488:
women's associations that challenged the patriarchal family structure and the oppression against women. One of the most potent symbols of the women's revolution was bobbed hair, which contrasted strongly with traditional ponytails and buns. However, the radical women's movement was strongly opposed by more conservative factions of society. Warlords ruthlessly suppressed and killed radical women when they retook control of an area, and even some peasants' associations grew hostile to the women's associations over issues like divorce. The movement was crippled after the KMT's right-wing took control; prominent female revolutionaries were executed and women's associations were reorganized to bring them under KMT control. Xia Douyin was particularly notorious for the mutilating the corpses of female revolutionaries he had killed. When the
Communists began to take back control of the Eyuwan region, many women's rights were restored. A female resident of Anhui later recalled that "women unbound their feet, cut their hair short, studied, and took part in public life." Many women joined the Red Army. They worked as propagandists, nurses, engineers, or clothing makers, sometimes in all-women battalions. When the Fourth Red Army had to abandon the Soviet in 1932, female Communist leader
497:
lacked the means to redistribute land, they did enforce a policy where the person who lived on and worked the land would keep the crop. This helped tenants but did nothing for hired laborers. Starting in May 1929, the
Communists began to go about reform more methodically. They published a "Temporary Land Law" which not only gave tenants the land they worked, but also confiscated excess landholdings from landlords and distributed them to landless peasants. The land reform process expanded gradually. At first the Communists only redistributed land from the largest landholders in the villages securely under their control. As they gained experience and strengthened their military position, more villages were included and the campaign began to target rich peasants and landholding institutions as well. The land reform process involved mass meetings, population censuses, land surveys, and campaigns against particularly unpopular gentry. Old deeds were destroyed and new ones created. Not all villages distributed land the same way; variations such as giving more land to families of Red Army soldiers were common.
530:. The Communists positioned the Twenty-fifth Red Army to defend the east while the main force of the Fourth Red Army was located to the west. Although it was able to inflict about the same amount of casualties on the nationalist forces as it suffered itself, this loss rate was unsustainable against a superior force. Xia Douyin led a scorched earth campaign, killing all men found in the Soviet areas, burning all buildings, and seizing or destroying all crops. Historians such as Marc Opper and Chen Yao-huang argue that a major factor in the Fourth Red Army's defeat was its decision to adopt more conventional tactics. The mass of the peasantry was unfriendly to Nationalists and so Nationalist armies had to rely on local elites to provide food, a method that was unreliable and made them vulnerable to supply problems. The Communists failed to capitalize on this logistical weakness when they decided not to fight a guerrilla war. The Fourth Red Army retreated to border region between
475:
eventually came to an end during the latter half of 1932. Soldiers who had been purged for their literacy but had stayed with the Red Army were allowed to rejoin and in some instances promoted. The overall impact and scale of the purges are disputed. Reasonable estimates of the number arrested and killed range from the low thousands to 10,000. Historian
William Rowe argues that this "meant... the near final extinction of the Party's base of indigenous supporters" in Eyuwan, but most other historians disagree. Benton points out that almost all of the purged cadres were replaced with other local supporters since there were very few non-native Communists in the region. Tony Saich argues that the Red Army's continued success showed that the purges had not affected the army's fighting capacity. In early 1932, the Fourth Red Army had helped defeat the
308:" region). Many Communists were in fact natives of this region and had been sent by their parents to study in the cities. By returning to their native region, they could count on family ties as a recruitment tool. But while the rugged terrain gave them shelter from the Nationalist armies, it provided the same benefit for bandit gangs. The highlands of Eyuwan had been plagued by roaming bandits for centuries, leading local communities to develop strong self-defense organizations known as
538:, leaving behind a small force to carry out guerilla warfare. The main force lost half of its troops during the fighting and subsequent retreat, being reduced to 15,000 men. The forces left behind began a protracted guerrilla war against the Nationalists. They hid in the mountains and eked out a living by foraging and organizing poor peasants to seize grain kept by landlords and public granaries. Gao Jingting and Xu Haidong became the
463:, or the Third Party. In some counties, Zhang even set up secret police. Zhang's main justification for the purge was that the local party was too strongly intertwined with local gentry and the traditional rural power structure. He argued that this had prevented the party from carrying out land reform properly, and land reform under Zhang went much further than it had in previous years. Zhang appointed a Red Army officer named
312:. There was considerable local variation between different Red Spear Societies; in western Henan they were hardly distinguishable from bandits themselves, whereas in the east they were fiercely loyal to the local gentry. But in both cases, they were initially hostile to the Communists. Other difficulties included the fact that the Communists were operating north of the
456:
took the land anyways, he got permission from the
Central Committee to make Chen Changhao political commissar of the Fourth Red Army. Zhang and Chen accused the Fourth Red Army was acting like a "warlord-bandit" force, pillaging the countryside and rejecting proper discipline. Zhang and Chen then purged the army of hundreds of alleged traitors, including Xu.
514:, the Eyuwan Soviet was so separated from the rest of the soviets south of the Yangtze that it did not send delegates to the founding ceremony. Instead, it held its own conference. Although some historians argue that this may have been partially caused by the distrust between Zhang and Mao, Benton argues it was solely due to poor communications.
262:. One of the tactics the United Front used during the offensive was the creation of militant labor unions and peasant associations. These mass organizations gave the Northern Expedition strong popular support, but antagonized conservatives within the KMT who were often landowners and capital owners themselves. In 1927, the right-wing
559:. Wei had significantly more troops, and also made use of concentration camps to deprive the Communists of peasant support. Despite occasional victories, the Communists were in the main defeated by this strategy. Most of the remaining guerrillas abandoned open warfare and began to operate undercover amongst the peasants. Until the
501:
the process. When rich peasants as well as landlords began to have their land targeted for redistribution, middle peasants worried they would be next. The public campaigns and struggle sessions that targeted reactionaries and local power-holders caused major strife in close-knit peasant communities.
455:
Zhang came into immediate conflict with the leaders of the Fourth Red Army. Xu Jishen and the other commanders wanted to seize the breadbasket counties in eastern Hubei to fix Eyuwan's chronic food shortages. Zhang compared the plan to Li Lisan's "adventurism", and when they disobeyed his orders and
412:
The
Communist Party's factional disputes increasingly involved Eyuwan as the soviet grew larger and more important. The first of these followed the ousting of Li Lisan. Li's influence waned in the second half of 1930 after the plan to attack cities ended in costly failure. The first high-level party
542:
leaders of the largest force left behind, the Twenty-fifth Red Army. They were successful at preserving a
Communist presence in the region for several more years. Nationalist extermination campaigns began to indiscriminately target the peasantry in areas where Communist influence was strong. Entire
500:
The Eyuwan Soviet's reforms faced significant resistance from traditional rural power structures. Attempts to enforce women's right to divorce faced strong opposition from peasants' organizations. Many gentry joined the local institutions set up to implement land reform and deliberately slowed down
496:
As with other
Soviets, land reform was the cornerstone of the Communists' appeal to the peasantry. Even before they began to take and hold territory, Communist guerrillas encouraged peasants to protest against taxes, rent, and debt payments. Although in the early days of the guerrilla movement they
487:
Women played a major part in the revolutionary movement in Eyuwan from the beginning. The United Front campaigners that had arrived in the region in advance of the
Northern Expedition made women's liberation a core part of their campaign. Female Communists helped organize labor strikes and founded
375:
leader of the
Chinese Communist Party. His "Li Lisan line" called for immediate attacks on major cities. However, unlike other soviets Eyuwan was still considered too small to serve as a base for one of these attacks. Local Communists were instead instructed to start trying to govern territory and
509:
At its height, the Eyuwan Soviet had a larger population than the
Central Soviet, although it was slightly smaller in land area and had a smaller Red Army. After Zhang Guotao took charge in Eyuwan, his rivalry with Mao Zedong manifested as a rivalry between the two Soviets. Historian William Rowe
594:
Nonetheless, the historiography of Eyuwan in the People's Republic of China was largely negative for many years. Zhang Guotao defected from the CCP in 1938 and joined the Nationalists. Given Zhang's association with Eyuwan, this greatly damaged the regions reputation and most early assessments
474:
to chairman of the Eyuwan Soviet. Gao had a reputation for brutality against rich peasants and landlords. In order to "comb out" rich peasants, any Red army soldiers who were literate were dismissed. The purges led to opposition against Zhang from wide sections of the party and peasantry. They
376:
stockpile food in preparation for a future assault on the cities. The latter policy eroded popular support among some peasants, who were already hard-pressed economically. During this period, the Communists launched uprisings and established soviets to govern towns and villages across Eyuwan.
492:
stayed behind to care for her dying husband. In November 1932, Zhang was appointed Director of the General Political Department of the Fourth Front Army, the highest war-time position ever held by a woman in the Chinese Red Army. She is often called the only woman general of the Red Army.
555:) was given 170,000 men to exterminate the remaining guerilla forces in Eyuwan. His system of checkpoints and blockhouses failed because the Communists were able to mobilize their supporters among the local peasantry to slow construction and bypass checkpoints. Liang was replaced with
510:
cites a report Zhang submitted to the CCP Central Committee in which he defends his purges by claiming he was learning from the "example" of Mao's purges in the Central Soviet that had followed the Futian Incident. Despite Zhang Guotao being appointed vice chair of the
320:
that received numerous Communist refugees from the cities. This in turn had benefits and drawbacks. Ties of solidarity between party members in Eyuwan were high, but they lacked an education in party principles or doctrine and the leaders often acted autocratically.
379:
Starting in February 1930, the Communists started to consolidate these local soviets into a single base area. The Eyuwan Soviet was established in June, governing an area of over a million people. The army divisions were combined into the First Red Army under
424:, arrived in September. He attempted to take a moderate position between Li and Li's critics. During his term the soviet fended off two Nationalist suppression campaigns and the Fourth Red Army grew to 15,000 men. In March, the Fourth Red Army won the
546:
The disconnected Communist bases in the Dabie mountains continued to hold out well until late 1934. However, in November Xu Haidong was defeated and fled with the Twenty-fifth Red Army towards the Shaanxi-Sichuan base area. Nationalist commander
405:
278:
in the areas under his control. Chiang eventually took over the KMT and extended the purge to all areas under Nationalist control. The CCP went underground and many fled to isolated rural areas where Nationalist influence was weakest.
214:. The Soviet government ceased to function and the Communists retreated into the mountains. Despite several extermination campaigns intended to flush them out, the region remained a hotbed of Communist guerrilla activity until
354:
as the army passed through villages, organizing peasants as it went. They were helped by the fact that the Nationalists could not devote their full military strength to crushing the Communists. They were dealing with the
345:
also founded the Seventh Red Army with a handful of recruits. However, the Communists remained mobile, having to stay on the run from Nationalist armies. They slowly built up a following in the counties of Huang'an,
571:
Despite its convoluted history, the Fourth Red Army became one of the most important sources of officers for later CCP military units. It was one of the main sources of the soldiers who served in the
221:
The Eyuwan Soviet recruited a disproportionate number of officers and cadres for the Chinese Communists. Even in the early 1950s, over 70% of division-level commanders and higher in the
1783:
527:
389:
199:
476:
385:
459:
Zhang's purges expanded during the second half of 1931. Thousands or tens of thousands of party members were arrested and accused of being part of the Reorganizationists, the
1778:
1753:
367:
retook some of this territory from the Communists and massacred thousands of civilians, but were ultimately unable to stop the Communists' expansion. In mid-1929,
588:
522:
Drought, food shortages, and a major epidemic weakened the Soviet going into 1932. From July to September 1932, Chiang Kai-shek ordered 300,000 troops of the
359:
and the rebellion of a local officer in Macheng. In the summer of 1929, the consolidated their first permanent territory in Macheng near the mountain pass of
316:, which cut them off from the majority of Communist bases and strongholds to the south. They had to recruit most of their party members locally, unlike the
392:
against the Eyuwan Soviet. In January 1931, the First Red Army was combined with the Fifteenth Red Army to form the Fourth Red Army, under the command of
432:). By early 1931, however, Li had been completely ousted and his successors decided that Zeng was too closely associated with Li and needed to go.
225:
were originally from this region. Nonetheless, the Soviet's association with Zhang Guotao—who left the Communist Party in 1938 and joined the
1747:
1583:
330:
1604:
1217:
1788:
408:
Although he was only its leader for a year and a half, the Eyuwan Soviet has since been strongly associated with Zhang Guotao.
460:
1610:
611:
255:
579:
were natives of Eyuwan." Just one county, Huang'an, was the home of over 200 PLA generals. Huang'an was also the home of
190:
in Jiangxi. It improved the rights of women and redistributed land to poor and landless peasants. It was famously led by
543:
villages were burned to the ground; in one case, "3,500 people were said to have been buried alive in just one night".
523:
267:
576:
222:
186:
provinces. At its height in 1931 and early 1932, the Eyuwan Soviet was the second-largest Chinese Soviet after the
1803:
1798:
1793:
425:
511:
167:
40:
36:
317:
414:
548:
560:
251:
215:
464:
384:, which grew from two thousand to five thousand men. The First Red Army successfully defeated the
247:
55:
360:
1743:
1737:
1600:
1579:
363:(松子关). From here, they were able to start land redistribution. The Nationalists under General
338:
309:
275:
114:
351:
203:
163:
59:
572:
283:
271:
171:
1652:
Schoppa, R. Keith (2019). "Chapter 12; Revolution Reborn: The Communists in the 1930s".
1572:
1227:
469:
419:
356:
259:
187:
1772:
449:
437:
263:
575:. Even by the 1950s, "70 percent of cadres at the divisional level and above in the
198:, who attempted to consolidate his control over Eyuwan with a series of purges. The
489:
441:
428:
and captured a Nationalist Major General Yue (a descendant of Song Dynasty general
393:
191:
96:
1594:
584:
556:
445:
364:
342:
243:
226:
195:
333:
Xu Haidong, the founder of the first Communist army unit in the Eyuwan region
1733:
580:
433:
381:
77:
404:
329:
368:
1663:
The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party: Documents and Analysis
1654:
Revolution and Its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History
1636:
Mountain Fires: The Red Army's Three-year War in South China, 1934-1938
535:
531:
429:
347:
313:
211:
207:
563:
began in 1937, the Communists in Eyuwan were on the edge of collapse.
619:
337:
The first "peasants' government" in the Eyuwan region was founded in
1222:[Zhang Qinqiu, the only woman commander of the Red Army].
649:
639:
629:
403:
328:
305:
302:
299:
295:
291:
287:
183:
179:
175:
63:
1596:
Deng Xiaoping and the Chinese Revolution: A Political Biography
1708:
Choosing Revolution: Chinese Women Soldiers on the Long March
1627:
Crimson Rain: Seven Centuries of Violence in a Chinese County
947:
945:
943:
595:
focused criticism on the excessiveness of Zhang's purges.
396:. The Fourth Red Army numbered twenty thousand soldiers.
1515:
1513:
1437:
1435:
1359:
1357:
883:
881:
879:
877:
801:
799:
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in late 1932 and forced it to retreat westwards towards
1386:
1384:
1001:
999:
840:
838:
786:
784:
782:
733:
731:
729:
282:
One popular destination for fleeing Communists was the
1452:
1450:
1052:
1050:
986:
984:
246:(KMT or Nationalists) formed an alliance known as the
900:
898:
896:
653:
643:
633:
1690:
Mobilizing the Masses: Building Revolution in Henan
628:. The name comes from the Chinese abbreviations of
134:
124:
110:
90:
76:
69:
51:
21:
1629:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
1571:
1565:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
526:to surround and suppress the Eyuwan Soviet in the
1645:Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)
229:—has damaged its historical reputation in China.
1739:Unbound: A True Story of War, Love, and Survival
1638:. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
1574:The nationalist revolution in China, 1923–1928
1784:States and territories disestablished in 1932
25:
8:
1726:Migrant Workers and the City: Generation Now
166:government established in March 1930 by the
1681:People's Wars in China, Malaya, and Vietnam
749:
589:President of the People's Republic of China
254:in 1926 that would eventually re-unify the
1779:States and territories established in 1930
1683:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
1176:
1152:
1140:
18:
1211:
1209:
931:中華民國國防大學編，《中國現代軍事史主要戰役表》（台灣國防部史政檔案開放應用系統)
1717:Portraits of Chinese Women in Revolution
1710:. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
1647:. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
1348:
200:Fourth Nationalist Encirclement Campaign
1426:
1188:
720:
689:
604:
68:
50:
1692:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
1531:
1519:
1504:
1492:
1480:
1468:
1441:
1363:
916:
887:
868:
805:
790:
737:
708:
242:During the mid-1920s, the CCP and the
1543:
1414:
1390:
1200:
1080:
1068:
1005:
951:
934:原中華民國國軍政戰學校、美軍顧問團史政處，《中國現代軍事史主要戰役表-陸軍
844:
151:
147:
133:
123:
119:
89:
85:
75:
7:
1456:
1402:
1375:
1300:
1240:
1164:
1104:
1092:
1056:
1041:
1029:
1017:
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975:
963:
856:
829:
817:
761:
1701:. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
1336:
1324:
1312:
1288:
1276:
1264:
1252:
1128:
1116:
904:
773:
696:
16:1930–1932 Chinese soviet government
14:
440:, the new faction in power, sent
413:member appointed to lead Eyuwan,
1665:. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe.
1756:from the original on 2023-10-24
1674:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
1613:from the original on 2023-10-02
505:Rivalry with the Central Soviet
1578:. Cambridge University Press.
672:
664:Eyuwan Revolutionary Base Area
624:
615:
587:, both of whom would serve as
26:
1:
1706:Young, Helen Praeger (2001).
1699:Women and China's Revolutions
1670:Phillips, Richard T. (1996).
1656:(Fourth ed.). Routledge.
479:and reached 30,000 soldiers.
390:Second Encirclement Campaigns
528:Fourth Encirclement Campaign
1719:. New York: Feminist Press.
1563:Bandits in Republican China
654:
644:
634:
524:National Revolutionary Army
477:Third Encirclement Campaign
1820:
1570:Wilbur, C. Martin (1983).
1561:Billingsley, Phil (1988).
658:). It's also known as the
286:, a border region between
218:in the Chinese Civil War.
1697:Hershatter, Gail (2019).
1661:Saich, Tony, ed. (1996).
667:
552:
341:in November 1927. There,
202:defeated Eyuwan's Fourth
152:
148:
144:
120:
106:
102:
86:
46:
35:
1724:Huang, Chuanhui (2016).
1625:Rowe, William T (2007).
1218:
673:Èyùwǎn gémìng gēnjùdì dì
660:Hubei–Henan–Anhui Soviet
577:People's Liberation Army
452:to Eyuwan to take over.
426:Battle of Shuangqiaozhen
325:Foundation of the Soviet
223:People's Liberation Army
1789:Chinese Soviet Republic
1715:Smedley, Agnes (1976).
1634:Benton, Gregor (1992).
1599:. New York: Routledge.
1593:Goodman, David (1994).
512:Chinese Soviet Republic
216:a truce was established
168:Chinese Communist Party
41:Chinese Soviet Republic
37:Revolutionary base area
1728:. Fernwood Publishing.
1643:Gao, James Z. (2009).
409:
334:
174:border region between
136:• Disestablished
461:Anti-Bolshevik League
407:
332:
318:Jiangxi-Fujian Soviet
1688:Wou, Odoric (2022).
1679:Opper, Marc (2020).
1483:, pp. 324, 327.
1378:, pp. 316, 319.
1303:, pp. 278, 283.
1230:on 18 February 2003.
1167:, pp. 284, 300.
919:, pp. 307, 313.
483:Policies and reforms
400:Leadership struggles
1507:, pp. 328–330.
1495:, pp. 327–328.
1339:, pp. 126–127.
1279:, pp. 145–146.
1267:, pp. 144–145.
1255:, pp. 143–144.
1203:, pp. 153–155.
1155:, pp. 193–194.
1143:, pp. 192–193.
1071:, pp. 153–154.
1044:, pp. 313–314.
978:, pp. 311–312.
954:, pp. 513–514.
832:, pp. 304–305.
764:, pp. 250–252.
711:, pp. 77, 170.
561:Second United Front
310:Red Spear Societies
276:purge of Communists
252:Northern Expedition
126:• Established
871:, p. 312-313.
410:
335:
250:. They launched a
248:First United Front
162:was a short-lived
1749:978-0-316-07217-5
1742:. Little, Brown.
1585:978-0-521-31864-8
776:, pp. 63–64.
256:Republic of China
156:
155:
115:Chinese Civil War
92:• 1931-1932
1811:
1804:History of Hubei
1799:History of Anhui
1794:History of Henan
1764:
1762:
1761:
1729:
1720:
1711:
1702:
1693:
1684:
1675:
1672:China Since 1911
1666:
1657:
1648:
1639:
1630:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1589:
1577:
1566:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1445:
1439:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1226:. Archived from
1216:He Libo (2002).
1213:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1186:
1180:
1174:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
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1138:
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1126:
1120:
1114:
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926:
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914:
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902:
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885:
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866:
860:
854:
848:
842:
833:
827:
821:
815:
809:
803:
794:
788:
777:
771:
765:
759:
753:
750:Billingsley 1988
747:
741:
735:
724:
718:
712:
706:
700:
694:
677:
674:
669:
657:
647:
637:
626:
617:
609:
554:
473:
423:
298:provinces (the "
268:Nationalist army
60:Guangshan County
30:
29:
28:
19:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1769:
1768:
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1759:
1757:
1750:
1732:
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1714:
1705:
1696:
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1678:
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1660:
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1642:
1633:
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1616:
1614:
1607:
1592:
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1569:
1560:
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1550:
1542:
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1526:
1518:
1511:
1503:
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1455:
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1440:
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1421:
1413:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1389:
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1370:
1362:
1355:
1347:
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1335:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1220:
1215:
1214:
1207:
1199:
1195:
1187:
1183:
1177:Hershatter 2019
1175:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1153:Hershatter 2019
1151:
1147:
1141:Hershatter 2019
1139:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1111:
1103:
1099:
1091:
1087:
1079:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1048:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1004:
997:
989:
982:
974:
970:
962:
958:
950:
941:
937:
927:
923:
915:
911:
903:
894:
886:
875:
867:
863:
855:
851:
843:
836:
828:
824:
816:
812:
804:
797:
789:
780:
772:
768:
760:
756:
748:
744:
736:
727:
719:
715:
707:
703:
695:
691:
686:
681:
680:
625:Èyùwǎn Sūwéi'āi
610:
606:
601:
573:New Fourth Army
569:
520:
507:
485:
467:
417:
415:Zeng Zhongsheng
402:
339:Huang'an County
327:
284:Dabie Mountains
272:Chiang Kai-shek
258:and defeat the
240:
235:
172:Dabie Mountains
137:
127:
93:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1817:
1815:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1765:
1748:
1730:
1721:
1712:
1703:
1694:
1685:
1676:
1667:
1658:
1649:
1640:
1631:
1622:
1605:
1590:
1584:
1567:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1548:
1536:
1534:, p. 304.
1524:
1522:, p. 305.
1509:
1497:
1485:
1473:
1471:, p. 317.
1461:
1459:, p. 318.
1446:
1444:, p. 319.
1431:
1429:, p. 227.
1419:
1417:, p. 238.
1407:
1405:, p. 317.
1395:
1393:, p. 516.
1380:
1368:
1366:, p. 307.
1353:
1351:, p. 109.
1341:
1329:
1327:, p. 127.
1317:
1315:, p. 146.
1305:
1293:
1291:, p. 148.
1281:
1269:
1257:
1245:
1243:, p. 144.
1233:
1224:People's Daily
1205:
1193:
1191:, p. 113.
1181:
1179:, p. 199.
1169:
1157:
1145:
1133:
1121:
1109:
1107:, p. 278.
1097:
1095:, p. 315.
1085:
1083:, p. 155.
1073:
1061:
1059:, p. 314.
1046:
1034:
1032:, p. 313.
1022:
1020:, p. 312.
1010:
1008:, p. 514.
995:
993:, p. 311.
980:
968:
966:, p. 310.
956:
939:
936:
935:
932:
928:
921:
909:
907:, p. 125.
892:
890:, p. 313.
873:
861:
859:, p. 304.
849:
847:, p. 513.
834:
822:
820:, p. 303.
810:
808:, p. 310.
795:
793:, p. 312.
778:
766:
754:
752:, p. 256.
742:
740:, p. 311.
725:
713:
701:
699:, p. 133.
688:
687:
685:
682:
679:
678:
603:
602:
600:
597:
568:
565:
549:Liang Guanying
519:
516:
506:
503:
484:
481:
401:
398:
357:Chiang-Gui War
326:
323:
260:Beiyang Clique
239:
236:
234:
231:
188:Central Soviet
154:
153:
150:
149:
146:
145:
142:
141:
138:
135:
132:
131:
128:
125:
122:
121:
118:
117:
112:
111:Historical era
108:
107:
104:
103:
100:
99:
94:
91:
88:
87:
84:
83:
80:
74:
73:
71:
67:
66:
53:
49:
48:
44:
43:
33:
32:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1816:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
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1792:
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1777:
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1700:
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1612:
1608:
1606:9781134831210
1602:
1598:
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1387:
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1369:
1365:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1349:Phillips 1996
1345:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1297:
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1273:
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1266:
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1234:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1194:
1190:
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1178:
1173:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1134:
1131:, p. 45.
1130:
1125:
1122:
1119:, p. 82.
1118:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1082:
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1074:
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1038:
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1007:
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987:
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981:
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960:
957:
953:
948:
946:
944:
940:
933:
930:
929:
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922:
918:
913:
910:
906:
901:
899:
897:
893:
889:
884:
882:
880:
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870:
865:
862:
858:
853:
850:
846:
841:
839:
835:
831:
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796:
792:
787:
785:
783:
779:
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770:
767:
763:
758:
755:
751:
746:
743:
739:
734:
732:
730:
726:
723:, p. 30.
722:
717:
714:
710:
705:
702:
698:
693:
690:
683:
675:
665:
661:
656:
651:
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636:
631:
627:
621:
613:
608:
605:
598:
596:
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582:
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574:
566:
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562:
558:
550:
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541:
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529:
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517:
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513:
504:
502:
498:
494:
491:
482:
480:
478:
471:
466:
462:
457:
453:
451:
450:Chen Changhao
447:
443:
439:
438:28 Bolsheviks
435:
431:
427:
421:
416:
406:
399:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
377:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
353:
349:
344:
340:
331:
324:
322:
319:
315:
314:Yangtze river
311:
307:
304:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
280:
277:
273:
269:
265:
264:Generalissimo
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
237:
232:
230:
228:
224:
219:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
194:, a rival of
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
160:Eyuwan Soviet
143:
139:
129:
116:
113:
109:
105:
101:
98:
95:
81:
79:
72:
65:
61:
57:
54:
45:
42:
38:
34:
22:Eyuwan Soviet
20:
1758:. Retrieved
1738:
1725:
1716:
1707:
1698:
1689:
1680:
1671:
1662:
1653:
1644:
1635:
1626:
1615:. Retrieved
1595:
1573:
1562:
1554:Bibliography
1546:, Chapter 1.
1539:
1527:
1500:
1488:
1476:
1464:
1427:Schoppa 2019
1422:
1410:
1398:
1371:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1308:
1296:
1284:
1272:
1260:
1248:
1236:
1228:the original
1223:
1196:
1189:Smedley 1976
1184:
1172:
1160:
1148:
1136:
1124:
1112:
1100:
1088:
1076:
1064:
1037:
1025:
1013:
971:
959:
924:
912:
864:
852:
825:
813:
769:
757:
745:
721:Goodman 1994
716:
704:
692:
671:
663:
659:
623:
607:
593:
570:
545:
539:
521:
508:
499:
495:
490:Zhang Qinqiu
486:
465:Gao Jingting
458:
454:
442:Zhang Guotao
411:
394:Xu Xiangqian
378:
372:
336:
281:
274:, ordered a
241:
220:
192:Zhang Guotao
159:
157:
97:Zhang Guotao
1532:Benton 1992
1520:Benton 1992
1505:Benton 1992
1493:Benton 1992
1481:Benton 1992
1469:Benton 1992
1442:Benton 1992
1364:Benton 1992
1219:红军唯一的女将领张琴秋
917:Benton 1992
888:Benton 1992
869:Benton 1992
806:Benton 1992
791:Benton 1992
738:Benton 1992
709:Wilbur 1983
585:Li Xiannian
557:Wei Lihuang
518:Suppression
468: [
418: [
56:Chaishanbao
1773:Categories
1760:2023-10-06
1734:King, Dean
1617:2023-10-03
1544:Huang 2016
1415:Opper 2020
1391:Saich 1996
1201:Young 2001
1081:Young 2001
1069:Young 2001
1006:Saich 1996
952:Saich 1996
845:Saich 1996
684:References
446:Shen Zemin
365:Xia Douyin
361:Songziguan
343:Xu Haidong
244:Kuomintang
238:Background
227:Kuomintang
196:Mao Zedong
70:Government
1457:Rowe 2007
1403:Rowe 2007
1376:Rowe 2007
1301:Rowe 2007
1241:King 2010
1165:Rowe 2007
1105:Rowe 2007
1093:Rowe 2007
1057:Rowe 2007
1042:Rowe 2007
1030:Rowe 2007
1018:Rowe 2007
991:Rowe 2007
976:Rowe 2007
964:Rowe 2007
857:Rowe 2007
830:Rowe 2007
818:Rowe 2007
762:Rowe 2007
668:鄂豫皖革命根据地第
581:Dong Biwu
434:Wang Ming
382:Xu Jishen
352:Guangshan
78:Secretary
47:1930–1932
1754:Archived
1736:(2010).
1611:Archived
1337:Wou 2022
1325:Wou 2022
1313:Wou 2022
1289:Wou 2022
1277:Wou 2022
1265:Wou 2022
1253:Wou 2022
1129:Wou 2022
1117:Wou 2022
905:Gao 2009
774:Wou 2022
697:Wou 2022
540:de facto
436:and the
373:de facto
369:Li Lisan
204:Red Army
662:or the
648:), and
612:Chinese
536:Sichuan
532:Shaanxi
430:Yue Fei
371:became
348:Macheng
266:of the
233:History
212:Shaanxi
208:Sichuan
170:in the
52:Capital
39:of the
1746:
1603:
1582:
622::
620:pinyin
616:鄂豫皖苏维埃
614::
567:Legacy
448:, and
350:, and
294:, and
182:, and
164:soviet
82:
27:鄂豫皖苏维埃
650:Anhui
640:Henan
630:Hubei
599:Notes
472:]
422:]
386:First
296:Anhui
292:Henan
288:Hubei
184:Anhui
180:Henan
176:Hubei
64:Henan
1744:ISBN
1601:ISBN
1580:ISBN
583:and
534:and
388:and
210:and
158:The
140:1932
130:1930
655:Wǎn
638:),
553:梁冠英
306:wan
1775::
1752:.
1609:.
1512:^
1449:^
1434:^
1383:^
1356:^
1208:^
1049:^
998:^
983:^
942:^
895:^
876:^
837:^
798:^
781:^
728:^
676:).
670:;
645:Yù
618:;
591:.
470:zh
444:,
420:zh
303:yu
290:,
270:,
178:,
62:,
58:,
1763:.
1620:.
1588:.
666:(
652:(
642:(
635:È
632:(
551:(
300:E
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