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1027:. Since this layer is able to transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it must be solid. Experimental evidence has at times been inconsistent with current crystal models of the core. Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure: diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000 K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies. The laser studies create plasma, and the results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend on whether the inner core is a solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research.
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1110:. The rate of cooling by conduction and convection is uncertain, but one estimate is that the core would not be expected to freeze up for approximately 91 billion years, which is well after the Sun is expected to expand, sterilize the surface of the planet, and then burn out.
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Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km (1,800 mi), making it the planet's thickest layer. [This is 45% of the 6,371 km (3,959 mi) radius, and 83.7% of the volume - 0.6% of the volume is the crust]. The mantle is divided into
996:. Its outer boundary lies 2,890 km (1,800 mi) beneath Earth's surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located approximately 5,150 km (3,200 mi) beneath Earth's surface. Earth's inner core is the innermost
1103:) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field in Earth's outer core is estimated to measure 2.5 milliteslas (25 gauss), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.
82:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge (XXG).
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The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel
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Note: In chondrite model (1), the light element in the core is assumed to be Si. Chondrite model (2) is a model of chemical composition of the mantle corresponding to the model of core shown in chondrite model
1084:
chondrites, which formed under extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth.
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Due to increasing pressure deeper in the mantle, the lower part flows less easily, though chemical changes within the mantle may also be important. The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 10 and 10
980:
Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about 2,260 km (1,400 mi) in height (i.e. distance from the highest point to the lowest point at the edge of the inner core) and composed of mostly
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It has been common practice to subdivide the crust into sial and sima. These terms refer to generalized compositions, sial being those rocks rich in Si and Al and sima those rich in Si and Mg.
1069:), and then heating to approximately 4000 K. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that Earth's inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south.
629:. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth are at increasing depths below the surface.
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1133:, like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.
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1080:, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth. This ignores the less abundant
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In early stages of Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called
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The magnetic field generated by core flow is essential to protect life from interplanetary radiation and prevent the atmosphere from dissipating in the
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Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
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Yu, Chunquan; Day, Elizabeth A.; de Hoop, Maarten V.; Campillo, Michel; Goes, Saskia; Blythe, Rachel A.; van der Hilst, Robert D. (28 March 2018).
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Under laboratory conditions a sample of iron–nickel alloy was subjected to the core-like pressure by gripping it in a vise between 2 diamond tips (
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2016:
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Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Husar, G.; Faral, B. (June 2002). "Absolute equation of state measurements of iron using laser driven shocks".
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Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Ravasio, A.; Vinci, T. (2006). "Laser-driven shock waves for the study of extreme matter states".
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A diagram of Earth's geodynamo and magnetic field, which could have been driven in Earth's early history by the crystallization of
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velocity. This is caused by a change in the rock's density – Immediately above the Moho, the velocities of primary seismic waves (
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rocks richer in iron and magnesium than the overlying crust. Although solid, the mantle's extremely hot silicate material can
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Content in this edit is translated from the existing
Persian Knowledge (XXG) article at ]; see its history for attribution.
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meteorites, and even to some elements in the outer portion of the Sun. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including
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Earth's crust ranges from 5–70 kilometres (3.1–43.5 mi) in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the
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of Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of Earth's deep interior.
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2419:"Constraints on the crystalline structure of the inner core: Mechanical instability of BCC iron at high pressure"
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Stixrude, L.; Cohen, R.E. (1995). "High-Pressure
Elasticity of Iron and Anisotropy of Earth's Inner Core".
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1004:. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1,220 km (760 mi), which is about 19% of
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Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). "Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth's internal magnetic field".
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Britannica, The
Editors of Encyclopaedia. "continental crust". Encyclopedia Britannica, 5 Sep. 2023,
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in Earth's crust and mantle combined with the initial heat from the planet's formation (from the
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Ozawa, H.; al., et (2011). "Phase
Transition of FeO and Stratification in Earth's Outer Core".
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814:(7.6–8.6 km/s). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between
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1917:"Compositional heterogeneity near the base of the mantle transition zone beneath Hawaii"
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Herndon, J.M. (1980). "The chemical composition of the interior shells of the Earth".
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Rudnick, R. L.; Gao, S. (2003-01-01), Holland, Heinrich D.; Turekian, Karl K. (eds.),
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Schmidt, Victor A.; Harbert, William (1998). "The Living
Machine: Plate Tectonics".
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The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as
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can be determined through gravimetric experiments, which have historically involved
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779:(magnesium silicate). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the
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Montagner, Jean-Paul (2011). "Earth's structure, global". In Gupta, Harsh (ed.).
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old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least 4.4 billion years.
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Geological cross section of Earth, showing the different layers of the interior.
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790:. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different phenomena. The
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1042:. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with
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1058:). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron
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1099:. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see
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1520:(Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute.
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to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is
2892:"Earth's core cooling faster than previously thought, researchers say"
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The composition of Earth bears strong similarities to that of certain
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and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as
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2418:
2093:"The Different Properties of the Asthenosphere & the Lithosphere"
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Breaking News | Oldest rock shows Earth was a hospitable young planet
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Haynes, William M.; David R., Lide; Bruno, Thomas J., eds. (2017).
2190:"Mantle Viscosity and the Thickness of the Convective Downwellings"
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2378:"Differential PKiKP travel times and the radius of the inner core"
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806:(6.7–7.2 km/s), and below they are similar to those through
4129:
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3219:
2513:"Experimental astrophysics with high power lasers and Z pinches"
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563:
465:
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2511:
Remington, Bruce A.; Drake, R. Paul; Ryutov, Dmitri D. (2006).
1560:(3rd ed.). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. p. 442.
1091:
suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the
251:
35:
2939:
Drollette, Daniel (October 1996). "A Spinning
Crystal Ball".
1309:
837:
ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are about 4.4
786:
Earth's lithosphere consists of the crust and the uppermost
771:). The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories –
1704:
Himiyama, Yukio; Satake, Kenji; Oki, Taikan, eds. (2020).
1038:), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the
3048:
2325:(21 May 2010). "Lopsided growth of Earth's inner core".
2268:. The University of Queensland Australia. Archived from
1835:. Spaceflight Now (2001-01-14). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
833:
Many rocks making up Earth's crust formed less than 100
743:, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and is
288:
Chemical composition of the upper internal structure of
222:, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by
2025:
W. M. Keck Earth
Science and Mineral Engineering Museum
924:
released by collapsing a large amount of matter into a
268:
2801:"Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth's composition"
2298:. National Geographic. 18 January 2017. Archived from
1847:"Layers Of The Earth: What Lies Beneath Earth's Crust"
1795:
RB Cathcart & MM Ćirković (2006). Viorel
Badescu;
609:, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into
198:
Scientific understanding of the internal structure of
4285:
1542:
https://www.britannica.com/science/continental-crust
1437:"Earth's Structure From the Crust to the Inner Core"
548:
in 1972. A processed version became widely known as
75:
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3608:
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2321:Monnereau, Marc; Calvet, Marie; Margerin, Ludovic;
1990:
3007:
2687:. BBC.co.uk (2011-08-31). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
863:between bottom of crust and solid uppermost mantle
2417:Stixrude, Lars; Cohen, R.E. (January 15, 1995).
2376:Engdahl, E.R.; Flinn, E.A.; Massé, R.P. (1974).
763:-rich (igneous rocks rich in elements that form
1544:. |access-date=12 October 2023 |url-status=live
884:is known as the D″ (D-double-prime) layer. The
2678:BBC News, "What is at the centre of the Earth?
100:accompanying your translation by providing an
66:Click for important translation instructions.
53:expand this article with text translated from
3876:
3677:
3064:
1802:Macro-engineering: a challenge for the future
1743:"3.01 – Composition of the Continental Crust"
1585:"Unit 3: The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics"
230:that pass through Earth, measurements of the
8:
1628:Kearey, P.; Klepeis K.A.; Vine F.J. (2009).
880:. The lowest part of the mantle next to the
826:onto the continental crust and preserved as
1192:The Structure of Earth and Its Constituents
4134:
3883:
3869:
3861:
3684:
3670:
3662:
3071:
3057:
3049:
2401:
2264:Edgeworth, R.; Dalton, B.J.; Parnell, T.
1950:
1383:. Springer Science & Business Media.
1241:
1231:
1015:The inner core was discovered in 1936 by
1516:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "mafic".
1198:. Princeton University Press. p. 4.
916:that drives this motion is the decay of
646:
286:
135:
4292:
1268:. NASA. 1 November 2012. Archived from
1179:
1019:and is generally composed primarily of
2602:Projects in Scientific Computing, 1996
2231:(97th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida:
2166:
2155:
1381:Encyclopedia of solid earth geophysics
226:or volcanic activity, analysis of the
2228:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
2133:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
2060:"What is the Earth's Mantle Made Of?"
1473:An Introduction to Our Dynamic Planet
888:at the bottom of the mantle is ≈140 G
558:Measurements of the force exerted by
248:Earth § Physical characteristics
7:
3623:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
2970:"Journey to the Center of the Earth"
2608:from the original on 5 February 2007
2604:. Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center.
2598:"Crystal at the Center of the Earth"
2470:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
2144:from the original on 21 January 2022
2072:from the original on 6 November 2010
1557:Planet Earth and the New Geosciences
1374:
1372:
1298:2016 Selected Astronomical Constants
1185:
1183:
802:) are consistent with those through
570:by observing the motion of orbiting
3010:The origin of continents and oceans
2449:from the original on August 8, 2022
1406:"What are the layers of the Earth?"
943:is (2.3 ± 0.5) × 10 pascal-second.
2993:Lehmann, I (1936). "Inner Earth".
2403:10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb05467.x
2138:University of California, Berkeley
1357:from the original on 24 March 2016
590:. The average density of Earth is
25:
2961:10.1038/scientificamerican1096-28
2382:Geophysical Journal International
2107:from the original on 30 July 2020
1996:from the original on 10 July 2022
1878:Evers, Jeannie (11 August 2015).
1859:from the original on 5 March 2020
1799:& Roelof D Schuiling (eds.).
1451:from the original on 30 July 2020
1266:"Apollo Imagery – AS17-148-22727"
566:. Astronomers can also calculate
4331:
4319:
4307:
4295:
4270:
4269:
3845:
3844:
3789:D’’ discontinuity (lower mantle)
3784:660 discontinuity (upper mantle)
3779:410 discontinuity (upper mantle)
3646:
3645:
3036:
3014:. New York: Dover Publications.
2980:from the original on 26 May 2016
1896:from the original on 12 May 2016
1845:Nace, Trevor (16 January 2016).
1416:from the original on 12 May 2020
1404:Andrei, Mihai (21 August 2018).
255:
40:
3353:Human impact on the environment
2968:Kruglinski, Susan (June 2007).
2890:David K. Li (19 January 2022).
2821:from the original on 2020-07-30
2543:from the original on 2020-05-23
2128:"What Keeps the Earth Cooking?"
2091:Shaw, Ethan (22 October 2018).
1710:Springer Science+Business Media
1498:from the original on 2016-05-02
1329:from the original on 2016-12-24
1311:The Astronomical Almanac Online
3182:Climate variability and change
2195:Los Alamos National Laboratory
2126:Preuss, Paul (July 17, 2011).
2058:Cain, Fraser (26 March 2016).
1974:Krieger, Kim (24 March 2004).
1767:10.1016/b0-08-043751-6/03016-4
988:that lies above Earth's solid
110:You may also add the template
1:
3618:Evolution of the Solar System
2649:10.1126/science.267.5206.1972
2184:Walzer, Uwe; Hendel, Roland;
1435:Chinn, Lisa (25 April 2017).
910:motion of the tectonic plates
896:). The mantle is composed of
759:, which is less dense and is
582:. The mass of Earth is about
562:can be used to calculate its
112:{{Translated|fa|ساختار زمین}}
3358:Evolutionary history of life
2490:10.1088/0741-3335/48/12B/S32
2423:Geophysical Research Letters
1163:Travel to the Earth's center
755:). The thicker crust is the
747:-rich (dense iron-magnesium
202:is based on observations of
2596:Schneider, Michael (1996).
2266:"The Pitch Drop Experiment"
1890:National Geographic Society
1351:Lunar and Planetary Science
1296:= 5·9722×10 kg ± 6×10 kg. "
1148:Geological history of Earth
904:over very long timescales.
146:internal structure of Earth
123:Knowledge (XXG):Translation
4370:
3774:Mohorovičić (crust–mantle)
2030:University of Nevada, Reno
1943:10.1038/s41467-018-03654-6
1674:Cambridge University Press
1669:Fundamentals of Geophysics
1608:Journal of Marine Research
1478:Cambridge University Press
1117:
950:
908:of the mantle propels the
859:Earth's crust and mantle,
848:
636:
245:
74:Machine translation, like
28:
4265:
4178:
4137:
3840:
3641:
3086:
2537:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.755
2517:Reviews of Modern Physics
1805:. Springer. p. 169.
1032:planetary differentiation
861:Mohorovičić discontinuity
818:cumulates and tectonized
792:Mohorovičić discontinuity
775:(aluminium silicate) and
187:whose flow generates the
55:the corresponding article
3827:Gutenberg (upper mantle)
3808:Regional discontinuities
3628:Location in the Universe
3559:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
3258:List of sovereign states
3006:Wegener, Alfred (1966).
2296:Science & Innovation
1747:Treatise on Geochemistry
1470:Rogers, N., ed. (2008).
1233:10.1186/gb-2011-12-4-112
794:is a distinct change of
320:Chondrite model (2) (%)
317:Chondrite model (1) (%)
29:Not to be confused with
2995:Bur. Cent. Seismol. Int
2719:10.1126/science.1208265
2347:10.1126/science.1186212
1602:Hess, H. (1955-01-01).
121:For more guidance, see
4354:Structure of the Earth
3832:Lehmann (upper mantle)
3767:Global discontinuities
3043:Structure of the Earth
2799:Herndon, J.M. (2005).
2770:10.1098/rspa.1980.0106
2235:. Section 6 page 247.
2200:Universität Heidelberg
1797:Richard Brook Cathcart
1347:"Planetary Fact Sheet"
1097:Earth's magnetic field
977:
864:
736:
555:
189:Earth's magnetic field
148:are the layers of the
141:
3338:Biogeochemical cycles
3263:dependent territories
1636:John Wiley & Sons
1153:Lehmann discontinuity
964:
932:of accreted matter).
858:
719:Indo-Australian Plate
650:
633:Crust and lithosphere
544:taken by the crew of
539:
246:Further information:
164:consists of an outer
139:
94:copyright attribution
4150:Evolutionary history
3794:Core–mantle boundary
3386:Computer cartography
3119:Prebiotic atmosphere
3045:at Wikimedia Commons
918:radioactive isotopes
882:core-mantle boundary
781:Conrad discontinuity
730:South American Plate
686:North American Plate
652:Earth's major plates
4087:Natural environment
3799:Inner-core boundary
3722:Lithospheric mantle
3529:Geologic time scale
3250:Culture and society
3114:Atmosphere of Earth
2953:1996SciAm.275d..28D
2941:Scientific American
2914:National Geographic
2861:10.1038/nature09643
2853:2010Natur.468..952B
2762:1980RSPSA.372..149H
2711:2011Sci...334..792O
2641:1995Sci...267.1972S
2575:2002PhPl....9.2466B
2529:2006RvMP...78..755R
2482:2006PPCF...48B.347B
2435:1995GeoRL..22..125S
2394:1974GeoJ...39..457E
2339:2010Sci...328.1014M
2333:(5981): 1014–1017.
2039:on 7 September 2015
2032:: 5. Archived from
1935:2018NatCo...9.1266Y
1885:National Geographic
1759:2003TrGeo...3....1R
1666:Lowrie, W. (1997).
1604:"The oceanic crust"
1518:Glossary of geology
1482:The Open University
828:ophiolite sequences
542:photograph of Earth
292:
3693:Structure of Earth
3524:Geological history
3398:Geodetic astronomy
2750:Proc. R. Soc. Lond
2683:2020-05-23 at the
2563:Physics of Plasmas
2302:on 18 January 2019
2292:"Earth's Interior"
2165:Unknown parameter
2017:"Coring the Earth"
1980:Layer Demystified"
1831:2009-06-28 at the
1638:. pp. 19–21.
1303:2016-02-15 at the
1210:Petsko, Gregory A.
1067:diamond anvil cell
978:
957:Earth's outer core
953:Earth's inner core
912:in the crust. The
865:
737:
619:mesospheric mantle
574:. Earth's average
556:
287:
267:. You can help by
142:
102:interlanguage link
4283:
4282:
4261:
4260:
3934:chemical elements
3858:
3857:
3820:continental crust
3659:
3658:
3610:Planetary science
3593:Natural satellite
3514:Extremes on Earth
3481:Signal processing
3041:Media related to
3021:978-0-486-61708-4
2635:(5206): 1972–75.
2583:10.1063/1.1478557
2443:10.1029/94GL02742
2242:978-1-4987-5429-3
2206:on 26 August 2006
2186:Baumgardner, John
2015:Dolbier, Rachel.
1812:978-1-4020-3739-9
1776:978-0-08-043751-4
1753:, Pergamon: 659,
1719:978-981-329-224-6
1567:978-0-7872-4296-1
1491:978-0-521-49424-3
1214:"The blue marble"
1212:(28 April 2011).
1101:Curie temperature
757:continental crust
530:
529:
300:Continental crust
296:Chemical element
285:
284:
242:Global properties
134:
133:
67:
63:
18:Earth's core
16:(Redirected from
4361:
4336:
4335:
4324:
4323:
4322:
4312:
4311:
4300:
4299:
4291:
4273:
4272:
4145:
4135:
4075:tropical cyclone
4025:
3885:
3878:
3871:
3862:
3848:
3847:
3686:
3679:
3672:
3663:
3649:
3648:
3541:History of Earth
3192:Paleoclimatology
3073:
3066:
3059:
3050:
3040:
3025:
3013:
3002:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2964:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2847:(7326): 952–94.
2836:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2820:
2805:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2756:(1748): 149–54.
2745:
2739:
2738:
2705:(6057): 792–94.
2694:
2688:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2558:
2552:
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2309:
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2288:
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2281:
2279:
2277:
2272:on 28 March 2013
2261:
2255:
2254:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2202:. Archived from
2181:
2175:
2174:
2168:
2163:
2161:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2123:
2117:
2116:
2114:
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2055:
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2012:
2006:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1954:
1912:
1906:
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1901:
1875:
1869:
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1823:
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1792:
1786:
1785:
1784:
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1738:
1732:
1731:
1706:Human Geoscience
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1631:Global Tectonics
1625:
1619:
1618:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1587:. Archived from
1582:
1580:
1579:
1570:. Archived from
1551:
1545:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1467:
1461:
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1343:
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1335:
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1328:
1288:
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1281:
1279:
1277:
1272:on 20 April 2019
1262:
1256:
1255:
1245:
1235:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1187:
1127:seismic velocity
1095:, gives rise to
1056:felsic materials
1036:iron catastrophe
922:potential energy
749:silicate mineral
732:
727:
721:
716:
710:
705:
699:
694:
688:
683:
677:
672:
666:
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596:
589:
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293:
280:
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259:
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152:, excluding its
113:
107:
80:Google Translate
65:
61:
44:
43:
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21:
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4294:
4286:
4284:
4279:
4257:
4174:
4143:
4124:
4081:
4023:
4003:
3994:Gaia hypothesis
3984:Plate tectonics
3945:
3895:
3889:
3859:
3854:
3836:
3803:
3762:
3695:
3690:
3660:
3655:
3637:
3604:
3588:
3545:
3536:Geologic record
3490:
3476:Plate tectonics
3466:Mineral physics
3446:Earth structure
3432:
3367:
3314:
3244:
3196:
3153:
3100:
3082:
3077:
3033:
3028:
3022:
3005:
2992:
2983:
2981:
2967:
2938:
2934:
2932:Further reading
2929:
2928:
2918:
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2908:
2907:
2903:
2889:
2888:
2884:
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2833:
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2818:
2808:Current Science
2803:
2798:
2797:
2793:
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2746:
2742:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2685:Wayback Machine
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2019:
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2009:
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1972:
1968:
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1909:
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1833:Wayback Machine
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1686:
1684:
1676:. p. 149.
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1305:Wayback Machine
1295:
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1208:
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1203:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1181:
1176:
1139:
1122:
1116:
1093:Coriolis effect
971:silicon dioxide
967:magnesium oxide
959:
951:Main articles:
949:
878:transition zone
876:separated by a
853:
847:
735:
725:
724:
714:
713:
708:Antarctic Plate
703:
702:
692:
691:
681:
680:
670:
669:
659:
658:
645:
637:Main articles:
635:
603:
591:
585:
583:
560:Earth's gravity
551:The Blue Marble
380:
355:
351:
281:
275:
272:
265:needs expansion
250:
244:
236:magnetic fields
130:
129:
128:
111:
105:
68:
45:
41:
34:
31:Earth structure
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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4357:
4356:
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4328:
4326:Earth sciences
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4001:
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3603:
3602:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3569:Atlantic Ocean
3566:
3561:
3555:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3532:
3531:
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3498:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3451:Fluid dynamics
3448:
3442:
3440:
3434:
3433:
3431:
3430:
3425:
3423:Geopositioning
3420:
3418:Remote Sensing
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3389:
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3377:
3375:
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3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3206:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3177:Climate change
3174:
3172:Energy balance
3169:
3167:Climate system
3163:
3161:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3110:
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3098:
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3084:
3083:
3078:
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3068:
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3053:
3047:
3046:
3032:
3031:External links
3029:
3027:
3026:
3020:
3003:
2990:
2965:
2935:
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2927:
2926:
2901:
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2831:
2814:(7): 1034–37.
2791:
2740:
2689:
2670:
2619:
2588:
2553:
2503:
2460:
2409:
2388:(3): 457–463.
2368:
2323:Souriau, Annie
2313:
2283:
2256:
2241:
2217:
2176:
2118:
2083:
2065:Universe Today
2050:
2007:
1966:
1907:
1870:
1837:
1818:
1811:
1787:
1775:
1733:
1718:
1712:. p. 27.
1696:
1682:
1658:
1644:
1634:(3 ed.).
1620:
1594:
1591:on 2010-03-28.
1566:
1546:
1533:
1526:
1508:
1490:
1484:. p. 19.
1462:
1427:
1396:
1389:
1368:
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1293:
1283:
1257:
1219:Genome Biology
1201:
1178:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1158:Rain-out model
1155:
1150:
1145:
1138:
1135:
1118:Main article:
1115:
1112:
1034:(see also the
1008:or 70% of the
1006:Earth's radius
1000:of the planet
998:geologic layer
992:and below its
975:iron(II) oxide
948:
945:
930:kinetic energy
914:source of heat
851:Earth's mantle
849:Main article:
846:
843:
734:
733:
722:
711:
700:
697:Eurasian Plate
689:
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312:Pyrolite model
309:
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282:
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243:
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191:, and a solid
132:
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4144:(abiogenesis)
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3959:Earth science
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3732:
3728:
3727:Asthenosphere
3725:
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3720:
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3715:
3714:
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3708:
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3579:Pacific Ocean
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3509:Earth science
3507:
3505:
3502:
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3497:
3493:
3487:
3484:
3482:
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3461:Magnetosphere
3459:
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3428:Virtual globe
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3409:
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3393:Earth's orbit
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3300:World history
3298:
3296:
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3291:
3290:World economy
3288:
3286:
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3260:
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3256:
3255:
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3240:South America
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3228:
3226:
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2429:(2): 125–28.
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2167:|agency=
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2054:
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2035:
2031:
2027:
2026:
2018:
2011:
2008:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1979:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
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1918:
1911:
1908:
1895:
1891:
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1683:9780521467285
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1574:on 2010-01-24
1573:
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1134:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1089:Dynamo theory
1086:
1083:
1079:
1078:Francis Birch
1075:
1070:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1022:
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1013:
1011:
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991:
987:
983:
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963:
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954:
946:
944:
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938:
937:pascal-second
933:
931:
927:
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915:
911:
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887:
883:
879:
875:
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862:
857:
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844:
842:
840:
839:billion years
836:
835:million years
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813:
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805:
801:
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793:
789:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
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742:
741:oceanic crust
731:
723:
720:
712:
709:
701:
698:
690:
687:
679:
676:
675:African Plate
668:
665:
664:Pacific Plate
657:
656:
653:
649:
644:
640:
639:Earth's crust
632:
630:
628:
624:
620:
616:
615:asthenosphere
612:
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600:
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595:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
553:
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543:
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475:
472:
469:
467:
464:
463:
459:
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450:
447:
445:Other oxides
444:
443:
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427:
425:
422:
421:
417:
414:
411:
408:
405:
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395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
381:
375:
374:
370:
367:
364:
361:
358:
356:
346:
345:
341:
338:
335:
332:
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327:
324:
323:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
304:
301:
298:
295:
294:
291:
279:
270:
266:
263:This section
261:
258:
254:
253:
249:
241:
239:
237:
233:
232:gravitational
229:
228:seismic waves
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
177:asthenosphere
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
138:
124:
120:
117:
109:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
84:
81:
77:
73:
71:
70:
64:
62:(August 2022)
58:
56:
51:You can help
47:
38:
37:
32:
27:
19:
4250:
4183:Biodiversity
4169:astrobiology
3973:
3891:Elements of
3734:Lower mantle
3717:Upper mantle
3692:
3633:Solar System
3584:Oceanography
3574:Indian Ocean
3564:Arctic Ocean
3504:Age of Earth
3456:Geomagnetism
3445:
3139:Thermosphere
3129:Stratosphere
3009:
2998:
2994:
2982:. Retrieved
2973:
2947:(4): 28–33.
2944:
2940:
2917:. Retrieved
2904:
2885:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2823:. Retrieved
2811:
2807:
2794:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2673:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2610:. Retrieved
2601:
2591:
2566:
2562:
2556:
2545:. Retrieved
2520:
2516:
2506:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2451:. Retrieved
2426:
2422:
2412:
2385:
2381:
2371:
2330:
2326:
2316:
2304:. Retrieved
2300:the original
2295:
2286:
2274:. Retrieved
2270:the original
2259:
2226:
2220:
2208:. Retrieved
2204:the original
2193:
2179:
2158:cite journal
2146:. Retrieved
2131:
2121:
2109:. Retrieved
2096:
2086:
2074:. Retrieved
2063:
2053:
2041:. Retrieved
2034:the original
2023:
2010:
1998:. Retrieved
1985:Science News
1983:
1977:
1969:
1926:
1920:
1910:
1898:. Retrieved
1883:
1873:
1861:. Retrieved
1850:
1840:
1821:
1801:
1790:
1780:, retrieved
1750:
1746:
1736:
1705:
1699:
1687:. Retrieved
1668:
1661:
1649:. Retrieved
1630:
1623:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1597:
1589:the original
1576:. Retrieved
1572:the original
1556:
1549:
1536:
1517:
1511:
1500:. Retrieved
1472:
1465:
1453:. Retrieved
1440:
1430:
1418:. Retrieved
1409:
1399:
1380:
1359:. Retrieved
1350:
1341:
1331:, retrieved
1310:
1290:
1286:
1274:. Retrieved
1270:the original
1260:
1223:
1217:
1204:
1191:
1143:Hollow Earth
1123:
1105:
1087:
1071:
1064:
1029:
1017:Inge Lehmann
1014:
979:
934:
926:gravity well
874:lower mantle
866:
832:
820:harzburgites
796:seismic wave
785:
753:igneous rock
738:
654:, which are:
604:
568:Earth's mass
557:
549:
531:
306:Upper mantle
273:
269:adding to it
264:
212:observations
197:
179:, and solid
145:
143:
98:edit summary
89:
60:
52:
26:
4234:Prokaryotes
4022:Atmosphere
4017:Meteorology
3381:Cartography
3320:Environment
3187:Climatology
3124:Troposphere
2569:(6): 2466.
2306:14 November
1929:(9): 1266.
1410:ZME Science
1168:Solid earth
1131:Snell's law
1012:'s radius.
643:Lithosphere
611:lithosphere
592:5.515
276:August 2022
183:, a liquid
172:, a highly
158:hydrosphere
4338:Geophysics
4115:Wilderness
3968:geological
3756:Inner core
3751:Outer core
3738:Mesosphere
3486:Tomography
3471:Seismology
3438:Geophysics
3413:Navigation
3305:Time zones
3270:In culture
3215:Antarctica
3202:Continents
3134:Mesosphere
3106:Atmosphere
2825:2012-01-27
2547:2019-06-26
2523:(3): 755.
2453:January 2,
2276:15 October
2101:Leaf Group
2000:5 November
1922:Nat Commun
1782:2019-11-21
1728:1121043185
1614:(4): 424.
1578:2008-01-28
1527:0922152349
1502:2022-08-08
1445:Leaf Group
1333:2016-02-18
1276:22 October
1226:(4): 112.
1174:References
1120:Seismology
1114:Seismology
1108:solar wind
990:inner core
928:, and the
906:Convection
816:ultramafic
808:peridotite
627:inner core
625:, and the
623:outer core
588:10 kg
572:satellites
208:bathymetry
204:topography
193:inner core
185:outer core
154:atmosphere
57:in Persian
4193:Eukaryota
4160:Hierarchy
4155:Biosphere
4120:Wildfires
4110:Radiation
4100:Ecosystem
4040:Moonlight
3974:Structure
3929:particles
3403:Geomatics
3348:Ecosystem
3333:Biosphere
3295:Etymology
3275:Earth Day
3225:Australia
3144:Exosphere
2498:121164044
2251:957751024
2233:CRC Press
2169:ignored (
2097:Sciencing
1441:Sciencing
1361:2 January
1082:enstatite
1074:chondrite
1023:and some
580:pendulums
546:Apollo 17
224:volcanoes
162:structure
116:talk page
4348:Category
4275:Category
4244:bacteria
4227:protista
4188:Organism
4055:Sunlight
3901:Universe
3850:Category
3651:Category
2978:Archived
2974:Discover
2896:NBC News
2869:21164483
2816:Archived
2786:97600604
2727:22076374
2681:Archived
2665:39711239
2657:17770110
2606:Archived
2541:Archived
2447:Archived
2363:10557604
2355:20395477
2142:Archived
2105:Archived
2070:Archived
1994:Archived
1961:29593266
1894:Archived
1880:"Mantle"
1857:Archived
1829:Archived
1496:Archived
1449:Archived
1414:Archived
1355:Archived
1353:. NASA.
1324:archived
1301:Archived
1252:21554751
1137:See also
898:silicate
886:pressure
824:obducted
765:feldspar
607:rheology
166:silicate
92:provide
4314:Geology
4288:Portals
4252:Viruses
4239:archaea
4215:animals
4167: (
4165:Biology
4142:Origin
4095:Ecology
4070:tornado
4030:Climate
4024:(Earth)
4009:Weather
3979:Geology
3966: (
3964:History
3496:Geology
3408:Gravity
3373:Geodesy
3343:Ecology
3159:Climate
3149:Weather
3096:History
3091:Outline
3001:: 3–31.
2949:Bibcode
2919:15 July
2877:4431270
2849:Bibcode
2778:2398362
2758:Bibcode
2735:1785237
2707:Bibcode
2699:Science
2637:Bibcode
2629:Science
2612:8 March
2571:Bibcode
2525:Bibcode
2478:Bibcode
2431:Bibcode
2390:Bibcode
2335:Bibcode
2327:Science
2210:28 June
2148:28 June
2111:28 June
2103:Media.
2076:28 June
2043:28 June
1952:5872023
1931:Bibcode
1900:28 June
1863:28 June
1755:Bibcode
1689:30 June
1651:30 June
1455:28 June
1447:Media.
1420:28 June
1243:3218853
1060:crystal
1052:uranium
576:density
220:outcrop
174:viscous
114:to the
96:in the
59:.
4203:plants
4035:Clouds
3999:Future
3989:Oceans
3941:Change
3924:Matter
3919:Energy
3893:nature
3815:Conrad
3712:Mantle
3700:Shells
3551:Oceans
3519:Future
3363:Nature
3285:Symbol
3230:Europe
3210:Africa
3018:
2984:9 July
2910:"Core"
2875:
2867:
2841:Nature
2784:
2776:
2733:
2725:
2663:
2655:
2496:
2361:
2353:
2249:
2239:
1959:
1949:
1852:Forbes
1809:
1773:
1726:
1716:
1680:
1642:
1564:
1524:
1488:
1387:
1250:
1240:
1044:nickel
1025:nickel
994:mantle
986:nickel
973:, and
892:(1.4 M
845:Mantle
812:dunite
804:basalt
800:P wave
788:mantle
769:quartz
761:felsic
728:
726:
717:
715:
706:
704:
695:
693:
684:
682:
673:
671:
662:
660:
601:Layers
181:mantle
168:solid
160:. The
4302:Earth
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