents into cells that are distant from their cell of origin (see

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Rab 7 attached to the MVB recognizes its effector receptor. The SNARE complex (soluble N- ethylmaleimide- sensitive fusion attachment protein receptor) from the MVB and the plasma membrane interacts and mediates fusion.

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Dhondt B, Van Deun J, Vermaerke S, de Marco A, Lumen N, De Wever O, et al. (June 2018). "Urinary extracellular vesicle biomarkers in urological cancers: From discovery towards clinical implementation".

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Often, functional as well as antigenic assays are applied to derive useful information from multiple exosomes. Well-known examples of assays to detect proteins in total populations of exosomes are

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but much smaller than cells. Compared with EVs in general, it is unclear whether exosomes have unique characteristics or functions or can be separated or distinguished effectively from other EVs.

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Pathan M, Keerthikumar S, Ang CS, Gangoda L, Quek CY, Williamson NA, et al. (August 2015). "FunRich: An open access standalone functional enrichment and interaction network analysis tool".

779:"Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): a position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines" 429:

Urinary exosomes have also proven to be useful in the detection of many pathologies, such as genitourinary cancers and mineralocorticoid hypertension, through their protein and miRNA cargo."

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information that can be used for disease detection. Consequently, there is a growing interest in clinical applications of EVs as biomarkers and therapies alike, prompting establishment of an

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Exosomes contain RNA, proteins, lipids and metabolites that is reflective of the cell type of origin. As exosomes contain numerous proteins, RNA and lipids, large scale analysis including

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Valadi H, Ekström K, Bossios A, Sjöstrand M, Lee JJ, Lötvall JO (June 2007). "Exosome-mediated transfer of mRNAs and microRNAs is a novel mechanism of genetic exchange between cells".

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Mathieu M, Martin-Jaular L, Lavieu G, Théry C (January 2019). "Specificities of secretion and uptake of exosomes and other extracellular vesicles for cell-to-cell communication".

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and tumors. Exosomal export of miRNA molecules is also linked to the arrest of inter cellular miRNA levels and affect their functionality by arresting them on heavy polysomes.

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Exosomes also mediate the cross talk between the embryo and maternal compartment during implantation.They help to exchange ubiquitous protein, glycoproteins, DNA and mRNA.

260: 436:, and are being actively investigated as a tool to both monitor disease progression as well as a potential vehicle for delivery of drug and stem cell based therapy. 1488:

Pan BT, Johnstone RM (July 1983). "Fate of the transferrin receptor during maturation of sheep reticulocytes in vitro: selective externalization of the receptor".

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Shao X, Zhang M, Chen Y, Sun S, Yang S, Li Q (June 2023). "Exosome-mediated delivery of superoxide dismutase for anti-aging studies in Caenorhabditis elegans".

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Syn N, Wang L, Sethi G, Thiery JP, Goh BC (July 2016). "Exosome-Mediated Metastasis: From Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition to Escape from Immunosurveillance".

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Researchers have also found that exosomes released from oral keratinocytes can accelerate wound healing, even when human exosomes were applied to rat wounds.

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Baietti MF, Zhang Z, Mortier E, Melchior A, Degeest G, Geeraerts A, et al. (June 2012). "Syndecan-syntenin-ALIX regulates the biogenesis of exosomes".

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has showed the association of these extracellular vesicles with various important gene products that strengthens the probability of finding biomarkers for

247:). Since the size of exosomes is limited by that of the parent MVB, exosomes are generally thought to be smaller than most other EVs, from about 30 to 150 5033: 439:

An online open access database containing genomic information for exosome content has been developed to catalyze research development within the field.

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Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Toraño JS, Falcon-Perez JM, Williams C, Reichardt N, Boons GJ (2018). "Mass spectrometry for glycan biomarker discovery".

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exosome, given certain assumptions of protein size and configuration, and packing parameters, can be about 20,000 molecules. The cargo of

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Maguire G (January 2016). "Exosomes: smart nanospheres for drug delivery naturally produced by stem cells.". In Grumezescu AM (ed.).

5179: 666:. Thus this system is being studied for its anti-aging potential. This delivery system also improved survival under conditions of 265: 70: 1370: 611: 1192:

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contaminants and incomplete separation of vesicles from lipoproteins. Combining ultracentrifugation with micro-filtration or a

2878:"Imaging of Endocytic Trafficking and Extracellular Vesicles Released Under Neratinib Treatment in ERBB2 Breast Cancer Cells" 603: 1039:"Extracellular vesicles carry distinct proteo-transcriptomic signatures that are different from their cancer cell of origin" 5350: 4112:"Unravelling the proteomic landscape of extracellular vesicles in prostate cancer by density-based fractionation of urine" 355: 362:

microenvironment by secreting exosomes to stimulate angiogenesis or facilitate metastasis to more favorable environment.

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Chen TY, Gonzalez-Kozlova E, Soleymani T, La Salvia S, Kyprianou N, Sahoo S, et al. (June 2022).

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Exosomes carry cargo, which can augment innate immune responses. For example, exosomes derived from

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Dragovic RA, Gardiner C, Brooks AS, Tannetta DS, Ferguson DJ, Hole P, et al. (December 2011).

4388:"Optical and non-optical methods for detection and characterization of microparticles and exosomes" 4110:

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215:. Enriched with a diverse array of biological elements from their source cells, exosomes contain 5151: 5126:

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Exosomes are extracellular vesicles having a unique biogenesis pathway via multivesicular bodies.

466: 4938:"Exosomes derived from clinical-grade oral mucosal epithelial cell sheets promote wound healing" 3912:

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in 2018. By transferring molecules from one cell to another, exosomes from certain cells of the

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Since the diameter of exosomes is typically below 100 nm and because they have a low

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Exosomes were first discovered in the maturing mammalian

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2303: 2297: 2296: 2286: 2254: 2248: 2247: 2237: 2227: 2203: 2194: 2193: 2183: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2134: 2102: 2096: 2095: 2085: 2053: 2044: 2043: 2033: 1993: 1984: 1983: 1973: 1941: 1935: 1934: 1924: 1892: 1883: 1882: 1872: 1840: 1834: 1833: 1823: 1791: 1785: 1784: 1748: 1737: 1736: 1710: 1704: 1703: 1667: 1661: 1660: 1650: 1633:(17): 3481–500. 1627:The EMBO Journal 1618: 1612: 1611: 1593: 1569: 1563: 1562: 1552: 1528: 1522: 1521: 1485: 1479: 1478: 1450: 1444: 1443: 1406: 1397: 1396: 1386: 1366: 1360: 1359: 1323: 1317: 1316: 1306: 1274: 1268: 1267: 1233: 1224: 1218: 1217: 1189: 1183: 1182: 1172: 1141:Science Advances 1132: 1126: 1125: 1115: 1106:(6): 1139–1151. 1091: 1085: 1084: 1074: 1034: 1023: 1022: 986: 971: 970: 960: 920: 909: 908: 872: 866: 865: 855: 823: 817: 816: 806: 774: 763: 762: 752: 720: 668:oxidative stress 591:refractive index 450:Dr. Leah Clinics 150:eukaryotic cells 127:edit on Wikidata 95: 83: 76: 69: 65: 62: 56: 36: 35: 28: 5629: 5628: 5624: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5594: 5593: 5592: 5587: 5566: 5501: 5426: 5317: 5234:Golgi apparatus 5210: 5203: 5193: 5163: 5125: 5124: 5120: 5111: 5109: 5100: 5099: 5095: 5086: 5084: 5075: 5074: 5070: 5061: 5059: 5050: 5049: 5045: 5032: 5031: 5027: 4989: 4988: 4979: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4880: 4879: 4875: 4837: 4836: 4832: 4788: 4787: 4783: 4739: 4738: 4734: 4690: 4689: 4685: 4641: 4640: 4633: 4581: 4580: 4576: 4532: 4531: 4527: 4483: 4482: 4478: 4453:10.1038/nm.2994 4447:(12): 1835–40. 4441:Nature Medicine 4434: 4433: 4429: 4385: 4384: 4380: 4332: 4331: 4327: 4281: 4280: 4276: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4109: 4108: 4104: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4009: 4008: 4004: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3911: 3910: 3906: 3875: 3874: 3870: 3834: 3833: 3826: 3782: 3781: 3777: 3733: 3732: 3725: 3673: 3672: 3668: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3532: 3531: 3527: 3504:10.1038/ncb2502 3489: 3488: 3484: 3445:(7290): 864–9. 3432: 3431: 3427: 3383: 3382: 3373: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3123: 3122: 3118: 3082: 3081: 3077: 3054:1854/LU-7250365 3027: 3026: 3022: 2978: 2977: 2970: 2924: 2923: 2919: 2875: 2874: 2867: 2837: 2836: 2832: 2803:(22): 3354–64. 2793: 2792: 2788: 2756: 2755: 2751: 2707: 2706: 2702: 2656: 2655: 2651: 2612:(6282): 242–6. 2599: 2598: 2591: 2568:(23): 9621–30. 2562:Cancer Research 2555: 2554: 2550: 2504: 2503: 2499: 2490: 2488: 2483: 2482: 2478: 2434: 2433: 2429: 2420: 2418: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2354: 2353: 2349: 2305: 2304: 2300: 2256: 2255: 2251: 2205: 2204: 2197: 2153: 2152: 2148: 2104: 2103: 2099: 2055: 2054: 2047: 1995: 1994: 1987: 1943: 1942: 1938: 1894: 1893: 1886: 1842: 1841: 1837: 1793: 1792: 1788: 1765:10.1038/ncb1596 1750: 1749: 1740: 1733: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1684:10.1038/nrm1959 1669: 1668: 1664: 1620: 1619: 1615: 1571: 1570: 1566: 1543:(19): 9412–20. 1530: 1529: 1525: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1408: 1407: 1400: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1325: 1324: 1320: 1276: 1275: 1271: 1231: 1226: 1225: 1221: 1191: 1190: 1186: 1147:(6): e1600502. 1134: 1133: 1129: 1093: 1092: 1088: 1036: 1035: 1026: 988: 987: 974: 922: 921: 912: 874: 873: 869: 825: 824: 820: 776: 775: 766: 722: 721: 717: 713: 685: 676: 647: 628:transcriptomics 620: 587: 554: 545: 536: 527: 510: 505: 458: 445: 434:alpha-synuclein 426:dissemination. 416:clinical trials 381:red blood cells 377: 368: 331:dendritic cells 275: 197:plasma membrane 131: 98: 77: 66: 60: 57: 49:help improve it 46: 37: 33: 26: 23:Exosome complex 17: 12: 11: 5: 5627: 5625: 5617: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5596: 5595: 5589: 5588: 5586: 5585: 5580: 5574: 5572: 5568: 5567: 5565: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5553: 5552: 5547: 5537: 5536: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5515: 5509: 5507: 5506:Other internal 5503: 5502: 5500: 5499: 5494: 5493: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5442: 5436: 5434: 5428: 5427: 5425: 5424: 5423: 5422: 5417: 5407: 5406: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5380: 5375: 5374: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5327: 5325: 5319: 5318: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5283: 5282: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5215: 5213: 5205: 5204: 5194: 5192: 5191: 5184: 5177: 5169: 5162: 5161: 5118: 5093: 5083:. 31 July 2020 5068: 5043: 5025: 4977: 4948:(1): 1565264. 4928: 4873: 4830: 4781: 4732: 4683: 4631: 4574: 4525: 4476: 4427: 4378: 4325: 4274: 4212: 4153: 4122:(1): 1736935. 4102: 4065:STAR Protocols 4051: 4002: 3953: 3904: 3885:(2): 293–304. 3868: 3824: 3775: 3723: 3666: 3609: 3566: 3525: 3482: 3425: 3396:(2): 193–208. 3371: 3342:(2): 189–198. 3322: 3273: 3216: 3185:(6): 777–788. 3165: 3136:(6): 1072–83. 3116: 3095:(2): 165–175. 3075: 3020: 2991:(4): 569–576. 2968: 2917: 2888:(7): 461–473. 2865: 2846:(7): 606–617. 2830: 2786: 2749: 2720:(1): 1442985. 2700: 2649: 2589: 2548: 2497: 2476: 2447:(10): 1603–7. 2427: 2406: 2347: 2298: 2269:(1): 1648167. 2249: 2218:(6): 1085–99. 2195: 2146: 2097: 2045: 1985: 1956:(4): 534–544. 1936: 1884: 1835: 1786: 1738: 1731: 1705: 1678:(7): 495–504. 1662: 1613: 1564: 1523: 1480: 1445: 1398: 1361: 1318: 1269: 1219: 1184: 1127: 1086: 1024: 997:(3): 676–705. 972: 935:(1): 107–121. 910: 883:(4): 213–228. 867: 818: 789:(1): 1535750. 764: 714: 712: 709: 708: 707: 701: 696: 691: 684: 681: 675: 672: 646: 643: 639:Chagas disease 619: 616: 595:Flow cytometry 586: 583: 579:zeta potential 553: 550: 544: 541: 535: 534:Exosome uptake 532: 526: 523: 509: 506: 504: 501: 457: 454: 444: 441: 420:ovarian cancer 389:Dendritic cell 379:Exosomes from 376: 373: 367: 364: 274: 271: 209:cultured cells 133: 132: 123: 117: 116: 111: 105: 104: 100: 99: 96: 88: 87: 79: 78: 40: 38: 31: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5626: 5615: 5614:Medical tests 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5601: 5599: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5538: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5520: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5510: 5508: 5504: 5498: 5495: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5480:Proteinoplast 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5440:Mitochondrion 5438: 5437: 5435: 5433: 5432:Endosymbionts 5429: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5415:Lamellipodium 5413: 5412: 5411: 5408: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5385: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5353: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5331:Microfilament 5329: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5320: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5244:Autophagosome 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5219:Cell membrane 5217: 5216: 5214: 5212: 5209:Endomembrane 5206: 5202: 5198: 5190: 5185: 5183: 5178: 5176: 5171: 5170: 5167: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5122: 5119: 5107: 5103: 5097: 5094: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5069: 5058: 5054: 5047: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5026: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4978: 4973: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4929: 4924: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4886: 4877: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4831: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4785: 4782: 4777: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4736: 4733: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4703:(2): 315–23. 4702: 4698: 4694: 4687: 4684: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4654:(5): 919–30. 4653: 4649: 4645: 4638: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4578: 4575: 4570: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4545:(2): 1802–9. 4544: 4540: 4536: 4529: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4480: 4477: 4472: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4431: 4428: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4382: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4329: 4326: 4321: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4278: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4157: 4154: 4149: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4106: 4103: 4098: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4071:(2): 100073. 4070: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4052: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4022:(1): 011503. 4021: 4017: 4013: 4006: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3908: 3905: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3872: 3869: 3864: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3779: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3728: 3724: 3719: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3670: 3667: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3613: 3610: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3529: 3526: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3498:(7): 677–85. 3497: 3493: 3486: 3483: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3326: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3277: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3220: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3169: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3079: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3040:(3): 621–41. 3039: 3035: 3031: 3024: 3021: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2975: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2921: 2918: 2913: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2787: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2753: 2750: 2745: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2704: 2701: 2696: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2650: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2596: 2594: 2590: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2552: 2549: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2501: 2498: 2486: 2480: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2431: 2428: 2416: 2410: 2407: 2402: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2351: 2348: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2318:(2): 376–88. 2317: 2313: 2309: 2302: 2299: 2294: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2250: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2117:(1): 215–24. 2116: 2112: 2108: 2101: 2098: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1992: 1990: 1986: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1940: 1937: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1907:(2): 364–75. 1906: 1902: 1898: 1891: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1849:Cell Research 1846: 1839: 1836: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1790: 1787: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1747: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1709: 1706: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1666: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1617: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1568: 1565: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1527: 1524: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1496:(3): 967–78. 1495: 1491: 1484: 1481: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1449: 1446: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1365: 1362: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1322: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1273: 1270: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1230: 1223: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1188: 1185: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1131: 1128: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1090: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1049:(6): 104414. 1048: 1044: 1040: 1033: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 985: 983: 981: 979: 977: 973: 968: 964: 959: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 919: 917: 915: 911: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 871: 868: 863: 859: 854: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 822: 819: 814: 810: 805: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 773: 771: 769: 765: 760: 756: 751: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 719: 716: 710: 705: 702: 700: 697: 695: 694:Microvesicles 692: 690: 687: 686: 682: 680: 673: 671: 669: 665: 661: 660: 655: 650: 644: 642: 640: 636: 635: 629: 625: 617: 615: 613: 609: 605: 601: 596: 592: 584: 582: 580: 576: 572: 567: 563: 560: 551: 549: 542: 540: 533: 531: 524: 522: 514: 507: 502: 500: 497: 495: 490: 486: 482: 480: 476: 472: 471:immune system 468: 464: 455: 453: 451: 442: 440: 437: 435: 430: 427: 423: 421: 417: 413: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 374: 372: 365: 363: 359: 357: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 327:immune system 324: 319: 317: 313: 309: 303: 301: 297: 291: 288: 284: 280: 272: 270: 268: 267: 262: 256: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 233:nucleic acids 230: 226: 222: 221:cytoskeletons 218: 214: 213:growth medium 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 177: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 128: 122: 118: 115: 112: 110: 106: 101: 94: 89: 84: 75: 72: 64: 54: 50: 44: 41:This article 39: 30: 29: 24: 19: 5460:Gerontoplast 5410:Pseudopodium 5403:Radial spoke 5383:Undulipodium 5323:Cytoskeleton 5253: 5239:Parenthesome 5131: 5127: 5121: 5110:. Retrieved 5108:. 2020-04-27 5105: 5096: 5085:. Retrieved 5080: 5071: 5060:. Retrieved 5056: 5046: 5037: 5028: 4995: 4991: 4945: 4941: 4931: 4894: 4890: 4884: 4876: 4843: 4839: 4833: 4798: 4794: 4784: 4752:(6): 780–8. 4749: 4746:Nanomedicine 4745: 4735: 4700: 4696: 4686: 4651: 4647: 4591: 4587: 4577: 4542: 4538: 4528: 4496:(5): 490–5. 4493: 4489: 4479: 4444: 4440: 4430: 4395: 4391: 4381: 4338: 4328: 4291: 4287: 4277: 4252:10138/321264 4226: 4222: 4215: 4170: 4166: 4156: 4119: 4115: 4105: 4068: 4064: 4054: 4019: 4015: 4005: 3970: 3966: 3956: 3921: 3917: 3907: 3882: 3878: 3871: 3844: 3840: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3743: 3739: 3683: 3679: 3669: 3626: 3622: 3612: 3579: 3575: 3569: 3545:(1): 43–55. 3542: 3538: 3528: 3495: 3491: 3485: 3442: 3438: 3428: 3393: 3389: 3339: 3335: 3325: 3290: 3286: 3276: 3233: 3229: 3219: 3182: 3178: 3168: 3133: 3129: 3119: 3092: 3088: 3078: 3037: 3033: 3023: 2988: 2984: 2934: 2930: 2920: 2885: 2881: 2843: 2839: 2833: 2800: 2796: 2789: 2762: 2758: 2752: 2717: 2713: 2703: 2666: 2662: 2652: 2609: 2605: 2565: 2561: 2551: 2514: 2510: 2500: 2489:. 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Retrieved 2409: 2364: 2360: 2350: 2315: 2311: 2301: 2266: 2262: 2252: 2215: 2211: 2166:(1): 21–37. 2163: 2159: 2149: 2114: 2110: 2100: 2065: 2061: 2005: 2001: 1953: 1949: 1939: 1904: 1900: 1855:(6): 766–9. 1852: 1848: 1838: 1803: 1799: 1789: 1759:(6): 654–9. 1756: 1752: 1714: 1708: 1675: 1671: 1665: 1630: 1626: 1616: 1584:(1): 13–21. 1581: 1577: 1567: 1540: 1536: 1526: 1493: 1489: 1483: 1461:(2): 650–8. 1458: 1454: 1448: 1415: 1411: 1374: 1364: 1331: 1327: 1321: 1286: 1282: 1272: 1239: 1235: 1222: 1200:(2): 102–8. 1197: 1193: 1187: 1144: 1140: 1130: 1103: 1099: 1089: 1046: 1042: 994: 990: 932: 928: 880: 876: 870: 835: 831: 821: 786: 782: 732: 728: 718: 677: 657: 651: 648: 632: 621: 588: 575:Western blot 568: 564: 555: 546: 537: 528: 519: 498: 493: 491: 487: 483: 459: 446: 438: 431: 428: 424: 404: 383:contain the 378: 369: 360: 320: 304: 292: 279:reticulocyte 276: 264: 257: 253:lipoproteins 204: 178: 137: 136: 67: 58: 42: 18: 5609:Body fluids 5562:Magnetosome 5528:Spliceosome 5455:Chromoplast 5450:Chloroplast 5341:Microtubule 4229:: 160–168. 4173:(1): 3288. 3686:(1): 2980. 3629:(1): 5953. 3582:(1): 9–17. 2780:1874/364403 1418:: 236–256. 1289:: 126–156. 735:: 126–156. 689:Prostasomes 412:vaccination 366:Terminology 283:erythrocyte 211:into their 187:(MVB). 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