Earth structure - Knowledge

922: 1179:(MSE) retaining walls may be used for embankments. MSE walls combine a concrete leveling pad, wall facing panels, coping, soil reinforcement and select backfill. A variety of designs of wall facing panels may be used. After the leveling pad has been laid and the first row of panels has been placed and braced, the first layer of earth backfill is brought in behind the wall and compacted. The first set of reinforcements is then laid over the earth. The reinforcements, which may be tensioned polymer or galvanized metal strips or grids, are attached to the facing panels. This process is repeated with successive layers of panels, earth and reinforcements. The panels are thus tied into the earth embankment to make a stable structure with balanced stresses. 613:. Local subsoil of almost any composition can be used, although an adobe mix would be preferable. The soil is moistened so it will compact into a stable structure when packed into woven polypropylene or burlap sacks or tubes. Plastic mesh is sometimes used. Polypropylene (pp) sacks are most common, since they are durable when covered, cheap, and widely available. The bags are laid in courses, with barbed wire between each course to prevent slipping. Each course is tamped after it is laid. The structure in pp bags is similar to adobe but more flexible. With mesh tubing the structure is like rammed earth. Earthbags may be used to make dome-shaped or vertical wall buildings. With soil stabilization they may also be used for retaining walls. 817:. The farmer would use a plow to cut the sod into bricks 1 by 2 feet (0.30 by 0.61 m), which were then piled up to form the walls. The sod strips were piled grass-side down, staggered in the same way as brickwork, in three side-by-side rows, resulting in a wall over 3 feet (0.91 m) thick. The sod wall was built around door and window frames, and the corners of the wall were secured by rods driven vertically through them. The roof was made with poles or brush, covered with prairie grass, and then sealed with a layer of sod. Sod houses were strong and often lasted many years, but they were damp and dirty unless the interior walls were plastered. The roofs tended to leak, and sometimes collapsed in a rainstorm. 590:(CEB) were traditionally made by using a stick to ram soil into a wooden mold. Today they are usually made from subsoil compressed in a hand-operated or powered machine. In the developing world, manual machines can be a cost-effective solution for making uniform building blocks, while the more complex and expensive motorized machines are less likely to be appropriate. Although labor-intensive, CEB construction avoids the cost of buying and transporting materials. Block-making machines may form blocks that have interlocking shapes to reduce the requirement for mortar. The block may have holes or grooves so rods such as bamboo can be inserted to improve earthquake resistance. 373:. Cob walls are usually built up in courses, have no mortar joints and need 30% or more clay in the soil. Cob can be used as in-fill in post-and-beam buildings, but is often used for load bearing walls, and can bear up to two stories. A cob wall should be at least 16 inches (410 mm) thick, and the ratio of width to height should be no more than one to ten. It will typically be plastered inside and out with a mix of lime, soil and sand. Cob is fireproof, and its thermal mass helps stabilize indoor temperatures. Tests have shown that cob has some resistance to seismic activity. However, building codes in the developed world may not recognize cob as an approved material. 1143: 306: 750: 907: 984: 351: 1044: 622: 672: 712:, most of the ancient homes were built 12 metres (39 ft) below ground level, and surrounded courtyards about 12 metres (39 ft) square. The homes were reached through tunnels. Other examples of subterranean, semi-subterranean or cliff-based dwellings in both hot and cold climates are found in Turkey, northern China and the Himalayas, and the southwest USA. A number of Buddhist monasteries built from earth and other materials into cliff sides or caves in Himalayan areas such as 382: 953: 466:. A rammed earth wall is built by placing damp soil in a temporary form. The soil is manually or mechanically compacted and then the form is removed. Rammed earth is generally made without much water, and so does not need much time to dry as the building rises. It is susceptible to moisture, so must be laid on a course that stops rising dampness, must be roofed or covered to keep out water from above, and may need protection through some sort of plaster, paint or sheathing. 524: 4854: 4707: 892: 4753: 4666: 427:

stabilize the soil, which adds to the cost. If earth contains little clay and holds 10% or more cement, it is in effect concrete. Cement is not particularly environmentally friendly, since the manufacturing process generates large amounts of carbon dioxide. Low-density stabilized earth will be porous and weak. The earth must therefore be compacted either by a machine that makes blocks or within the wall using the "rammed earth" technique.

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have included mud plaster, lime plaster, whitewash or stucco. Adobe walls were historically made by laying the bricks with mud mortar, which swells and shrinks at the same rate as the bricks when wetted or dried, heated or cooled. Modern adobe may be stabilized with cement and bonded with cement mortars, but cement mortars will cause unstabilized adobe bricks to deteriorate due to the different rates of thermal expansion and contraction.

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techniques were highly advanced in Egypt by 2500 BC. Adobe construction is common throughout much of Africa today. Adobe bricks are traditionally made from sand and clay mixed with water to a plastic consistency, with straw or grass as a binder. The mud is prepared, placed in wooden forms, tamped and leveled, and then turned out of the mold to dry for several days. The bricks are then stood on end to air-cure for a month or more.

539: 4765: 4816: 4741: 4642: 798: 436: 295: 53: 1199: 174: 4789: 38: 968: 4842: 4830: 1190:. The term MSE is usually used in the US to distinguish it from "Reinforced Earth", a trade name of the Reinforced Earth Company, but elsewhere Reinforced Soil is the generally accepted term. MSE construction is relatively fast and inexpensive, and although labor-intensive, it does not demand high levels of skill. It is therefore suitable for developing as well as developed countries. 4866: 1004: 877: 4777: 4890: 4806: 4729: 4630: 4878: 4678: 1377: 573: 398:

likely to deteriorate due to freezing or rain came from dried sloughs. Turf was once extensively used for the walls of houses in Ireland, Scotland and Iceland, where some turf houses may still be found. A turf house may last fifty years or longer if well-maintained in a cold climate. The Icelanders find that the best quality turf is the

1252: 785:. In prehistoric Britain simple circular wattle and daub shelters were built wherever adequate clay was available. Wattle and daub is still found as the panels in timber-framed buildings. Generally the walls are not structural, and in interior use the technique in the developed world was replaced by lath and plaster, and then by 870:. The building went through a series of construction phases, growing eventually to a height of about 32 metres (105 ft), with three main platforms, four plazas and many smaller rooms and enclosures. The walls were covered by striking multi-colored murals and friezes; those visible today date from about 400–610 AD. 510:, completed in 80 AD, still stand. Their longevity may be explained by the fact that the builders used a relatively dry mix of mortar and aggregate and compacted it by pounding it down to eliminate air pockets. Although derived from earth products, concrete structures would not usually be considered earth structures. 742:

ring of shorter posts, also connected by cross beams. Rafters radiated from the central cross beams to the outside cross beams, and then split planks or beams formed the slanting or vertical side walls. The structure was covered by sticks and brush or grass, covered in turn by a heavy layer of earth or

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Builders should be aware that organic reinforcements embedded in walls may be destroyed before the building is retired. Attachment details of reinforcement are critical to resist higher forces. Best adobe shear strength came from horizontal reinforcement attached directly to vertical rebar spanning

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of North America. They have wood post and beam construction and are dome-shaped. A typical structure would have four or more central posts planted in the ground and connected at the top by cross beams. The smoke hole would be left open in the center. Around the central structure there was a larger

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that is mainly composed of silica and alumina, with other ingredients such as quartz sand. The porosity of the brick depends on the materials and on the firing temperature and duration. The bricks may vary in color depending on the amount of iron and calcium carbonate in the materials used, and the

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In the southwest United States and Mexico adobe buildings had massive walls and were rarely more than two stories high. Adobe mission churches were never more than about 35 feet (11 m). Since adobe surfaces are fragile, coatings are used to protect them. These coatings, periodically renewed,

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Preferably the sand content of the soil will be 65% – 75%. Soils with low clay content, or with no more than 15% non-expansive clay, are suitable for stabilized earth. The clay percentage may be reduced by adding sand, if available. If there is more than 15% clay it may take more than 10% cement to

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is a mix of sand, silt and clay in which none predominates. Soils are given different names depending on the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay such as "Silt Loam", "Clay Loam" and "Silty Clay". Loam construction, the subject of this article, referred to as adobe construction when it uses

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Many types of reinforcement can increase wall strength, such as plastic or wire mesh and reinforcing rods of steel or fiberglass or bamboo. Earth resists compression well but is weak when twisted. Tensile reinforcement must span potential damage points and be well-anchored to increase out-of-plane

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Mudbricks or Adobe bricks are preformed modular masonry units of sun-dried mud that were invented at different times in different parts of the world as civilization developed. Construction with bricks avoids the delays while each course of puddled mud dries. Wall murals show that adobe production

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Coursed mud construction is one of the oldest approaches to building walls. Moist mud is formed by hand to make the base of a wall, and allowed to dry. More mud is added and allowed to dry to form successive courses until the wall is complete. With puddled mud, a hand-made mud form is filled with

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in Spanish, can be used to make tough and durable walls. The sod is cut from soil that has a heavy mat of grass roots, which may be found in river bottom lands. It is stood on edge to dry before being used in construction. European settlers on the North American Prairies found that the sod least

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Stronger soils make stronger walls. Adobe builders can test cured blocks for strength by dropping from a specific height or by breaking them with a lever. Builders using immediate techniques like earthbag, cob, or rammed earth may prefer approximate crushing tests on smaller samples that can be

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by the end of 1914. The two lines of trenches faced each other, manned by soldiers living in appalling conditions of cold, damp and filth. Conditions were worst in the Allied trenches. The Germans were more willing to accept the trenches as long-term positions, and used concrete blocks to build

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Trenches were used by besieging forces to approach a fortification while protected from missiles. Sappers would build "saps", or trenches, that zig-zagged towards the fortress being attacked. They piled the excavated dirt to make a protective wall or gabion. The combined trench depth and gabion

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in a kiln dates to about 3500 BC. Fired bricks were being used to build durable masonry across Europe, Asia and North Africa by 1200 BC and still remain an important building material. Modern fired clay bricks are formed from clays or shales, shaped and then fired in a kiln for 8–12 hours at a

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Regions with low seismic risk are safe for most earth buildings, but historic construction techniques often cannot resist even medium earthquake levels effectively because of earthen buildings' three highly undesirable qualities as a seismic building material: being relatively 'weak, heavy and

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Suitable earth must be used, with enough clay to hold the block together and resist erosion, but not too much expansive clay. When the block has been made from stabilized earth, which contains cement, the concrete must be given perhaps three weeks to cure. During this time the blocks should be

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Clay is usually hard and strong when dry, but becomes very soft when it absorbs water. The dry clay helps hold an earth wall together, but if the wall is directly exposed to rain, or to water leaking down from the roof, it may become saturated. Earth may be "stabilized" to make it more weather

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In recent years, interest in loam construction has revived in the developed world. It is seen as a way to minimize use of fossil fuels and pollution, particularly carbon dioxide, during manufacture, and to create a comfortable living environment through the high mass and high absorption of the

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walls between three and five stories high. A toulou might house up to 80 families. Smaller interior buildings are often enclosed by these huge peripheral walls which can contain halls, storehouses, wells and living areas. The structure resembles a small fortified city. The walls are formed by

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Robust layout means buildings more square than elongated, and symmetrical not L-shaped, as well as no 'soft' first stories (stories with large windows, buildings on unbraced columns). New Zealand's earthen building guidelines check for enough bracing wall length in each of the two principal

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construction. Each course is about 18 to 24 inches (460 to 610 mm) thick, and about 18 to 24 inches (460 to 610 mm) high. Typically the technique is used for garden walls but not for house construction, presumably because of concern about the strength of walls made in this way. A

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in what became Illinois, completed around 1100 AD, which has a base larger than that of the Great Pyramid at Giza. Many of the mounds underwent multiple episodes of mound construction at periodic intervals, some becoming quite large. They are believed to have played a central role in the

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is an old building technique in which vines or smaller sticks are interwoven between upright poles, and then mud mixed with straw and grass is plastered over the wall. The technique is found around the world, from the Nile Delta to Japan, where bamboo was used to make the wattle. In

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and only the foundations remain, but originally it stood 300 feet (91 m) high on a base about 660 feet (200 m) square. Sun-dried bricks were used for the interior and kiln-fired bricks for the facing. The bricks were held together by clay or bitumen.

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in 2600–1900 BC, during the period when cities first appeared in the region. Thick sloping walls made of rammed earth became a characteristic of traditional Buddhist monasteries throughout the Himalayas and became very common in northern Indian areas such as

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disadvantage to the approach is that a lot of time can be spent waiting for each course to dry. Another technique, used in areas where wood is plentiful, is to build a wood-frame house and to infill it with mud, primarily to provide insulation. In parts of

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European pioneer farmers in the prairies of North America, where there is no wood for construction, often made their first home in a dug-out cave in the side of a hill or ravine, with a covering over the entrance. When they had time, they would build a

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Earth has been used to construct fortifications for thousands of years, including strongholds and walls, often protected by ditches. Aerial photography in Europe has revealed traces of earth fortifications from the Roman era, and later medieval times.

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compacting earth mixed with stone, bamboo, wood and other readily available materials, and are to 6 feet (1.8 m) thick. The result is a well-lit, well-ventilated, windproof and earthquake-proof building that is warm in winter and cool in summer.

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and northern India are often perilously placed. Starting in the 1970s, interest in the technique has revived in developed countries. By setting an earth house into the ground, the house will be cooler in the warm season and warmer in the cool season.

1230:(1861−1865) trenches were used for defensive positions throughout the struggle, but played an increasingly important role in the campaigns of the last two years. Military earthworks perhaps culminated in the vast network of trenches built during 3677:

The Conservation of Decorated Surfaces on Earthen Architecture: Proceedings from the International Colloquium Organized by the Getty Conservation Institute and the National Park Service, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, USA, September 22–25,

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minerals with a sheet-like structure. The very small clay particles interact with each other physically and chemically. Even a small proportion of clay affects the physical properties of the soil much more than might be expected. Clays such as

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and other rivers, which was molded and burned in peat-fired kilns for three or four weeks. The bricks were then given about three weeks to cool before being removed. Modern processes use higher temperatures and much shorter firing times.

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has been used for thousands of years to make energy-efficient dwellings. There are various configurations. At one extreme, an earth sheltered dwelling is completely underground, with perhaps an open courtyard to provide air and light. An

856:, now a national monument in Arizona protected by a modern roof, is a massive four-story adobe structure built by Hohokam people between 1200 and 1450 AD. The first European to record the great house was a Jesuit priest, Father 594:

stacked and kept from drying out by sprinkling water over them. This may be a problem in hot, dry climates where water is scarce. Closely stacking the blocks and covering them with a polythene sheet may help reduce water loss.

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were built on the northwest coast of Europe, and later by European settlers on the North American prairies. Adobe or mud-brick buildings are built around the world and include houses, apartment buildings, mosques and churches.

921: 837:, Mali, was first built at the start of the 14th century AD (8th century AH) from round mud bricks and a stone-mud mixture, and was rebuilt several times afterwards, steadily growing in size. Further south in Mali, the 1305:, Canada, is an embankment dam about 18 kilometres (11 mi) long and from 40 to 88 metres (131 to 289 ft) high. By volume of fill, as of 2001 it was believed to be the largest earth structure in the world. 1356:

Wall containment can be added to techniques like adobe to resist loss of material that leads to collapse. Confined masonry is effective for adobe against quake forces of 0.3 g may be useful with earthen masonry.

1294:. Such a dam is composed of fragmented independent material particles. The friction and interaction of particles binds the particles together into a stable mass rather than by the use of a cementing substance. 845:, a dramatic example of Sahel mudbrick architecture. was built in 1907, based on the design of an earlier Great Mosque first built on the site in 1280. Mudbrick requires maintenance, and the fundamentalist ruler 1282:

mound of various compositions of soil, sand, clay and/or rock. It has a semi-permanent natural waterproof covering for its surface, and a dense, waterproof core. This makes such a dam impervious to surface or

860:, who visited the site in 1694. At that time it had long been abandoned. By the time a temporary roof was installed in 1903 the adobe building had been standing empty and unmaintained for hundreds of years. 1069:

contained about three million bricks, none more than 15 inches (380 mm) in length, so construction would have been a huge project. The largest ziggurat was in Babylon, and is thought by some to be the

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height might be 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m). Sometimes the sap was a tunnel, dug several feet below the surface. Sappers were highly skilled and highly paid due to the extreme danger of their work.

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farmers between 100 and 900 AD, in what is now the southwest of the US, were bermed structures, partially embedded in south-facing slopes. Their successful design was used for hundreds of years. At

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may be set into a slope, with windows or door openings in one or more of its sides, or the building may be on ground level, but with earth mounded against the walls, and perhaps with an earth roof.

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are engineering works created through moving or processing quantities of soil or unformed rock. The material may be moved to another location and formed into a desired shape for a purpose.

1030:, China. They were mostly built between the 13th and the 20th centuries. A tulou is a large, enclosed and fortified earth building, rectangular or circular, with very thick load-bearing 2929:

San Bartolome, A., E. Delgado and D. Quiun (2009) Seismic Behavior of a Two Story Model of Confined Adobe Masonry. 11th Canadian Masonry Symposium, Toronto, Ontario, May 31- June 3, 2009

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may also be added to earth intended for construction which adds strength, although the stabilized earth is not as strong as fired clay or concrete. Mixtures of cement and lime, or

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Although construction using the basic principles of MSE has a long history, MSE was developed in its current form in the 1960s. The reinforcing elements used can vary but include

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The Romans made durable concrete strong enough for load-bearing walls. Roman concrete contains a rubble of broken bricks and rocks set in mortar. The mortar included lime and

777:, now in Illinois, USA, wattle and daub houses were built with the floor lowered by 1 to 3 feet (0.30 to 0.91 m) below the ground. A variant of the technique is called 4578: 906: 3078:

Aerial Photography and Archaeology 2003: A Century of Information ; Papers Presented During the Conference Held at the Ghent University, December 10th - 12th, 2003

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The word "adobe" is derived from the ancient Egyptian "tob", meaning "brick". The Arabs adopted the word as "at-tub" or "attuba", and the Spanish made this "adobe".

324:, straw may be added, some form of stabilizing material such as lime or cement may be used to harden the earth, and the earth may be compacted to increase strength. 1065:

between the end of the 4th millennium BC and the 2nd millennium BC, rising in a series of terraces to a temple up to 200 feet (61 m) above ground level. The

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Interlaced wood in earthen walls reduces quake damage if wood is not damaged by dry rot or insects. Timberlacing includes finely webbed Dhajji, and other types.

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amount of oxygen in the kiln. Bricks may decay due to crystallization of salts on the brick or in its pores, from frost action and from acidic gases.

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The straw and grass in adobe does not make the brick any stronger in the long term, but helps ensure that the bricks shrink uniformly as they dry.

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was built of rammed earth. From there the technology was brought to Europe by the Romans. Rammed earth structures may be long lasting. Most of the

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is a huge earthwork that stretches along the disputed border between England and Wales. Little is known about the period or the builder, King

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Soil is created from rock that has been chemically or physically weathered, transported, deposited and precipitated. Soil particles include

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Fired bricks and concrete are derived from earth, but structures built from these materials are usually not considered earth structures.

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directions, based on wall thickness, story height, bracing wall spacing, and the roof, loft and second story weight above earthen walls.

1165:, embankments and dams are types of earthwork. A levee, floodbank or stopbank is an elongated natural ridge or artificially constructed 943: 853: 1219:, who died in 796 AD. An early timber and earth fortification might later be succeeded by a brick or stone structure on the same site. 937: 86:

Soil is still an economical material for many applications, and may have low environmental impact both during and after construction.

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will include stretcher bricks with their long, narrow side exposed and header bricks crossing from side to side. There are various

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Trench Warfare under Grant and Lee: Field Fortifications in the Overland Campaign: Field Fortifications in the Overland Campaign

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Key factors to improved seismic performance are soil strength, construction quality, robust layout and seismic reinforcement.

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Materials for Sustainable Sites: A Complete Guide to the Evaluation, Selection, and Use of Sustainable Construction Materials

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that shelter as many as 80 families. Other types of earth structure include mounds and pyramids used for religious purposes,

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The Homestead Act of 1862: A Primary Source History of the Settlement of the American Heartland in the Late 19th Century

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in Yemen, designated a World Heritage Site in 1982, is known for its ten-story unreinforced mud-brick buildings. The

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The Preservation of Historic Architecture: The U.S. Government's Official Guidelines for Preserving Historic Homes

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Builders must understand construction processes and be able to produce consistent quality for strong buildings.

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wall that regulates water levels. It is usually earthen and often runs parallel to the course of a river in its

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King, Bruce (2008) The Renaissance of Earthen Architecture: A fresh and updated look at clay-based construction

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Bricks are laid in courses bonded with mortar, a combination of Portland cement, lime and sand. A wall that is

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Earth usually requires some sort of processing for use in construction. It may be combined with water to make

4657: 2970: 2917: 5378: 5353: 5293: 4973: 4914: 4768: 506:, a volcanic material that contributed significantly to its strength. Roman concrete structures such as the 4744: 3995: 5641: 5452: 5266: 5102: 5077: 4998: 4928: 4907: 4799: 587: 576: 494:. In Northern Europe there are rammed earth buildings up to seven stories high and two hundred years old. 114: 5328: 5137: 4645: 1409: 1298: 602: 118: 1134:, Mexico, was started in 100 AD. The stone-faced structure contains two million tons of rammed earth. 671: 4792: 2847:

Langenbach, Randolph (2005) Collapse from the Inside Out. SismoAdobe 2005, Catholic University of Peru

1123:/town house platforms, residence platforms, square ground and rotunda platforms, and dance platforms. 242:

unfired clay bricks, is an ancient building technology. It was used in the early civilizations of the

5681: 5533: 5490: 5383: 5308: 4845: 4691: 1279: 675: 355: 5457: 5447: 4988: 4948: 4921: 4696: 4686: 2892: 1349:, may better avoid collapse than brittle unreinforced earth. Contained gravel base courses may add 1079: 830: 825:

There are innumerable examples of mud brick or adobe building around the world. The walled city of

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do not expand or contract when wetted or dried, and are useful for brick-making. Others, such as

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Bhutan International Conference on Disaster Management and Cultural Heritage, 12–14 December 2010

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material made from soil that includes clay, sand or small stones and an organic material such as

658:"bonds", or patterns of stretchers and headers, including the English, Dutch and Flemish bonds. 381: 4442:. Soil Conservation Service / Natural Resources Conservation Service. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 4207: 5505: 5251: 5142: 4963: 4536: 4509: 4482: 4476: 4461: 4455: 4437: 4398: 4348: 4321: 4294: 4267: 4240: 4213: 4186: 4180: 4159: 4132: 4126: 4057: 4051: 4021: 4015: 3980: 3946: 3940: 3900: 3803: 3776: 3727: 3721: 3681: 3672: 3651: 3624: 3597: 3591: 3570: 3564: 3543: 3516: 3510: 3489: 3468: 3441: 3435: 3364: 3343: 3337: 3324: 3314: 3272: 3251: 3157: 3130: 3124: 3109: 3103: 3082: 3076: 3055: 3049: 3028: 3022: 3007: 3001: 1418: – Style of architecture that uses native materials and upcycled materials to build homes 523: 4530: 4503: 4342: 4315: 4288: 4261: 4234: 4153: 4072: 3892: 3874: 3768: 3483: 3266: 3151: 101:

or turf. Soil may be stabilized by the addition of lime or cement, and may be compacted into

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The Natural Building Companion: A Comprehensive Guide to Integrative Design and Construction

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Morris, Hugh (1993) The Strength of Engineered Earth Buildings. Ipenz Annual Conference 1993

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Walls, Ramparts, and Lines of Demarcation: Selected Studies from Antiquity to Modern Times

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Rammed earth is a technique for building walls using natural raw materials such as earth,

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houses use a "wattle" of poles interwoven with sticks to provide stability for mud walls.

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Heavy Burdens on Small Shoulders: The Labour of Pioneer Children on the Canadian Prairies

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10 in) in diameter. Both sand and silt are mostly inert rock particles, including

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material. The two main technologies are stamped or rammed earth, clay or loam, called

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mixed with water and clay, has been used to protect earth walls since ancient times.

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resistant. The practice of stabilizing earth by adding burnt lime is centuries old.

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Stouter, Patti (2017) Field Tests for Strength of Building Soils, Build Simple Inc.

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One source estimates that as many as three billion people live in earth buildings.

1465: – Form of Earth Shelter Dwelling in the Loess Plateau, Chinese cave dwellings 1444: 1439: 1187: 1104: 1048: 1031: 1023: 1019: 857: 746:. Some groups plastered the whole structure with mud, which dried to form a shell. 630: 263: 146: 102: 52: 2603: 2601: 2504: 2502: 1198: 1086:

Many pre-Columbian Native American societies of ancient North America built large

3245: 1361:

stability. Bond beams at wall tops are vital and must be well attached to walls.

5676: 5373: 5256: 5195: 3296: 1533: 1235: 1231: 1131: 1120: 1095: 734: 698: 626: 478:. The technique spread to the Middle East, and to North Africa, and the city of 314: 251: 133: 37: 4788: 3193: 3000:

Alfaro, M.C.; Balasubramaniam, A.S.; Bergado, Dennes; Chai, J.C. (1994-01-01).

1614: 1612: 1610: 1103:

mound-building peoples' religious life and documented uses include semi-public

173: 5500: 5480: 5368: 5180: 5175: 5097: 5087: 4968: 4841: 4829: 4713: 4633: 1381: 1346: 1291: 1243:

secure shelters deep underground, often with electrical lighting and heating.

1170: 1003: 846: 609:

technique that has evolved from historic military construction techniques for

532: 80: 17: 4478:"It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West 3855: 3328: 5656: 5636: 5522: 5338: 5323: 4939: 4881: 4865: 4780: 4681: 4508:. Vol. Offa's Dyke: a monument without a history?. LIT Verlag Münster. 3702: 1552: 1415: 1239: 1203: 1166: 1147: 814: 655: 651: 528: 507: 420: 228: 177: 141: 4776: 4556: 3743:"Loam Construction – From a Niche Product to an Industrial Building System" 3566:

Sustainable Building – Design Manual: sustainable building design practices

1319:

brittle'. However, earthen buildings can be built to resist seismic loads.

928: 842: 4889: 4805: 4728: 3309:. drawings by David Etherton. London, England ; New York, N.Y., USA: 3003:

Improvement Techniques of Soft Ground in Subsiding and Lowland Environment

2169: 5686: 5573: 5303: 5278: 5205: 5122: 5112: 1385: 1256: 1112: 1058: 898: 834: 805: 782: 550: 487: 479: 440: 310: 232: 212: 110: 42: 4629: 3977:

Building with Earth: Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture

5626: 5598: 5283: 5210: 5200: 5190: 5185: 4893: 3843: 1462: 1302: 1287: 1284: 1099: 1087: 774: 705: 683: 643: 448: 416: 339: 298:

Traditional round mud and thatch houses forming a family compound near

208: 61: 4877: 4677: 4117: 3720:

Kennedy, Joseph F.; Wanek, Catherine; Smith, Michael G. (2002-06-01).

3384: 1376: 274:. As of 2005 about 1.5 billion people lived in houses built of loam. 5608: 5603: 5593: 5583: 5515: 5313: 5288: 5236: 5046: 4344:

The Good House Book: A Common-sense Guide to Alternative Homebuilding

4317:

Islamic Ideology and Ritual: Architectural and Spatial Manifestations

4003:, Swedish Mining Association, Natur Vards Verket, European Commission 3966:

Merritt, Frederick S.; Loftin, M. Kent; Ricketts, Jonathan T (1995).

2971:

Dhajji Construction for One and Two Story Earthquake Resistant Houses

2916:

Blondet, Marcial, G. Villa Garcia M., S. Brzev and A. Rubinos (2011)

1537: 1520: 1389: 1260: 1108: 1027: 1011: 990: 883: 826: 717: 679: 610: 475: 463: 333:

wetter mud and allowed to dry. In Iran, puddled mud walls are called

259: 204: 57: 1447: – Creation of buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone 572: 286:, typically using sun-dried bricks made of a mud and straw mixture. 2508: 2100: 2098: 2096: 1701: 1424: – Scientific study of earth materials in engineering problems 1251: 358:, England, hundreds of years old, thatched to protect it from water 5061: 4128:

The Archaeology of the Prussian Crusade: Holy War and Colonisation

3825:"Higher Ground: The Archaeology of North American Platform Mounds" 2327: 2325: 1397: 1375: 1250: 1197: 1183: 1162: 1141: 1075: 1062: 1042: 1002: 866:

in what is now northern Peru is a large adobe temple built by the

796: 758: 748: 721: 713: 670: 638: 620: 571: 554: 537: 522: 455: 444: 434: 380: 370: 349: 304: 293: 283: 255: 247: 172: 154: 150: 122: 106: 65: 51: 36: 1618: 1341:

Building techniques that are more ductile than brittle, like the

5548: 5056: 5051: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5016: 4718: 2984:

Earthquake Resistant Traditional Construction is not an Oxymoron

2918:

Earthquake Resistant Construction of Adobe Buildings: A Tutorial

2670: 2607: 1560:, an earth sheltered dwelling around a deeply sunken courtyard. 1052: 913: 238: 216: 196: 192: 188: 76: 46: 4560: 4418:

Teter, Norman Carroll; Liu, Robert C.; Kent, Thomas E. (1964).

1271: 743: 390: 321: 98: 90: 2258: 2256: 2231: 2229: 2216: 2214: 3876:

Building Craftsmanship in Brick and Tile and in Stone Plates

3723:

The Art of Natural Building: Design, Construction, Resources

3024:

Agricultural Productivity: Measurement and Sources of Growth

2381: 2379: 2312: 2310: 1818: 1816: 1670: 1668: 1666: 2035: 2033: 2020: 2018: 2005: 2003: 2001: 149:

are large fortified rammed earth buildings in southeastern

4104:

Petroski, Henry (2006). "Levees and Other Raised Ground".

1629: 1627: 1094:. Among the largest and best-known of these structures is 4084:"Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall Inspector's Handbook" 3942:

Adobe and Rammed Earth Buildings: Design and Construction

2297: 2295: 402:, the top 5 centimetres (2.0 in) of the grass turf. 2153: 2151: 2149: 1848: 1846: 1833: 1831: 2906:

4299:1998 Earth Buildings Not Requiring Specific Design

2802: 2366: 2364: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1726: 1724: 1722: 989:

Art on an adobe building at Shantiniketan University,

3741:

Koch, Gerhard; Koch, Christine; Seidl, Josef (2005).

2618: 2616: 2580: 2286: 1916: 1914: 1877: 1875: 1873: 3102:

Boyer, Lester L.; Grondzik, Walter T. (1987-01-01).

1893: 625:

English bond bricks from 1454 at the Old College in

365:, sometimes referred to as "monolithic adobe", is a 5617: 5572: 5471: 5435: 5426: 5399: 5219: 5168: 5155: 5070: 5024: 5015: 4938: 4616: 4603: 3339:

Handbook of North American Indians : Southeast

1585: 1583: 1581: 75:is a building or other structure made largely from 4421:Use of Stabilized Earth Block in Farm Construction 3891:Look, David W.; Tiller, de Teel Patterson (2004). 3247:African Architecture: Evolution and Transformation 1771: 180:by clay, silt and sand composition as used by the 27:Building or other structure made largely from soil 3925:American Railroad Journal and Mechanic's Magazine 2128: 2104: 2075: 2063: 2051: 1406: – Earthbag construction material and method 1274:. It is typically created by the emplacement and 642:temperature of 900–1150 °C. The result is a 3994:Morgenstern, Norbert R. (19–20 September 2001), 2682: 2493: 2331: 1400: – Earth-based stabilized building material 3927:. Simmons-Boardman Publishing Corporation. 1840 3213:. Macau Cultural Affairs Bureau. Archived from 469:In China, rammed earth walls were built by the 439:Old school built of rammed earth in 1836–37 in 4529:Young, Biloine W.; Fowler, Melvin Leo (2000). 3997:Geotechnics and Mine Waste Management – Update 3799:Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome 3021:Ball, Virgil; Norton, George W. (2002-04-30). 2170:Manufacture of Brick – Yellow Dutch Brick 1840 423:and lime, may also be used for stabilization. 89:Earth structure materials may be as simple as 4572: 4532:Cahokia, the Great Native American Metropolis 2858:Materials and Workmanship for Earth Buildings 2556: 2262: 2235: 2220: 1674: 1657: 8: 4179:Racusin, Jacob Deva; McArleton, Ace (2012). 3620:Moche Art and Visual Culture in Ancient Peru 3150:Cornerstones Community Partnerships (2006). 1822: 1536:were made from clay or mud dredged from the 1326:oven-dried and crushed under a small lever. 4290:Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 3921:"Manufacture of Brick – Yellow Dutch Brick" 3153:Adobe Conservation: A Preservation Handbook 2826: 2790: 2385: 2316: 912:Old mud dwellings and modern mud mosque in 737:is a circular building made by some of the 5432: 5165: 5021: 4613: 4579: 4565: 4557: 3979:. Basel/Berlin/Boston: Birkhäuser Verlag. 3893:"Preservation of Historic Adobe Buildings" 2880:Improving the Overall Construction Quality 2718: 2039: 2024: 2009: 1645: 1633: 97:. Sturdy dwellings may be also built from 4260:Rollings-Magnusson, Sandra (2012-06-11). 3211:"Earthen Houses (Tulou), Fujian Province" 2942:Earthquake Engineering Research Institute 2920:Earthquake Engineering Research Institute 2895:, 3rd edition, AIDG AWB and Haiti Rewired 1944: 1459: – Living below the ground's surface 1436: – Sustainable construction practice 1337:Seismic-Resistant Construction Techniques 1061:were elevated temples constructed by the 1026:in the mountainous areas in southeastern 527:Adobe bricks near a construction site in 105:. Construction is faster with pre-formed 4043:Science and civilisation in China V4 pt3 2766: 2754: 2706: 2694: 2592: 2568: 2409: 2355: 2343: 2087: 1864: 1852: 1837: 1807: 1702:Cornerstones Community Partnerships 2006 4287:Shah, D.L.; Shroff, A.V. (2003-01-01). 4053:Wars of the Age of Louis Xiv, 1650-1715 3823:Lindauer, Owen; Blitz, John H. (1997). 3075:Bourgeois, Jean; Meganck, Marc (2005). 2856:Standards New Zealand (1998) 4298:1998 2544: 2532: 2520: 2509:Earthen Houses (Tulou), Fujian Province 2481: 2469: 2301: 2247: 2116: 1980: 1905: 1759: 1730: 1713: 1577: 1476: 872: 486:was made from rammed earth, as was the 342:a similar technique was used with cob. 3542:. Western National Parks Association. 3306:The Penguin dictionary of architecture 2814: 2397: 2181: 2157: 2140: 1881: 1686: 849:had let the previous mosque collapse. 4125:Pluskowski, Aleksander (2013-05-07). 3968:Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers 2778: 2730: 2658: 2646: 2634: 2622: 2370: 2205: 1992: 1968: 1956: 1932: 1795: 1783: 1747: 1619:Soil Composition and Formation, SCDNR 1556:were shot in the Hotel Sidi Driss in 161:retaining walls, forts, trenches and 7: 4457:Hydrology: An Environmental Approach 4239:. Constable & Robinson Limited. 4091:Florida Department of Transportation 4082:Passe, Paul D. (14 September 2000). 2742: 2457: 2445: 2433: 2274: 2193: 1920: 1601: 1589: 959:San Francisco de Asis Mission Church 3539:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument 3399:Goodnow, Cecelia (5 October 2007). 2581:Merritt, Loftin & Ricketts 1995 2421: 1345:type of earthbag, or tire walls of 1299:Syncrude Mildred Lake Tailings Dyke 1022:is a type of rural dwelling of the 944:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument 3832:Journal of Archaeological Research 3420:"Introduction to rock filled dams" 3401:"Thinking of building a cob home?" 3195:Random House Unabridged Dictionary 3108:. Texas A&M University Press. 2893:Confined Masonry Workshop Handbook 1894:Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1966 93:, or mud mixed with straw to make 56:Earthen hut with thatched roof in 25: 4597:Offshore geotechnical engineering 4212:. Princeton Architectural Press. 3593:Geomaterials Under the Microscope 3051:The Ecology of Building Materials 882:High-rise mud brick buildings in 128:Types of earth structure include 4888: 4876: 4864: 4852: 4840: 4828: 4814: 4804: 4787: 4775: 4763: 4751: 4739: 4727: 4705: 4676: 4664: 4652: 4640: 4628: 4535:. University of Illinois Press. 4481:. University of Oklahoma Press. 4424:. U.S. Department of Agriculture 4373:ACE Basin Characterization Study 4369:"Soil Composition and Formation" 4314:Sliwoski, Amelia Helena (2007). 3879:. CUP Archive. GGKEY:GRKYD84ZXLH 3748:. Stay with Clay. Archived from 3488:. Univ of North Carolina Press. 2969:Schacher, Tom and Q. Ali (2009) 1234:(1914−1918) that stretched from 982: 966: 951: 936: 920: 905: 890: 875: 4454:Watson, Ian (13 October 1993). 4266:. University of Alberta Press. 4050:Nolan, Cathal J. (2008-01-01). 3945:. University of Arizona Press. 3650:. I. K. International Pvt Ltd. 2129:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 2105:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 2076:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 2064:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 2052:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 1173:or along low-lying coastlines. 4158:. The Rosen Publishing Group. 3802:. Cambridge University Press. 3644:Jagadish, K. S. (2007-01-01). 3617:Jackson, Margaret Ann (2008). 3464:Trench Fighting of World War I 3387:. UNESCO World Heritage Centre 3271:. The Rosen Publishing Group. 3265:Faiella, Graham (2005-08-01). 961:at Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico 1: 5247:Mechanically stabilized earth 4233:Robb, Brian J. (2012-09-06). 4045:. Cambridge University Press. 3939:McHenry, Paul Graham (1984). 3590:Ingham, Jeremy (2010-07-15). 3461:Hamilton, John (2010-09-01). 3268:The Technology of Mesopotamia 2940:Confined Masonry Construction 2904:Standards New Zealand (1998) 1177:Mechanically stabilized earth 637:The technique of firing clay 159:mechanically stabilized earth 4999:Hydraulic conductivity tests 4185:. Chelsea Green Publishing. 4017:Native American Architecture 3796:Lancaster, Lynne C. (2005). 3647:Building with Stabilized Mud 3482:Hess, Earl J. (2011-04-01). 3363:. Lorenz Educational Press. 3357:Forrest, Kent (1969-09-01). 2938:Rodriguez, Mario (undated) 2891:Totten, Craig (ed.) (2010) 2683:Bourgeois & Meganck 2005 2332:Racusin & McArleton 2012 5560:Stress distribution in soil 4152:Porterfield, Jason (2004). 4071:Outlook (3 November 2008). 4020:. Oxford University Press. 3342:. Smithsonian Institution. 3123:Calkins, Meg (2008-09-22). 2803:Embankment dam: forces, PBS 1675:Koch, Koch & Seidl 2005 1658:Koch, Koch & Seidl 2005 1365:from footing to bond beam. 1107:'s house platforms, public 729:Native American earth lodge 32:Internal structure of Earth 5728: 4710:Pore pressure measurement 4236:A Brief Guide to Star Wars 3970:(4 ed.). McGraw-Hill. 3726:. New Society Publishers. 3512:A Companion to World War I 3509:Horne, John (2011-11-23). 3405:Seattle Post-Intelligencer 3336:Fogelson, Raymond (2004). 1823:Teter, Liu & Kent 1964 1519:Whitewash, made of ground 1090:earth structures known as 757:village on the A109 road, 548: 385:Sod bricks in a house wall 29: 5463:Preconsolidation pressure 4858:Standard penetration test 4594: 3873:Lloyd, Nathaniel (1929). 3536:Houk, Rose (1996-01-01). 3515:. John Wiley & Sons. 3129:. John Wiley & Sons. 2973:, United Nations Pakistan 2878:Smart Shelter Foundation 2557:Lindauer & Blitz 1997 2287:Earth Lodge, Random House 2263:Boyer & Grondzik 1987 2236:Boyer & Grondzik 1987 2221:Boyer & Grondzik 1987 1314:Designing for Earthquakes 1126:The 207 feet (63 m) 1008:Tianluokeng Tulou cluster 4959:California bearing ratio 4757:Rotary-pressure sounding 4588:Geotechnical engineering 4391:Sunshine, Paula (2006). 4041:Needham, Joseph (1971). 3701:Keable, Rowland (2012). 3230:"Embankment dam: forces" 3105:Earth Shelter Technology 1422:Geotechnical engineering 1270:is a massive artificial 1202:Soldiers in a trench on 519:Mud brick or adobe brick 30:Not to be confused with 5379:Geosynthetic clay liner 5354:Expanded clay aggregate 4974:Proctor compaction test 4915:Crosshole sonic logging 4901:Nuclear densometer test 4658:Geo-electrical sounding 4475:White, Richard (1991). 4375:. SCDNR. Archived from 4014:Nabokov, Peter (1989). 3707:Rammed Earth Consulting 3671:Jerome, Pamela (2006). 3418:Graham, Andrew (1997). 2317:Young & Fowler 2000 1772:Rollings-Magnusson 2012 1412: – Building method 897:Mud wall and mosque in 588:Compressed earth blocks 579:housing being built in 115:compressed earth blocks 5642:Earthquake engineering 5453:Lateral earth pressure 5078:Hydraulic conductivity 4929:Wave equation analysis 4908:Exploration geophysics 4800:Deformation monitoring 4769:Rotary weight sounding 4502:Williams, Ann (2009). 4341:Snell, Clarke (2004). 3975:Minke, Gernot (2021). 3680:. Getty Publications. 3244:Elleh, Nnamdi (1998). 2040:Look & Tiller 2004 2025:Look & Tiller 2004 2010:Look & Tiller 2004 1646:Ball & Norton 2002 1634:Shah & Shroff 2003 1550:The opening scenes of 1392: 1263: 1207: 1155: 1078:. It was destroyed by 1055: 1015: 809: 761: 690: 634: 584: 577:Compressed earth block 568:Compressed earth block 546: 542:Making mudbricks near 535: 451: 386: 359: 317: 302: 184: 68: 49: 4820:Settlement recordings 4745:Rock control drilling 4646:Cone penetration test 4397:. Osprey Publishing. 4206:Rael, Ronald (2009). 4077:. Outlook Publishing. 3596:. Manson Publishing. 3434:Ham, Anthony (2009). 3048:Berge, Bjørn (2009). 2358:, p. Back cover. 1410:Earthbag construction 1379: 1254: 1201: 1145: 1046: 1006: 800: 752: 674: 624: 603:Earthbag construction 575: 541: 526: 438: 384: 353: 308: 297: 176: 55: 41:Old adobe minaret in 40: 5682:Agricultural science 5384:Cellular confinement 3769:"Bricklaying Basics" 3563:ICAEN (2004-01-01). 3198:. Random House. 1997 2982:Langenbach, Rudolph 2494:Fujian Tulou, UNESCO 1146:Retaining wall near 356:Harwell, Oxfordshire 222:Clays typically are 5574:Numerical analysis 5458:Overburden pressure 5448:Pore water pressure 5228:Shoring structures 5103:Reynolds' dilatancy 5004:Water content tests 4989:Triaxial shear test 4949:Soil classification 4922:Pile integrity test 3767:Kreh, Dick (1997). 3422:. Durham University 3360:Sumer and Babylonia 2951:King, Bruce. (2008) 2484:, pp. 133–134. 1080:Alexander the Great 1039:Mounds and pyramids 831:Djinguereber Mosque 821:Mud brick buildings 704:Pit houses made by 544:Cooktown, Australia 484:Great Wall of China 5549:Slab stabilisation 5529:Stability analysis 4209:Earth Architecture 4106:American Scientist 3844:10.1007/bf02229110 3156:. Sunstone Press. 3081:. Academia Press. 2673:, p. 132-133. 2671:Alfaro et al. 1994 2608:Alfaro et al. 1994 1604:, p. 112-113. 1457:Underground living 1393: 1278:of a complex semi- 1264: 1228:American Civil War 1208: 1206:during World War I 1194:Forts and trenches 1156: 1128:Pyramid of the Sun 1056: 1016: 810: 762: 691: 635: 585: 547: 536: 492:Kingdom of Granada 452: 387: 360: 318: 303: 266:river valleys, in 185: 69: 50: 5697: 5696: 5568: 5567: 5544:Sliding criterion 5506:Response spectrum 5422: 5421: 5252:Pressure grouting 5151: 5150: 5011: 5010: 4964:Direct shear test 4670:Permeability test 4542:978-0-252-06821-8 4515:978-3-8258-9478-8 4488:978-0-8061-2567-1 4467:978-1-56670-087-0 4404:978-0-7478-0652-3 4354:978-1-57990-281-0 4327:978-0-549-17365-6 4300:978-90-5809-235-9 4273:978-0-88864-590-6 4246:978-1-78033-583-4 4219:978-1-56898-767-5 4192:978-1-60358-339-8 4165:978-1-4042-0178-1 4138:978-1-136-16281-7 4118:10.1511/2006.57.7 4063:978-0-313-35920-0 4027:978-0-19-503781-4 3986:978-3-0356-2253-9 3952:978-0-8165-1124-2 3906:978-1-59921-714-7 3809:978-1-139-44434-7 3782:978-1-56158-214-3 3775:. Taunton Press. 3733:978-0-86571-433-5 3687:978-0-89236-850-1 3657:978-81-89866-21-1 3630:978-0-8263-4365-9 3603:978-1-84076-600-4 3576:978-81-7993-053-3 3549:978-1-877856-71-6 3522:978-1-118-27580-1 3495:978-0-8078-8238-2 3474:978-1-61714-407-3 3447:978-1-74104-821-6 3440:. Lonely Planet. 3370:978-1-55863-387-2 3349:978-0-16-072300-1 3320:978-0-14-051241-0 3301:Pevsner, Nikolaus 3278:978-1-4042-0560-4 3257:978-0-07-021506-1 3163:978-0-86534-527-0 3136:978-0-470-41892-5 3115:978-0-89096-302-9 3088:978-90-382-0782-7 3061:978-1-85617-537-1 3034:978-0-7923-7622-4 3013:978-90-5410-153-6 1935:, pp. 27–28. 1309:Structural issues 1074:mentioned in the 854:Casa Grande Ruins 793:Prairie sod house 123:fired clay bricks 16:(Redirected from 5719: 5712:Earth structures 5556:Bearing capacity 5443:Effective stress 5433: 5334:Land reclamation 5274:Land development 5169:Natural features 5166: 5133:Specific storage 5022: 4954:Atterberg limits 4892: 4880: 4868: 4856: 4844: 4832: 4818: 4808: 4793:Screw plate test 4791: 4779: 4767: 4755: 4743: 4731: 4709: 4680: 4668: 4656: 4644: 4632: 4614: 4581: 4574: 4567: 4558: 4552: 4550: 4549: 4525: 4523: 4522: 4498: 4496: 4495: 4471: 4450: 4448: 4447: 4432: 4430: 4429: 4414: 4412: 4411: 4387: 4385: 4384: 4364: 4362: 4361: 4337: 4335: 4334: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4283: 4281: 4280: 4256: 4254: 4253: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4202: 4200: 4199: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4148: 4146: 4145: 4121: 4100: 4098: 4097: 4088: 4078: 4067: 4046: 4037: 4035: 4034: 4010: 4009: 4008: 4002: 3990: 3971: 3962: 3960: 3959: 3935: 3933: 3932: 3916: 3914: 3913: 3899:. Globe Pequot. 3887: 3885: 3884: 3869: 3867: 3866: 3860: 3854:. Archived from 3829: 3819: 3817: 3816: 3792: 3790: 3789: 3763: 3761: 3760: 3754: 3747: 3737: 3716: 3714: 3713: 3697: 3695: 3694: 3667: 3665: 3664: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3613: 3611: 3610: 3586: 3584: 3583: 3559: 3557: 3556: 3532: 3530: 3529: 3505: 3503: 3502: 3478: 3457: 3455: 3454: 3430: 3428: 3427: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3395: 3393: 3392: 3380: 3378: 3377: 3353: 3332: 3288: 3286: 3285: 3261: 3240: 3238: 3237: 3225: 3223: 3222: 3206: 3204: 3203: 3188: 3186: 3185: 3173: 3171: 3170: 3146: 3144: 3143: 3119: 3098: 3096: 3095: 3071: 3069: 3068: 3044: 3042: 3041: 3017: 2987: 2980: 2974: 2967: 2961: 2958: 2952: 2949: 2943: 2936: 2930: 2927: 2921: 2914: 2908: 2902: 2896: 2889: 2883: 2876: 2870: 2867: 2861: 2860:pp. 64-65, 67-68 2854: 2848: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2830: 2827:Morgenstern 2001 2824: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2782: 2776: 2770: 2764: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2722: 2716: 2710: 2704: 2698: 2692: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2661:, p. 16-17. 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2611: 2605: 2596: 2595:, pp. 7–11. 2590: 2584: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2560: 2559:, p. 169ff. 2554: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2497: 2491: 2485: 2479: 2473: 2467: 2461: 2455: 2449: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2425: 2419: 2413: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2386:Porterfield 2004 2383: 2374: 2368: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2320: 2314: 2305: 2299: 2290: 2284: 2278: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2251: 2245: 2239: 2233: 2224: 2218: 2209: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2173: 2167: 2161: 2155: 2144: 2138: 2132: 2126: 2120: 2114: 2108: 2102: 2091: 2085: 2079: 2073: 2067: 2061: 2055: 2049: 2043: 2037: 2028: 2022: 2013: 2007: 1996: 1990: 1984: 1978: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1954: 1948: 1942: 1936: 1930: 1924: 1918: 1909: 1903: 1897: 1891: 1885: 1879: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1841: 1835: 1826: 1820: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1793: 1787: 1781: 1775: 1769: 1763: 1757: 1751: 1745: 1734: 1728: 1717: 1711: 1705: 1699: 1690: 1684: 1678: 1672: 1661: 1655: 1649: 1643: 1637: 1631: 1622: 1616: 1605: 1599: 1593: 1587: 1561: 1558:Matmata, Tunisia 1548: 1542: 1530: 1524: 1517: 1511: 1508: 1502: 1499: 1493: 1490: 1484: 1481: 1434:Natural building 986: 977:, Trujillo, Peru 975:Huaca de la Luna 970: 955: 940: 927:Great Mosque of 924: 909: 894: 879: 864:Huaca de la Luna 802:Omer Madison Kem 787:gypsum wallboard 739:Native Americans 710:Matmata, Tunisia 694:Earth sheltering 688:Earth sheltering 686:, an example of 667:Earth sheltering 617:Fired clay brick 607:natural building 406:Stabilized earth 367:natural building 202: 21: 5727: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5720: 5718: 5717: 5716: 5702: 5701: 5698: 5693: 5672:Earth materials 5613: 5575: 5564: 5473: 5467: 5418: 5395: 5349:Earth structure 5344:Erosion control 5242:Ground freezing 5232:Retaining walls 5215: 5157: 5147: 5108:Angle of repose 5066: 5007: 4941: 4934: 4933: 4894:Visible bedrock 4846:Simple sounding 4834:Shear vane test 4610:instrumentation 4609: 4607: 4599: 4590: 4585: 4555: 4547: 4545: 4543: 4528: 4520: 4518: 4516: 4501: 4493: 4491: 4489: 4474: 4468: 4453: 4445: 4443: 4435: 4427: 4425: 4417: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4394:Wattle and Daub 4390: 4382: 4380: 4367: 4359: 4357: 4355: 4340: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4313: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4286: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4259: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4232: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4205: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4178: 4170: 4168: 4166: 4151: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4124: 4103: 4095: 4093: 4086: 4081: 4070: 4064: 4049: 4040: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4013: 4006: 4004: 4000: 3993: 3987: 3974: 3965: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3938: 3930: 3928: 3919: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3890: 3882: 3880: 3872: 3864: 3862: 3858: 3827: 3822: 3814: 3812: 3810: 3795: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3766: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3745: 3740: 3734: 3719: 3711: 3709: 3700: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3670: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3643: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3616: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3589: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3562: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3535: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3508: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3481: 3475: 3460: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3433: 3425: 3423: 3417: 3409: 3407: 3398: 3390: 3388: 3383: 3375: 3373: 3371: 3356: 3350: 3335: 3321: 3291: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3264: 3258: 3250:. McGraw-Hill. 3243: 3235: 3233: 3228: 3220: 3218: 3209: 3201: 3199: 3192:"Earth Lodge". 3191: 3183: 3181: 3176: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3149: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3122: 3116: 3101: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3074: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3047: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3020: 3014: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2981: 2977: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2946: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2915: 2911: 2903: 2899: 2890: 2886: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2864: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2825: 2821: 2813: 2809: 2801: 2797: 2791:Dam Basics, PBS 2789: 2785: 2777: 2773: 2765: 2761: 2753: 2749: 2741: 2737: 2729: 2725: 2719:Pluskowski 2013 2717: 2713: 2705: 2701: 2693: 2689: 2681: 2677: 2669: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2614: 2606: 2599: 2591: 2587: 2583:, p. 13.1. 2579: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2519: 2515: 2507: 2500: 2492: 2488: 2480: 2476: 2468: 2464: 2456: 2452: 2444: 2440: 2432: 2428: 2420: 2416: 2408: 2404: 2396: 2392: 2384: 2377: 2369: 2362: 2354: 2350: 2342: 2338: 2330: 2323: 2315: 2308: 2300: 2293: 2285: 2281: 2273: 2269: 2261: 2254: 2246: 2242: 2234: 2227: 2219: 2212: 2204: 2200: 2192: 2188: 2180: 2176: 2168: 2164: 2156: 2147: 2139: 2135: 2127: 2123: 2115: 2111: 2103: 2094: 2086: 2082: 2074: 2070: 2062: 2058: 2050: 2046: 2038: 2031: 2023: 2016: 2008: 1999: 1991: 1987: 1979: 1975: 1967: 1963: 1955: 1951: 1943: 1939: 1931: 1927: 1919: 1912: 1904: 1900: 1892: 1888: 1880: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1851: 1844: 1836: 1829: 1821: 1814: 1806: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1782: 1778: 1770: 1766: 1758: 1754: 1746: 1737: 1729: 1720: 1712: 1708: 1700: 1693: 1685: 1681: 1673: 1664: 1656: 1652: 1644: 1640: 1632: 1625: 1617: 1608: 1600: 1596: 1588: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1564: 1549: 1545: 1531: 1527: 1518: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1404:Contained earth 1374: 1343:contained earth 1339: 1316: 1311: 1249: 1247:Embankment dams 1196: 1140: 1098:at the site of 1092:platform mounds 1041: 1014:province, China 1001: 994: 987: 978: 971: 962: 956: 947: 941: 932: 931:, Mali, in 1972 925: 916: 910: 901: 895: 886: 880: 823: 795: 770:Wattle and daub 767: 765:Wattle and daub 731: 669: 664: 652:one brick thick 619: 600: 570: 557: 549:Main articles: 521: 516: 500: 471:Longshan people 433: 413:Portland cement 408: 393:bricks, called 379: 348: 330: 292: 282:in French, and 200: 171: 163:embankment dams 138:Wattle and daub 73:earth structure 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5725: 5723: 5715: 5714: 5704: 5703: 5695: 5694: 5692: 5691: 5690: 5689: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5623: 5621: 5619:Related fields 5615: 5614: 5612: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5580: 5578: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5563: 5562: 5553: 5552: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5539:Classification 5536: 5531: 5520: 5519: 5518: 5513: 5511:Seismic hazard 5508: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5477: 5475: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5439: 5437: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5416: 5411: 5405: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5393: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5270: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5225: 5223: 5217: 5216: 5214: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5172: 5170: 5163: 5153: 5152: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5138:Shear strength 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5113:Friction angle 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5074: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5065: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5028: 5026: 5019: 5013: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4994:Oedometer test 4991: 4986: 4984:Sieve analysis 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4944: 4936: 4935: 4932: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4918: 4917: 4911: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4897: 4896: 4885: 4884: 4873: 4872: 4870:Total sounding 4861: 4860: 4849: 4848: 4837: 4836: 4825: 4824: 4823: 4822: 4812: 4796: 4795: 4784: 4783: 4772: 4771: 4760: 4759: 4748: 4747: 4736: 4735: 4724: 4723: 4722: 4721: 4716: 4702: 4701: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4673: 4672: 4661: 4660: 4649: 4648: 4637: 4636: 4625: 4624: 4622: 4611: 4601: 4600: 4595: 4592: 4591: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4576: 4569: 4561: 4554: 4553: 4541: 4526: 4514: 4499: 4487: 4472: 4466: 4451: 4433: 4415: 4403: 4388: 4365: 4353: 4347:. Lark Books. 4338: 4326: 4311: 4299: 4284: 4272: 4257: 4245: 4230: 4218: 4203: 4191: 4176: 4164: 4149: 4137: 4122: 4101: 4079: 4068: 4062: 4047: 4038: 4026: 4011: 3991: 3985: 3972: 3963: 3951: 3936: 3917: 3905: 3888: 3870: 3838:(2): 169–207. 3820: 3808: 3793: 3781: 3764: 3738: 3732: 3717: 3698: 3686: 3668: 3656: 3641: 3629: 3614: 3602: 3587: 3575: 3569:. TERI Press. 3560: 3548: 3533: 3521: 3506: 3494: 3479: 3473: 3458: 3446: 3431: 3415: 3396: 3385:"Fujian Tulou" 3381: 3369: 3354: 3348: 3333: 3319: 3289: 3277: 3262: 3256: 3241: 3226: 3207: 3189: 3174: 3162: 3147: 3135: 3120: 3114: 3099: 3087: 3072: 3060: 3045: 3033: 3018: 3012: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2988: 2975: 2962: 2953: 2944: 2931: 2922: 2909: 2897: 2884: 2871: 2862: 2849: 2840: 2831: 2819: 2807: 2795: 2783: 2781:, p. 214. 2771: 2759: 2747: 2745:, p. xiv. 2735: 2733:, p. 417. 2723: 2721:, p. 118. 2711: 2699: 2687: 2685:, p. 323. 2675: 2663: 2651: 2639: 2627: 2612: 2610:, p. 131. 2597: 2585: 2573: 2571:, p. 741. 2561: 2549: 2537: 2525: 2513: 2498: 2486: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2438: 2426: 2424:, p. 498. 2414: 2402: 2400:, p. 144. 2390: 2375: 2373:, p. 228. 2360: 2348: 2336: 2334:, p. 252. 2321: 2306: 2304:, p. 126. 2291: 2279: 2267: 2252: 2240: 2225: 2210: 2198: 2186: 2184:, p. 166. 2174: 2172:, p. 290. 2162: 2160:, p. 164. 2145: 2143:, p. 163. 2133: 2131:, p. 152. 2121: 2119:, p. 162. 2109: 2107:, p. 149. 2092: 2080: 2078:, p. 140. 2068: 2066:, p. 139. 2056: 2054:, p. 138. 2044: 2029: 2014: 1997: 1985: 1973: 1961: 1949: 1945:Lancaster 2005 1937: 1925: 1910: 1898: 1886: 1869: 1857: 1842: 1827: 1812: 1800: 1798:, p. 233. 1788: 1786:, p. 232. 1776: 1764: 1752: 1750:, p. 114. 1735: 1718: 1716:, p. 110. 1706: 1691: 1689:, p. 290. 1679: 1662: 1650: 1648:, p. 219. 1638: 1623: 1606: 1594: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1562: 1543: 1525: 1512: 1503: 1494: 1485: 1475: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1466: 1460: 1454: 1451:Tabby concrete 1448: 1442: 1437: 1431: 1428:Green building 1425: 1419: 1413: 1407: 1401: 1394: 1373: 1370: 1351:base isolation 1338: 1335: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1268:embankment dam 1248: 1245: 1217:Offa of Mercia 1195: 1192: 1152:West Yorkshire 1139: 1136: 1072:Tower of Babel 1067:Ziggurat of Ur 1040: 1037: 1000: 997: 996: 995: 988: 981: 979: 972: 965: 963: 957: 950: 948: 942: 935: 933: 926: 919: 917: 911: 904: 902: 896: 889: 887: 881: 874: 822: 819: 794: 791: 766: 763: 730: 727: 668: 665: 663: 660: 618: 615: 599: 596: 581:Midland, Texas 569: 566: 520: 517: 515: 514:Building units 512: 499: 496: 432: 429: 407: 404: 378: 375: 347: 344: 329: 326: 309:Mud houses in 291: 288: 224:phyllosilicate 170: 167: 136:are examples. 130:earth shelters 26: 24: 18:Earth building 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5724: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5700: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5647:Geomorphology 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5616: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5577: 5571: 5561: 5557: 5554: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5503: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5491:Consolidation 5489: 5487: 5486:Frost heaving 5484: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5470: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5440: 5438: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5398: 5392: 5389: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5365: 5364:Geosynthetics 5362: 5360: 5359:Crushed stone 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5314:Cut-and-cover 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5222: 5218: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5173: 5171: 5167: 5164: 5161: 5154: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5083:Water content 5081: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5069: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5029: 5027: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5014: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4937: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4916: 4913: 4912: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4902: 4899: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4862: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4850: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4838: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4826: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4785: 4782: 4781:Sample series 4778: 4774: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4761: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4749: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4711: 4708: 4704: 4703: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4684: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4674: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4662: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4650: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4638: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4626: 4623: 4620: 4615: 4612: 4606: 4605:Investigation 4602: 4598: 4593: 4589: 4582: 4577: 4575: 4570: 4568: 4563: 4562: 4559: 4544: 4538: 4534: 4533: 4527: 4517: 4511: 4507: 4506: 4500: 4490: 4484: 4480: 4479: 4473: 4469: 4463: 4460:. CRC Press. 4459: 4458: 4452: 4441: 4440: 4436:USDA (1974). 4434: 4423: 4422: 4416: 4406: 4400: 4396: 4395: 4389: 4379:on 2014-10-01 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4356: 4350: 4346: 4345: 4339: 4329: 4323: 4319: 4318: 4312: 4302: 4296: 4293:. CRC Press. 4292: 4291: 4285: 4275: 4269: 4265: 4264: 4258: 4248: 4242: 4238: 4237: 4231: 4221: 4215: 4211: 4210: 4204: 4194: 4188: 4184: 4183: 4177: 4167: 4161: 4157: 4156: 4150: 4140: 4134: 4131:. Routledge. 4130: 4129: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4092: 4085: 4080: 4076: 4075: 4069: 4065: 4059: 4055: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4029: 4023: 4019: 4018: 4012: 3999: 3998: 3992: 3988: 3982: 3978: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3954: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3937: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3908: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3878: 3877: 3871: 3861:on 2012-04-15 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3826: 3821: 3811: 3805: 3801: 3800: 3794: 3784: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3765: 3755:on 2011-07-16 3751: 3744: 3739: 3735: 3729: 3725: 3724: 3718: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3689: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3659: 3653: 3649: 3648: 3642: 3632: 3626: 3623:. UNM Press. 3622: 3621: 3615: 3605: 3599: 3595: 3594: 3588: 3578: 3572: 3568: 3567: 3561: 3551: 3545: 3541: 3540: 3534: 3524: 3518: 3514: 3513: 3507: 3497: 3491: 3487: 3486: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3466: 3465: 3459: 3449: 3443: 3439: 3438: 3432: 3421: 3416: 3406: 3402: 3397: 3386: 3382: 3372: 3366: 3362: 3361: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3341: 3340: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3316: 3312: 3311:Penguin Books 3308: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3293:Fleming, John 3290: 3280: 3274: 3270: 3269: 3263: 3259: 3253: 3249: 3248: 3242: 3231: 3227: 3217:on 2014-05-12 3216: 3212: 3208: 3197: 3196: 3190: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3159: 3155: 3154: 3148: 3138: 3132: 3128: 3127: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3107: 3106: 3100: 3090: 3084: 3080: 3079: 3073: 3063: 3057: 3054:. Routledge. 3053: 3052: 3046: 3036: 3030: 3026: 3025: 3019: 3015: 3009: 3006:. 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47. 1994: 1989: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1974: 1971:, p. 29. 1970: 1965: 1962: 1959:, p. 28. 1958: 1953: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1926: 1923:, p. 17. 1922: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1908:, p. 38. 1907: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1887: 1883: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1865:Jagadish 2007 1861: 1858: 1854: 1853:Jagadish 2007 1849: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1838:Jagadish 2007 1834: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1808:Jagadish 2007 1804: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1777: 1774:, p. 28. 1773: 1768: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1710: 1707: 1704:, p. 72. 1703: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1639: 1636:, p. 22. 1635: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1572: 1567: 1559: 1555: 1554: 1547: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1529: 1526: 1522: 1516: 1513: 1507: 1504: 1498: 1495: 1489: 1486: 1480: 1477: 1470: 1464: 1461: 1458: 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ABDO. 3303:(1966). 2422:Ham 2009 1372:See also 1257:Mica Dam 1113:mortuary 899:Timbuktu 835:Timbuktu 806:Nebraska 783:Colombia 662:Examples 551:Mudbrick 498:Concrete 488:Alhambra 480:Carthage 441:Bonbaden 400:Strengur 311:Kandahar 213:feldspar 5627:Geology 5599:SVSlope 5409:Shallow 5329:Grading 5267:Tieback 5211:Subsoil 5201:Bedrock 5191:Topsoil 5186:Terrain 4979:R-value 4942:testing 4692:Dynamic 4619:in situ 4617:Field ( 4074:Outlook 3773:Masonry 2993:Sources 1532:Yellow 1463:Yaodong 1303:Alberta 1288:erosion 1285:seepage 1280:plastic 1238:to the 1226:In the 1100:Cahokia 999:Toulous 775:Cahokia 706:Hohokam 684:Iceland 644:ceramic 611:bunkers 583:in 2006 490:in the 449:Germany 417:bitumen 395:terrone 340:England 268:Central 209:calcite 62:Kassala 60:, near 5609:Plaxis 5604:UTEXAS 5594:SVFlux 5584:SEEP2D 5436:Forces 5289:Trench 5237:Gabion 5047:Gravel 4687:Static 4539: 4512: 4485: 4464: 4401: 4351: 4324: 4297: 4270: 4243: 4216: 4189: 4162: 4135: 4060: 4024: 3983: 3949: 3903: 3850: 3806: 3779: 3730: 3703:"FAQs" 3684: 3654: 3627: 3600: 3573: 3546: 3519: 3492: 3471: 3444: 3367: 3346: 3327: 3317: 3275: 3254: 3160: 3133: 3112: 3085: 3058: 3031: 3010: 1538:IJssel 1521:gypsum 1390:Brazil 1261:Canada 1163:Levees 1109:temple 1028:Fujian 1012:Fujian 991:Bolpur 929:Djenné 884:Shibam 843:Djenné 827:Shibam 808:(1886) 755:Maasai 718:Bhutan 680:Keldur 639:bricks 476:Sikkim 464:gravel 264:Yellow 260:Ganges 205:quartz 155:levees 58:Toteil 5589:STABL 5062:Loess 5025:Types 4087:(PDF) 4001:(PDF) 3859:(PDF) 3848:S2CID 3828:(PDF) 3753:(PDF) 3746:(PDF) 3232:. 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