1319:, relies on quasi-experiments. For example, in astronomy it is clearly impossible, when testing the hypothesis "Stars are collapsed clouds of hydrogen", to start out with a giant cloud of hydrogen, and then perform the experiment of waiting a few billion years for it to form a star. However, by observing various clouds of hydrogen in various states of collapse, and other implications of the hypothesis (for example, the presence of various spectral emissions from the light of stars), we can collect data we require to support the hypothesis. An early example of this type of experiment was the first verification in the 17th century that light does not travel from place to place instantaneously, but instead has a measurable speed. Observation of the appearance of the moons of Jupiter were slightly delayed when Jupiter was farther from Earth, as opposed to when Jupiter was closer to Earth; and this phenomenon was used to demonstrate that the difference in the time of appearance of the moons was consistent with a measurable speed.
1110:. The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample). Most often, tests are done in duplicate or triplicate. A positive control is a procedure similar to the actual experimental test but is known from previous experience to give a positive result. A negative control is known to give a negative result. The positive control confirms that the basic conditions of the experiment were able to produce a positive result, even if none of the actual experimental samples produce a positive result. The negative control demonstrates the base-line result obtained when a test does not produce a measurable positive result. Most often the value of the negative control is treated as a "background" value to subtract from the test sample results. Sometimes the positive control takes the quadrant of a
1489:. In addition, observational studies (e.g., in biological or social systems) often involve variables that are difficult to quantify or control. Observational studies are limited because they lack the statistical properties of randomized experiments. In a randomized experiment, the method of randomization specified in the experimental protocol guides the statistical analysis, which is usually specified also by the experimental protocol. Without a statistical model that reflects an objective randomization, the statistical analysis relies on a subjective model. Inferences from subjective models are unreliable in theory and practice. In fact, there are several cases where carefully conducted observational studies consistently give wrong results, that is, where the results of the observational studies are inconsistent and also differ from the results of experiments. For example, epidemiological studies of colon cancer consistently show beneficial correlations with broccoli consumption, while experiments find no benefit.
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eye when vision takes place and what is found in the manner of sensation to be uniform, unchanging, manifest and not subject to doubt. After which we should ascend in our inquiry and reasonings, gradually and orderly, criticizing premisses and exercising caution in regard to conclusionsâour aim in all that we make subject to inspection and review being to employ justice, not to follow prejudice, and to take care in all that we judge and criticize that we seek the truth and not to be swayed by opinion. We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels disagreement and resolves doubtful matters. For all that, we are not free from that human turbidity which is in the nature of man; but we must do our best with what we possess of human power. From God we derive support in all things.
1541:. For example, in psychology or health care, it is unethical to provide a substandard treatment to patients. Therefore, ethical review boards are supposed to stop clinical trials and other experiments unless a new treatment is believed to offer benefits as good as current best practice. It is also generally unethical (and often illegal) to conduct randomized experiments on the effects of substandard or harmful treatments, such as the effects of ingesting arsenic on human health. To understand the effects of such exposures, scientists sometimes use observational studies to understand the effects of those factors.
1519:, which require large populations of subjects and extensive information on covariates. However, propensity score matching is no longer recommended as a technique because it can increase, rather than decrease, bias. Outcomes are also quantified when possible (bone density, the amount of some cell or substance in the blood, physical strength or endurance, etc.) and not based on a subject's or a professional observer's opinion. In this way, the design of an observational study can render the results more objective and therefore, more convincing.
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1496:, and groups receiving different treatments (exposures) may differ greatly according to their covariates (age, height, weight, medications, exercise, nutritional status, ethnicity, family medical history, etc.). In contrast, randomization implies that for each covariate, the mean for each group is expected to be the same. For any randomized trial, some variation from the mean is expected, of course, but the randomization ensures that the experimental groups have mean values that are close, due to the
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science classroom. Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time. Experiments can vary from personal and informal natural comparisons (e.g. tasting a range of chocolates to find a favorite), to highly controlled (e.g. tests requiring complex apparatus overseen by many scientists that hope to discover information about subatomic particles). Uses of experiments vary considerably between the
1504:. With inadequate randomization or low sample size, the systematic variation in covariates between the treatment groups (or exposure groups) makes it difficult to separate the effect of the treatment (exposure) from the effects of the other covariates, most of which have not been measured. The mathematical models used to analyze such data must consider each differing covariate (if measured), and results are not meaningful if a covariate is neither randomized nor included in the model.
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847:âand described it as follows: "Having first determined the question according to his will, man then resorts to experience, and bending her to conformity with his placets, leads her about like a captive in a procession." Bacon wanted a method that relied on repeatable observations, or experiments. Notably, he first ordered the scientific method as we understand it today.
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1224:. These hypotheses suggest reasons to explain a phenomenon or predict the results of an action. An example might be the hypothesis that "if I release this ball, it will fall to the floor": this suggestion can then be tested by carrying out the experiment of letting go of the ball, and observing the results. Formally, a hypothesis is compared against its opposite or
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681:, which is an expectation about how a particular process or phenomenon works. However, an experiment may also aim to answer a "what-if" question, without a specific expectation about what the experiment reveals, or to confirm prior results. If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis. According to some
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1228:("if I release this ball, it will not fall to the floor"). The null hypothesis is that there is no explanation or predictive power of the phenomenon through the reasoning that is being investigated. Once hypotheses are defined, an experiment can be carried out and the results analysed to confirm, refute, or define the accuracy of the hypotheses.
1124:. Students might be given a fluid sample containing an unknown (to the student) amount of protein. It is their job to correctly perform a controlled experiment in which they determine the concentration of protein in the fluid sample (usually called the "unknown sample"). The teaching lab would be equipped with a protein standard
1181:, meaning that neither the volunteer nor the researcher knows which individuals are in the control group or the experimental group until after all of the data have been collected. This ensures that any effects on the volunteer are due to the treatment itself and are not a response to the knowledge that he is being treated.
723:, experiments are a primary component of the scientific method. They are used to test theories and hypotheses about how physical processes work under particular conditions (e.g., whether a particular engineering process can produce a desired chemical compound). Typically, experiments in these fields focus on
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than laboratory experiments. However, like natural experiments, field experiments suffer from the possibility of contamination: experimental conditions can be controlled with more precision and certainty in the lab. Yet some phenomena (e.g., voter turnout in an election) cannot be easily studied in a
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It is thus the duty of the man who studies the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical
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is used when it is impractical, unethical, cost-prohibitive (or otherwise inefficient) to fit a physical or social system into a laboratory setting, to completely control confounding factors, or to apply random assignment. It can also be used when confounding factors are either limited or known well
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under study, rather than manipulation of just one or a few variables as occurs in controlled experiments. To the degree possible, they attempt to collect data for the system in such a way that contribution from all variables can be determined, and where the effects of variation in certain variables
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with a known protein concentration. Students could make several positive control samples containing various dilutions of the protein standard. Negative control samples would contain all of the reagents for the protein assay but no protein. In this example, all samples are performed in duplicate. The
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experiments, which enforce scientific control by testing a hypothesis in the artificial and highly controlled setting of a laboratory. Often used in the social sciences, and especially in economic analyses of education and health interventions, field experiments have the advantage that outcomes are
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We should, that is, recommence the inquiry into its principles and premisses, beginning our investigation with an inspection of the things that exist and a survey of the conditions of visible objects. We should distinguish the properties of particulars, and gather by induction what pertains to the
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A child may carry out basic experiments to understand how things fall to the ground, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance their understanding of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of hands-on activities are very important to student learning in the
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Controlled experiments can be performed when it is difficult to exactly control all the conditions in an experiment. In this case, the experiment begins by creating two or more sample groups that are probabilistically equivalent, which means that measurements of traits should be similar among the
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Thus, a comparison of earlier results with the experimental results is necessary for an objective experimentâthe visible results being more important. In the end, this may mean that an experimental researcher must find enough courage to discard traditional opinions or results, especially if these
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results are not experimental but results from a logical/ mental derivation. In this process of critical consideration, the man himself should not forget that he tends to subjective opinionsâthrough "prejudices" and "leniency"âand thus has to be critical about his own way of building hypotheses.
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well correlated, natural experiments can approach the power of controlled experiments. Usually, however, there is some correlation between these variables, which reduces the reliability of natural experiments relative to what could be concluded if a controlled experiment were performed. Also,
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There remains simple experience; which, if taken as it comes, is called accident, if sought for, experiment. The true method of experience first lights the candle , and then by means of the candle shows the way ; commencing as it does with experience duly ordered and digested, not bungling or
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can measure the amount of protein in samples by detecting a colored complex formed by the interaction of protein molecules and molecules of an added dye. In the illustration, the results for the diluted test samples can be compared to the results of the standard curve (the blue line in the
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in an experiment are controlled (accounted for by the control measurements) and none are uncontrolled. In such an experiment, if all controls work as expected, it is possible to conclude that the experiment works as intended, and that results are due to the effect of the tested variables.
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for the treatments. For example, an experiment on baking bread could estimate the difference in the responses associated with quantitative variables, such as the ratio of water to flour, and with qualitative variables, such as strains of yeast. Experimentation is the step in the
795:âby controlling his experiments due to factors such as self-criticality, reliance on visible results of the experiments as well as a criticality in terms of earlier results. He was one of the first scholars to use an inductive-experimental method for achieving results. In his
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According to his explanation, a strictly controlled test execution with a sensibility for the subjectivity and susceptibility of outcomes due to the nature of man is necessary. Furthermore, a critical view on the results and outcomes of earlier scholars is necessary:
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Depending on the discipline, experiments can be conducted to accomplish different but not mutually exclusive goals: test theories, search for and document phenomena, develop theories, or advise policymakers. These goals also relate differently to
1158:, where there is very little variation between individuals and the group size is easily in the millions, these statistical methods are often bypassed and simply splitting a solution into equal parts is assumed to produce identical sample groups.
742:, where experimental units (usually individual human beings) are randomly assigned to a treatment or control condition where one or more outcomes are assessed. In contrast to norms in the physical sciences, the focus is typically on the
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The term "experiment" usually implies a controlled experiment, but sometimes controlled experiments are prohibitively difficult, impossible, unethical or illegal. In this case researchers resort to natural experiments or
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because natural experiments usually take place in uncontrolled environments, variables from undetected sources are neither measured nor held constant, and these may produce illusory correlations in variables under study.
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by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also exist
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enough to analyze the data in light of them (though this may be rare when social phenomena are under examination). For an observational science to be valid, the experimenter must know and account for
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A particular problem with observational studies involving human subjects is the great difficulty attaining fair comparisons between treatments (or exposures), because such studies are prone to
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factors. In these situations, observational studies have value because they often suggest hypotheses that can be tested with randomized experiments or by collecting fresh data.
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Even when experimental research does not directly involve human subjects, it may still present ethical concerns. For example, the nuclear bomb experiments conducted by the
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700:âany factors that would mar the accuracy or repeatability of the experiment or the ability to interpret the results. Confounding is commonly eliminated through
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A considerable amount of progress on the design and analysis of experiments occurred in the early 20th century, with contributions from statisticians such as
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1537:âintroduces potential ethical considerations, such as balancing benefit and harm, fairly distributing interventions (e.g., treatments for a disease), and
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observed in a natural setting rather than in a contrived laboratory environment. For this reason, field experiments are sometimes seen as having higher
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often involves experimental tests of theorized human behaviors without relying on random assignment of individuals to treatment and control conditions.
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remain approximately constant so that the effects of other variables can be discerned. The degree to which this is possible depends on the observed
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produced by the experiment. A single study typically does not involve replications of the experiment, but separate studies may be aggregated through
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Experiments might be categorized according to a number of dimensions, depending upon professional norms and standards in different fields of study.
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Jeremy, Teigen (2014). "Experimental
Methods in Military and Veteran Studies". In Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia; Rietjens, Sebastiaan (eds.).
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In the centuries that followed, people who applied the scientific method in different areas made important advances and discoveries. For example,
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approvalâquantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified. Researchers attempt to reduce the biases of observational studies with
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738:, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines. When used, however, experiments typically follow the form of the
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By placing the distribution of the independent variable(s) under the control of the researcher, an experimentâparticularly when it involves
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Fundamentally, however, observational studies are not experiments. By definition, observational studies lack the manipulation required for
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resorts to experience, and bending her to conformity with his placets, leads her about like a captive in a procession." Bacon, Francis.
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One of the first methodical approaches to experiments in the modern sense is visible in the works of the Arab mathematician and scholar
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implied the use of nuclear reactions to harm human beings even though the experiments did not directly involve any human subjects.
860:(1564â1642) accurately measured time and experimented to make accurate measurements and conclusions about the speed of a falling body.
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samples, which are practically identical to the experimental sample except for the one aspect whose effect is being tested (the
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research frequently uses randomized experiments (e.g., to test the comparative effectiveness of different fertilizers), while
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groups and that the groups should respond in the same manner if given the same treatment. This equivalency is determined by
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685:, an experiment can never "prove" a hypothesis, it can only add support. On the other hand, an experiment that provides a
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is measured. The signifying characteristic of a true experiment is that it randomly allocates the subjects to neutralize
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791:. He conducted his experiments in the field of opticsâgoing back to optical and mathematical problems in the works of
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of identical procedures in hopes of producing identical results in each replication. Random assignment is uncommon.
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To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trialsâsay for U.S.
1086:). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (
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Once equivalent groups have been formed, the experimenter tries to treat them identically except for the one
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Stohr-Hunt, Patricia (1996). "An
Analysis of Frequency of Hands-on Experience and Science Achievement".
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Even very young children perform rudimentary experiments to learn about the world and how things work.
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he describes the fundamentally new approach to knowledge and research in an experimental sense:
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active in the 17th century, became an influential supporter of experimental science in the
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erratic, and from it deducing axioms , and from established axioms again new experiments.
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can disprove a theory or hypothesis, but a theory can always be salvaged by appropriate
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with some observer's control, as illustrated, the observation is also an experiment.
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methods that take into account the amount of variation between individuals and the
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General
Relativistic Dynamics: Extending Einstein's Legacy Throughout the Universe
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examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.
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Design and
Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design
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2008:"Promises and Perils of Experimentation: The Mutual-Internal-Validity Problem"
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864:(1743â1794), a French chemist, used experiment to describe new areas, such as
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Lavoisier in the Year One: The Birth of a New
Science in an Age of Revolution
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The physics of everyday phenomena : a conceptual introduction to physics
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Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference
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880:(1822â1895) used the scientific method to disprove the prevailing theory of
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El-Bizri, Nader (2005). "A Philosophical
Perspective on Alhazen's Optics".
1254:. Natural experiments rely solely on observations of the variables of the
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1991:. Department of Psychology, University of California Davis. Archived from
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Natural experiments in the social sciences : a design-based approach
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10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199601)33:1<101::AID-TEA6>3.0.CO;2-Z
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one. In many laboratory experiments it is good practice to have several
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that helps people decide between two or more competing explanationsâor
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illustration) to estimate the amount of protein in the unknown sample.
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An example that is often used in teaching laboratories is a controlled
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There are various differences in experimental practice in each of the
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2073:"Ole Roemer Profile: First to Measure the Speed of Light | AMNH"
1748:
Holland, Paul W. (December 1986). "Statistics and Causal
Inference".
1255:
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690:
1761:
839:. He disagreed with the method of answering scientific questions by
1725:
Fantastic realities : 49 mind journeys and a trip to
Stockholm
601:
of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into
30:"Experimental" redirects here. For the musical classification, see
2270:
Shadish, William R.; Cook, Thomas D.; Campbell, Donald T. (2002).
1668:(Online-Ausg. ed.). Singapore: World Scientific. p. 12.
1452:
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requires special safeguards against outside variables such as the
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and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the
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1887:"Having first determined the question according to his will, man
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2006:
Lin, Hause; Werner, Kaitlyn M.; Inzlicht, Michael (2021-02-16).
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that the subject responds to. The goal of the experiment is to
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performs a gravity test on the moon with a hammer and feather.
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2150:(Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2296:
Routledge
Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies
1435:
Field experiments are so named to distinguish them from
1207:, two or more "treatments" are applied to estimate the
670:. Researchers also use experimentation to test existing
2173:"Why Propensity Scores Should Not Be Used for Matching"
27:
Scientific procedure performed to validate a hypothesis
2346:
Lessons In
Electric Circuits â Volume VI â Experiments
1102:
samples for the test being performed and have both a
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Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
1800:
Cambridge handbook of experimental political science
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1363:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1006:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
589:is a procedure carried out to support or refute a
1727:. New Jersey: World Scientific. pp. 61â62.
1267:in the observed data. When these variables are
1150:of individuals in each group. In fields such as
4293:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
1750:Journal of the American Statistical Association
849:
813:
803:
674:or new hypotheses to support or disprove them.
2274:(Nachdr. ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
1915:(2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster.
1698:(3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp.
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2171:King, Gary; Nielsen, Richard (October 2019).
2148:Statistical models : theory and practice
1184:In human experiments, researchers may give a
696:An experiment must also control the possible
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942:is manipulated by the experimenter, and the
693:modifications at the expense of simplicity.
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2255:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2226:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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1802:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1423:Learn how and when to remove this message
1066:Learn how and when to remove this message
2298:. New York: Routledge. pp. 228â238.
2121:; Pisani, Robert; Purves, Roger (2007).
892:experiments is preferred when possible.
504:Library and information science software
2060:
1631:Journal of Research in Science Teaching
1621:
1569:Concept development and experimentation
87:
4819:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
1967:(New illustrated ed.). Springer.
1896:
1723:Wilczek, Frank; Devine, Betsy (2006).
1461:for observation (input and output are
499:Geographic information system software
2012:Perspectives on Psychological Science
7:
5129:
4829:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model
1361:adding citations to reliable sources
1231:Experiments can be also designed to
1004:adding citations to reliable sources
662:procedure that arbitrates competing
5141:
4424:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
2731:Generalized randomized block design
2355:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4519:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
3145:Pearson product-moment correlation
2125:(4th ed.). New York: Norton.
1873:Ibn al-Haytham, Abu Ali Al-Hasan.
1858:Ibn al-Haytham, Abu Ali Al-Hasan.
1196:the response to the stimulus by a
1165:that he or she wishes to isolate.
1094:or regular treatment would be the
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2782:Sequential probability ratio test
2224:Design of comparative experiments
1175:. Such experiments are generally
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2707:Polynomial and rational modeling
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4778:Least-squares spectral analysis
1348:needs additional citations for
991:needs additional citations for
3759:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance
2474:Replication versus subsampling
1825:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
677:An experiment usually tests a
625:Experiments typically include
1:
5072:Geographic information system
4288:Simultaneous equations models
1963:Brock, Thomas D, ed. (1988).
1942:. W.W. Norton & Company.
1936:Bell, Madison Smartt (2005).
1664:Cooperstock, Fred I. (2009).
1235:onto nearby untreated units.
1090:); and the one receiving the
872:and to develop the theory of
4255:Coefficient of determination
3866:Uniformly most powerful test
2701:Response surface methodology
2609:Analysis of variance (Anova)
1692:Griffith, W. Thomas (2001).
1509:Food and Drug Administration
608:natural experimental studies
4824:Proportional hazards models
4768:Spectral density estimation
4750:Vector autoregression (VAR)
4184:Maximum posterior estimator
3416:Randomized controlled trial
2771:Randomized controlled trial
2146:Freedman, David A. (2009).
926:In some disciplines (e.g.,
915:(1909â1980), among others.
39:Experiment (disambiguation)
5205:
4584:Multivariate distributions
3004:Average absolute deviation
2097:(Second ed.). Wiley.
1965:Pasteur and Modern Science
1875:Dubitationes in Ptolemaeum
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1233:estimate spillover effects
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3323:Sample size determination
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2324:Resources in your library
1837:10.1017/S0957423905000172
1564:Black box experimentation
1517:propensity score matching
1275:Much research in several
526:Qualitative data analysis
5067:Environmental statistics
4589:Elliptical distributions
4382:Generalized linear model
4311:Simple linear regression
4081:HodgesâLehmann estimator
3538:Probability distribution
3447:Stochastic approximation
3009:Coefficient of variation
2757:Repeated measures design
2469:Restricted randomization
2024:10.1177/1745691620974773
827:(1561â1626), an English
744:average treatment effect
4727:Cross-correlation (XCF)
4335:Non-standard predictors
3769:LehmannâScheffĂ© theorem
3442:Adaptive clinical trial
1589:Experimental psychology
1279:disciplines, including
913:William Gemmell Cochran
683:philosophies of science
5123:Mathematics portal
4944:Engineering statistics
4852:NelsonâAalen estimator
4429:Analysis of covariance
4316:Ordinary least squares
4240:Pearson product-moment
3644:Statistical functional
3555:Empirical distribution
3388:Controlled experiments
3117:Frequency distribution
2895:Descriptive statistics
2812:Mathematics portal
2574:Ordinary least squares
2251:Dunning, Thad (2012).
1989:"Types of experiments"
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962:Controlled experiments
886:germ theory of disease
882:spontaneous generation
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783:History of experiments
771:experimental economics
706:randomized experiments
658:, an experiment is an
405:Inferential statistics
351:Descriptive statistics
298:Human subject research
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5179:Design of experiments
5039:Population statistics
4981:System identification
4715:Autocorrelation (ACF)
4643:Exponential smoothing
4557:Discriminant analysis
4552:Canonical correlation
4416:Partition of variance
4278:Regression validation
4122:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
4021:Likelihood-ratio test
3710:Frequentist inference
3622:Locationâscale family
3543:Sampling distribution
3508:Statistical inference
3475:Cross-sectional study
3462:Observational studies
3421:Randomized experiment
3250:Stem-and-leaf display
3052:Central limit theorem
2409:Scientific experiment
2391:Design of experiments
2351:Experiment in Physics
2222:Bailey, R.A. (2008).
1909:Durant, Will (2012).
1574:Design of experiments
1498:central limit theorem
1456:
1297:cultural anthropology
1265:explanatory variables
1205:design of experiments
1167:Human experimentation
972:Design of experiments
189:Philosophical schools
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4962:Probabilistic design
4547:Principal components
4390:Exponential families
4342:Nonlinear regression
4321:General linear model
4283:Mixed effects models
4273:Errors and residuals
4250:Confounding variable
4152:Bayesian probability
4130:Van der Waerden test
4120:Ordered alternative
3885:Multiple comparisons
3764:RaoâBlackwellization
3727:Estimating equations
3683:Statistical distance
3401:Factorial experiment
2934:Arithmetic-Geometric
2683:Fractional factorial
2342:at Wikimedia Commons
1995:on 19 December 2014.
1609:Long-term experiment
1584:Experimental physics
1487:Baconian experiments
1465:). When there are a
1357:improve this article
1084:independent variable
1000:improve this article
940:independent variable
874:conservation of mass
631:independent variable
514:Reference management
464:Scientific modelling
206:Critical rationalism
37:For other uses, see
5184:Science experiments
5034:Official statistics
4957:Methods engineering
4638:Seasonal adjustment
4406:Poisson regressions
4326:Bayesian regression
4265:Regression analysis
4245:Partial correlation
4217:Regression analysis
3816:Prediction interval
3811:Likelihood interval
3801:Confidence interval
3793:Interval estimation
3754:Unbiased estimators
3572:Model specification
3452:Up-and-down designs
3140:Partial correlation
3096:Index of dispersion
3014:Interquartile range
2817:Statistical outline
2777:Sequential analysis
2742:Graeco-Latin square
2651:Multiple comparison
2598:Hierarchical model:
2190:10.1017/pan.2019.11
2089:Hinkelmann, Klaus;
1895:, i, 63. Quoted in
1792:Kuklinski, James H.
1643:1996JRScT..33..101S
1604:List of experiments
1579:Experimentum crucis
1502:Markov's inequality
1475:observational study
1239:Natural experiments
884:and to develop the
837:English renaissance
763:branches of science
702:scientific controls
698:confounding factors
593:, or determine the
494:Argument technology
5054:Spatial statistics
4934:Medical statistics
4834:First hitting time
4788:Whittle likelihood
4439:Degrees of freedom
4434:Multivariate ANOVA
4367:Heteroscedasticity
4179:Bayesian estimator
4144:Bayesian inference
3993:KolmogorovâSmirnov
3878:Randomization test
3848:Testing hypotheses
3821:Tolerance interval
3732:Maximum likelihood
3627:Exponential family
3560:Density estimation
3520:Statistical theory
3480:Natural experiment
3426:Scientific control
3343:Survey methodology
3029:Standard deviation
2822:Statistical topics
2414:Statistical design
2177:Political Analysis
1784:Druckman, James N.
1594:Empirical research
1471:
1245:Natural experiment
1131:colorimetric assay
968:Scientific control
944:dependent variable
488:Tools and software
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2569:Linear regression
2546:Nuisance variable
2459:Random assignment
2436:Experimental unit
2338:Media related to
2310:Library resources
2157:978-0-521-74385-3
2132:978-0-393-92972-0
2104:978-0-471-72756-9
2091:Kempthorne, Oscar
1922:978-0-671-69500-2
1734:978-981-256-649-2
1675:978-981-4271-16-5
1546:Manhattan Project
1442:external validity
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1323:Field experiments
1252:quasi-experiments
1218:scientific method
1211:between the mean
1135:spectrophotometer
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956:validity concerns
948:experimenter bias
932:political science
911:(1900â1978), and
909:Gertrude Mary Cox
862:Antoine Lavoisier
752:systematic review
721:physical sciences
710:random assignment
656:scientific method
639:scientific method
583:
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549:Philosophy portal
457:Systematic review
442:Literature review
400:Historical method
383:Social experiment
318:Scientific method
303:Narrative inquiry
154:Interdisciplinary
148:Research strategy
119:Research question
114:Research proposal
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3747:Minimum distance
3719:Point estimation
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4821:
4815:
4813:
4804:
4798:
4797:
4794:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4764:
4762:
4756:
4755:
4753:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4723:
4722:
4720:partial (PACF)
4711:
4709:
4703:
4702:
4700:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4681:
4676:
4670:
4668:
4667:Specific tests
4664:
4663:
4661:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4619:
4617:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4600:
4599:
4598:
4597:
4596:
4581:
4580:
4579:
4569:
4567:Classification
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4533:
4531:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4521:
4516:
4514:McNemar's test
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4490:
4488:
4478:
4477:
4460:
4453:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4420:
4418:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4408:
4392:
4386:
4384:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4352:Semiparametric
4349:
4344:
4338:
4336:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4307:
4305:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4269:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4236:
4234:
4224:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4214:
4208:
4207:
4200:
4199:
4196:
4195:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4188:
4187:
4186:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4148:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4133:
4132:
4127:
4126:
4125:
4117:
4109:
4093:
4090:(MannâWhitney)
4085:
4084:
4083:
4070:
4069:
4068:
4057:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4045:
4044:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4023:
4018:
4015:(ShapiroâWilk)
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3982:
3976:
3974:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3964:
3956:
3947:
3935:
3929:
3927:Specific tests
3923:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3899:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3887:
3882:
3881:
3880:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3858:
3852:
3850:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3833:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3797:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3785:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3766:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3723:
3721:
3712:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3680:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3603:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3581:
3580:
3579:
3574:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3524:
3522:
3512:
3511:
3506:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3466:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3438:
3436:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3392:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3378:Standard error
3375:
3370:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3358:
3347:
3345:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3308:Optimal design
3305:
3300:
3294:
3292:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3181:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3147:
3142:
3136:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3108:
3106:
3105:Summary tables
3102:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3092:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3054:
3048:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3000:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2977:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2939:Contraharmonic
2936:
2931:
2920:
2918:
2909:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2860:
2859:
2852:
2845:
2837:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2802:
2797:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2728:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2672:
2670:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2629:
2617:
2612:
2604:
2603:
2595:
2590:
2582:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2565:
2563:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2498:
2496:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2449:Optimal design
2444:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2348:
2343:
2327:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:External links
2302:
2301:
2300:
2291:
2280:
2267:
2262:978-1107698000
2261:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2233:978-0521683579
2232:
2214:
2183:(4): 435â454.
2163:
2156:
2138:
2131:
2110:
2103:
2078:
2064:
2053:
2018:(4): 854â863.
1998:
1980:
1974:978-3540501015
1973:
1955:
1949:978-0393051551
1948:
1928:
1921:
1901:
1899:, p. 170.
1880:
1865:
1850:
1831:(2): 189â218.
1815:
1809:978-0521174558
1808:
1775:
1740:
1733:
1715:
1708:
1681:
1674:
1656:
1637:(1): 101â109.
1620:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1535:human subjects
1527:Main article:
1524:
1521:
1494:selection bias
1450:
1447:
1431:
1430:
1345:
1343:
1336:
1327:Main article:
1324:
1321:
1243:Main article:
1240:
1237:
1172:placebo effect
1112:standard curve
1074:
1073:
988:
986:
979:
963:
960:
920:
917:
845:Ibn al-Haytham
798:Book of Optics
789:Ibn al-Haytham
781:Main article:
778:
775:
748:test statistic
740:clinical trial
687:counterexample
651:
648:
581:
580:
578:
577:
570:
563:
555:
552:
551:
545:
544:
541:
540:
539:
538:
533:
528:
518:
517:
516:
511:
501:
496:
490:
487:
486:
483:
482:
479:
478:
473:
472:
471:
461:
460:
459:
454:
452:Scoping review
449:
444:
439:
429:
424:
423:
422:
412:
407:
402:
397:
395:Field research
392:
391:
390:
385:
380:
370:
369:
368:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
332:
329:
328:
325:
324:
321:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
293:Historiography
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
264:
259:
258:
255:
254:
251:
250:
249:
248:
246:Subtle realism
243:
233:
228:
226:Postpositivism
223:
218:
213:
208:
203:
201:Constructivism
198:
196:Antipositivism
192:
187:
186:
183:
182:
179:
178:
173:
172:
171:
161:
156:
150:
147:
146:
143:
142:
139:
138:
137:
136:
131:
121:
116:
110:
105:
104:
101:
100:
92:
91:
85:
84:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5201:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5166:
5164:
5149:
5148:
5139:
5137:
5136:
5127:
5125:
5124:
5119:
5113:
5111:
5110:
5101:
5100:
5097:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5077:Geostatistics
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5059:
5057:
5055:
5051:
5045:
5044:Psychometrics
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4992:
4988:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4949:
4947:
4945:
4941:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4907:Biostatistics
4904:
4900:
4896:
4891:
4887:
4869:
4868:Log-rank test
4866:
4865:
4863:
4859:
4853:
4850:
4849:
4847:
4845:
4841:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4814:
4812:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4799:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4765:
4763:
4761:
4757:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4739:(BoxâJenkins)
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4716:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4708:
4704:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4692:DurbinâWatson
4690:
4688:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4674:DickeyâFuller
4672:
4671:
4669:
4665:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4648:Cointegration
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4623:Decomposition
4621:
4620:
4618:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4605:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4585:
4582:
4578:
4575:
4574:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4530:
4526:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4494:Cohen's kappa
4492:
4491:
4489:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4458:
4454:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4379:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4347:Nonparametric
4345:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4333:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4308:
4306:
4304:
4300:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4266:
4262:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4147:
4145:
4141:
4131:
4128:
4124:
4118:
4116:
4110:
4108:
4102:
4101:
4100:
4097:
4096:Nonparametric
4094:
4092:
4086:
4082:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4071:
4067:
4066:Sample median
4064:
4063:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4050:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3948:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3924:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3886:
3883:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3874:
3871:
3867:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3851:
3849:
3845:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3828:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3781:
3777:
3774:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3755:
3752:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3672:
3671:loss function
3669:
3668:
3667:
3664:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3582:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3553:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3439:
3437:
3433:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3373:Questionnaire
3371:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3346:
3344:
3340:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3274:
3270:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3200:Control chart
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
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2646:Compare means
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2529:Orthogonality
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907:(1919â2000),
906:
903:(1894â1981),
902:
899:(1890â1962),
898:
897:Ronald Fisher
893:
891:
887:
883:
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878:Louis Pasteur
875:
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867:
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825:Francis Bacon
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759:
757:
756:meta-analysis
753:
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510:
509:Bibliometrics
507:
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467:
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455:
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450:
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447:Meta-analysis
445:
443:
440:
438:
437:Bibliometrics
435:
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314:
311:
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308:Phenomenology
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5019:Econometrics
4969: /
4952:Chemometrics
4929:Epidemiology
4922: /
4895:Applications
4737:ARIMA model
4684:Q-statistic
4633:Stationarity
4529:Multivariate
4472: /
4468: /
4466:Multivariate
4464: /
4404: /
4400: /
4174:Bayes factor
4073:Signed rank
3985:
3959:
3951:
3939:
3634:Completeness
3470:Cohort study
3387:
3368:Opinion poll
3303:Missing data
3290:Study design
3245:Scatter plot
3167:Scatter plot
3160:Spearman's Ï
3122:Grouped data
2769:
2755:
2737:Latin square
2723:
2699:
2675:
2636:
2632:
2625:multivariate
2624:
2620:
2607:
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2166:
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2122:
2113:
2094:
2067:
2061:Dunning 2012
2056:
2015:
2011:
2001:
1993:the original
1983:
1964:
1958:
1938:
1931:
1911:
1904:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1877:. p. 3.
1874:
1868:
1862:. p. 5.
1859:
1853:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1799:
1778:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1724:
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1659:
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1532:
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1491:
1484:
1472:
1462:
1445:laboratory.
1434:
1419:
1410:
1400:
1393:
1386:
1379:
1372:"Experiment"
1367:
1355:Please help
1350:verification
1347:
1305:paleontology
1274:
1268:
1248:
1230:
1202:
1183:
1178:double blind
1176:
1170:
1162:
1160:
1152:microbiology
1140:
1116:
1079:
1077:
1062:
1053:
1043:
1036:
1029:
1022:
1015:"Experiment"
1010:
998:Please help
993:verification
990:
952:
925:
922:
901:Jerzy Neyman
894:
870:biochemistry
855:
850:
843:âsimilar to
823:
819:
814:
809:
804:
796:
786:
767:agricultural
760:
729:
714:
695:
676:
653:
635:measurements
624:
612:
586:
584:
372:
288:Hermeneutics
176:Quantitative
18:Experimental
5169:Experiments
5147:WikiProject
5062:Cartography
5024:Jurimetrics
4976:Reliability
4707:Time domain
4686:(LjungâBox)
4608:Time-series
4486:Categorical
4470:Time-series
4462:Categorical
4397:(Bernoulli)
4232:Correlation
4212:Correlation
4008:JarqueâBera
3980:Chi-squared
3742:M-estimator
3695:Asymptotics
3639:Sufficiency
3406:Interaction
3318:Replication
3298:Effect size
3255:Violin plot
3235:Radar chart
3215:Forest plot
3205:Correlogram
3155:Kendall's Ï
2712:BoxâBehnken
2593:Mixed model
2524:Confounding
2519:Interaction
2509:Effect size
2479:Sample size
2340:Experiments
1897:Durant 2012
1480:confounding
1463:observables
1313:meteorology
1289:archaeology
1261:correlation
1198:test method
1188:(person) a
1144:statistical
1133:in which a
1129:assay is a
829:philosopher
725:replication
717:engineering
704:and/or, in
361:Ethnography
261:Methodology
216:Fallibilism
164:Qualitative
134:Referencing
62:David Scott
5163:Categories
5014:Demography
4732:ARMA model
4537:Regression
4114:(Friedman)
4075:(Wilcoxon)
4013:Normality
4003:Lilliefors
3950:Student's
3826:Resampling
3700:Robustness
3688:divergence
3678:Efficiency
3616:(monotone)
3611:Likelihood
3528:Population
3361:Stratified
3313:Population
3132:Dependence
3088:Count data
3019:Percentile
2996:Dispersion
2929:Arithmetic
2864:Statistics
2668:randomized
2666:Completely
2637:covariance
2399:Scientific
2315:Experiment
2123:Statistics
1599:Laboratory
1437:laboratory
1413:March 2019
1383:newspapers
1222:hypotheses
1209:difference
1056:March 2019
1026:newspapers
928:psychology
890:laboratory
876:(matter).
866:combustion
708:, through
679:hypothesis
668:hypotheses
622:sciences.
599:likelihood
591:hypothesis
587:experiment
536:Statistics
531:Simulation
469:Simulation
410:Interviews
373:Experiment
341:Case study
313:Pragmatism
231:Pragmatism
221:Positivism
211:Empiricism
60:Astronaut
4395:Logistic
4162:posterior
4088:Rank sum
3836:Jackknife
3831:Bootstrap
3649:Bootstrap
3584:Parameter
3533:Statistic
3328:Statistic
3240:Run chart
3225:Pie chart
3220:Histogram
3210:Fan chart
3185:Bar chart
3067:L-moments
2954:Geometric
2677:Factorial
2561:inference
2541:Covariate
2503:Treatment
2489:Treatment
2209:1047-1987
2048:231877717
2032:1745-6916
1845:123057532
1317:astronomy
1293:sociology
1281:economics
1213:responses
1156:chemistry
1100:replicate
936:variables
841:deduction
833:scientist
660:empirical
643:variables
169:Art-based
5174:Research
5109:Category
4802:Survival
4679:Johansen
4402:Binomial
4357:Isotonic
3944:(normal)
3589:location
3396:Blocking
3351:Sampling
3230:QâQ plot
3195:Box plot
3177:Graphics
3072:Skewness
3062:Kurtosis
3034:Variance
2964:Heronian
2959:Harmonic
2800:Category
2795:Glossary
2601:Bayesian
2579:Bayesian
2535:Blocking
2514:Contrast
2494:blocking
2454:Bayesian
2441:Blinding
2431:validity
2428:external
2424:Internal
2288:Excerpts
2093:(2008).
2040:33593177
1552:See also
1513:matching
1467:feedback
1263:between
1190:stimulus
1163:variable
1126:solution
734:and the
732:medicine
719:and the
672:theories
650:Overview
627:controls
595:efficacy
336:Analysis
129:Argument
89:Research
81:a series
79:Part of
5135:Commons
5082:Kriging
4967:Process
4924:studies
4783:Wavelet
4616:General
3783:Plug-in
3577:L space
3356:Cluster
3057:Moments
2875:Outline
2693:Taguchi
2661:Designs
2419:Control
1770:2289064
1639:Bibcode
1397:scholar
1309:ecology
1301:geology
1277:science
1203:In the
1194:measure
1186:subject
1119:protein
1096:control
1092:placebo
1080:control
1040:scholar
793:Ptolemy
777:History
654:In the
616:natural
415:Mapping
330:Methods
236:Realism
124:Writing
5004:Census
4594:Normal
4542:Manova
4362:Robust
4112:2-way
4104:1-way
3942:-test
3613:
3190:Biplot
2981:Median
2974:Lehmer
2916:Center
2733:(GRBD)
2633:Ancova
2621:Manova
2556:Models
2401:method
2312:about
2278:
2259:
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2207:
2154:
2129:
2101:
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2038:
2030:
1971:
1946:
1919:
1860:Optics
1843:
1806:
1768:
1731:
1706:
1672:
1523:Ethics
1399:
1392:
1385:
1378:
1370:
1315:, and
1256:system
1148:number
1106:and a
1042:
1035:
1028:
1021:
1013:
938:. The
919:Types
691:ad hoc
664:models
476:Survey
4628:Trend
4157:prior
4099:anova
3988:-test
3962:-test
3954:-test
3861:Power
3806:Pivot
3599:shape
3594:scale
3044:Shape
3024:Range
2969:Heinz
2944:Cubic
2880:Index
2725:Block
2353:from
2044:S2CID
1841:S2CID
1766:JSTOR
1616:Notes
1404:JSTOR
1390:books
1122:assay
1047:JSTOR
1033:books
620:human
4861:Test
4061:Sign
3913:Wald
2986:Mode
2924:Mean
2559:and
2492:and
2426:and
2276:ISBN
2257:ISBN
2228:ISBN
2205:ISSN
2152:ISBN
2127:ISBN
2099:ISBN
2036:PMID
2028:ISSN
1969:ISBN
1944:ISBN
1917:ISBN
1889:then
1804:ISBN
1729:ISBN
1704:ISBN
1670:ISBN
1500:and
1457:The
1376:news
1154:and
1019:news
970:and
868:and
831:and
754:and
618:and
4041:BIC
4036:AIC
2195:hdl
2185:doi
2020:doi
1833:doi
1758:doi
1700:3â4
1647:doi
1473:An
1359:by
1269:not
1002:by
930:or
730:In
715:In
666:or
597:or
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2181:27
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2014:.
2010:.
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1794:;
1790:;
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1754:81
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1684:^
1645:.
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