893:. To keep the cooked dishes hot, the householder would lay up within the earthen oven all her cooking pots and the coffee kettles around the meager pile of ash-covering, and then seal the side-opening of the oven by inserting its removable door-like covering. In Jewish culture, especially on days where it was impossible to build a fire, but where prolonging the existing heat of the oven was necessary, the hot coals were, in advance, pushed to one side and covered over in ashes, while the entire clay oven was covered over with a larger earthenware vessel, to which old rags were added along the edges to seal the heat within it. In so doing, whenever dishing out soup or pouring a drink of coffee, they would remain hot.
387:) was vaulted and egg-shaped, the opening of which was made in the front, and the entire structure built above-ground by having it propped-up upon an earth and stone base. Its outer shell was thick, and could be anywhere between a handbreadth (9 centimetres (3.5 in)) to 15.25 centimetres (6.00 in) in thickness. Such shapes were typically found in Europe and in the British isles. In Europe and Britain, however, bread was baked on the floor of the oven, usually made of brick or tile. The dome-shaped oven in western societies was often built upon a stone and earth plinth to make it higher and easier to use, without having to bend over. Some ovens were made with
297:), its top being uniform in diameter with that of the oven's base. Kindling was admitted through the opening in the top. A small air-hole was also made therein at the base of the oven, called the "eye of the oven," which was made to ensure sufficient air circulation, as well as used to clear out the oven from its accumulated wood-ash. This oven had a flat, detachable ceramic lid made for it, with its own distinct rim, and which lid covering could be placed on its top and could hold additional pots and pans when needed. In such ovens, flat dough was pressed against the interior wall of the oven, whereunto it adhered until it was baked.
77:
773:
661:, in which the ingredients were cooked under an earthenware cover, over which ashes were heaped. Others suggest that a space on the floor was cleared upon which a small heap of lighted coals was set. The baking cover was then placed or hung over the coals, and when sufficiently hot, it was raised and the coals swept aside. The dough was then put onto the hot floor, at which time the hot cover was replaced over the dough. Coals were then heaped over the sides of the cover and the bread left to bake.
208:
96:, has been used since ancient times by diverse cultures and societies, primarily for, but not exclusive to, baking before the invention of cast-iron stoves, and gas and electric ovens. The general build and shape of clay ovens were, mostly, common to all peoples, with only slight variations in size and in materials used to construct the oven. In primitive courtyards and farmhouses, earthen ovens were built on the ground.
755:(the sponge-like flat bread), or when roasting kernels, legumes and grain, and things similar. In such cases, they merely made use of a light and inexpensive heating material. For this purpose, the Arab women would carry large baskets of leaves and splinters upon their heads, such which fall from the trees, especially the deciduous leaves of the tamarisk, which is plenteous there and is called
889:'wood knot'), usually taken from the place where the shoots sprout from the tree's trunk. The householder added thereto a cake of sheep dung and would bury the wood and cake of sheep dung in the midst of the fire, covering them over with a thin layer of ash, so that they would burn slowly and the oven would remain hot for a long time. This covering of ash is called in Arabic
248:
oven", used for stoking the fire and clearing away the ashes, and closed by a detachable door. This type had a ceramic floor. Both versions were equipped with a ceramic lid with a handle, used for covering and sealing the top opening (see illustration). These ovens were, typically, small in size and were placed within a baking hut to protect them from the elements. Some
43:
936:
328:
622:
188:
opening was on the side, the door which covered the opening had to be left partially open to allow for combustion of the fire and coals during its initial lighting. The earthen oven differed slightly from earthen stoves and ranges where, in the case of the latter, the pots were laid directly over the stove and a fire stoked below.
950:
in diameter at its base, about 38 centimetres (15 in) to 51 centimetres (20 in) high, with an open top, approximately 38 centimetres (15 in) in diameter. The shell wall is about 2.55 centimetres (1.00 in) to 5.08 centimetres (2.00 in) thick. The shell is sun baked for weeks, before it is fired.
179:, and has been in widespread use in the greater Middle East for centuries. Aside from baking, some were used for cooking: pots were laid within the cavity of the oven and set upon hot coals, covered in ashes. If the pots were intended to be left in the oven for an extended period of time (such as the night of the
972:
All newly built clay-ovens require a first firing before they can be used to bake bread. Firing was done by burning dried manure inside the oven. This is done, not only to harden the clay and to enable dough to cling to the inner oven-wall after its second firing, but also to temper the oven so that
949:
These smaller pot-shaped ovens are made of yellow pottery clay soil. The soil is wetted and made into a thick clay mixed with chopped stubble and straw from harvested wheat. The clay is hand-formed to make the dome-shaped shell. It is about 76 centimetres (30 in) to 101 centimetres (40 in)
247:
or limestone pebbles. The pot-shaped contour was wider at the base and narrower at the top, where the opening was, used both for kindling the fire, and for inserting dough for baking. A second, similar type of oven had, in addition to the hole at the top, a second side opening called the "eye of the
968:
pipe. The wide side-opening served as a place of intake of air (oxygen), allowing for proper combustion of fuel, besides being a place for the egress of air and smoke. Other clay ovens that had, both, a top opening and bottom side-opening ("eye of the oven"), the function of the side-opening was to
786:
oven where there was no top opening, a layer of fuel (usually dried manure) is spread on the outside of the shell and lid. Once the fire takes hold, the fuel is covered with a layer of ash. When damp wood was used, the fuel would smolder for hours, filling the baking rooms with the smoke. After the
468:
which he had seen in
Palestine, most of which were made of clay, as being mostly small and built with two compartments – the lower, a "boiler room" used to stoke the fire and which rests upon the ground; the upper, a "baking room" where the round leavened dough was laid down upon a flat surface and
953:
Some clay ovens were made higher and cylindrical with a wide-open top. The inner-most layer of the clay oven consists of about 2 parts of sand to 1 part clay, thoroughly mixed together. Such ovens were made with thick walls, as much as 15.24 centimetres (6.00 in), by adding to its outer shell
345:
stood approximately 70 centimetres (28 in) to 100 centimetres (39 in) high, was cylindrical and made of clay. It measured 60 centimetres (24 in) to 70 centimetres (28 in) wide on the bottom and narrowed upwards. From the varied ovens described by him, an earthen oven may or may
252:
ovens were "dug-ins", half built into the ground and half above-ground. Baking was made on the pebbled floor of the oven, after the bowl-like exterior wall of the clay oven that sat over the floor like an inverted cup had been covered, itself, with hot coals and embers scattered with ash, usually
963:
or an admixture of clay and charcoal. This application was followed by an outer coating of clay, which was then smoothed out across the entire surface of the oven. Some reinforced the oven by inserting small stones and pebbles in the clay surrounding the oven. The process of thickening the walls
834:
and all pot-filled dishes began to boil, the flames were allowed to die down a little. The householder who tended the cooking then removed the cooking pots and the coffee kettles from off the stove top, and would then begin to bake the bread on the inner walls of the oven. The flattened dough is
375:
In cylindrical clay ovens used in
Palestine in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, and where the opening was on top, they were often equipped with a flat, detachable lid (tablet) made of clay and which was usually perforated to allow for the retention of heat when needed, and the smoke to be emitted.
311:
was also placed in such ovens, laid upon the oven floor, upon its dying embers. Pots containing viands and kettles of coffee were first brought to a boil and then kept hot by brushing aside the coals and embers to one side of the oven, covering the coals over with ashes, and placing the pots and
822:
oven). In most ovens, 4 to 5 loaves can be baked at the same time. Then the opening is sealed and the fire stoked using the hot embers and ashes. When the bread is ready, the lid is removed and the bread taken out. The process can be repeated, or other dishes can be baked using metal or pottery
187:
where the food is left to cook until the next day), the opening at the top of the oven would be covered with a large, earthenware vessel. They would then add old rags around this vessel used to seal up the oven, in order to make the oven impervious to air around all the cooking pots. Where the
763:
prepared from the waste droppings of animals were also used to light a fire in the clay oven, and which are processed and dried by the Arab villagers. The best of these were those made from the droppings of sheep, and the least useful of them all were those made from donkey manure.
787:
initial flames had died down a little, the kettles were removed from the oven's top, and the oven at this time was ready to receive the prepared dough that was made to cling to the inner-wall of the oven. The amount of fuel varies depending on the amount of baking that was needed.
591:
with mud-bricks or masonry stones arranged in a bed of lime mortar, usually 250 centimetres (98 in) in length, 80 centimetres (31 in) to 110 centimetres (43 in) in height, and 60 centimetres (24 in) in breadth. Built into this socle were three separate ovens
843:, until it was sufficiently thin, and was then applied to the interior wall of the earthen oven, so as to bake it on its obverse side. If the bare hands were used to apply the dough, the baker would baste the surface of the dough with the water obtained from soaking ground
1575:. A large loaf that has been baked in a large oven, such as our own ovens, seeing that their ovens were small and portable, and whose mouths were situated above, and they'd stick the bread unto the walls , insofar that they did not bake therein except for small loaves."
851:
After baking, the bread is removed. If there was much to bake, the householder would put within the mouth of the oven a dry piece of wood so that the flame of its burning will cook and cause to steam the outer layer of the bread. This piece of wood is called in Arabic
958:
of wet clay (or black earth) consisting of an aggregate of dried and burnt donkey or horse manure ground to a powdery ash (about 40%), a smaller portion of chopped straw and stubble, along with lime and sand or gravel. Others had a practice of adding burnt clay,
612:
The product of Jewish potters, they (i.e. the clay ovens) are made of burnt clay and look like round pots without bottoms, being open at both ends and having a semi-circular hole on one side. They are built into the mortar base in such a way that the side-hole
155:, with an opening either at the top or bottom from which to stoke the fire. Others were made cylindrical with an opening at the top. Built and used in ancient times as the family, neighbourhood, or village oven, clay ovens continue to be made in parts of the
1969:
Their ovens were made like unto large pots and they are placed on the ground, connecting them with clay" / "The oven is initially made like a pot and is portable, but when he comes to fix it, he places it on the ground, applying thereto clay and made
902:, in which cases they would add inexpensive light wood to the oven. In 18th-century English clay ovens, whenever the temperature of the clay oven became too hot, they were frequently doused with cold water, or its flooring swabbed with a wet mop.
698:
Many types of fuel or a combination of fuels can heat an earthen oven. Dried animal dung, dried bird droppings, chopped and dried tree branches or tree trimmings, wood chips, charcoal, were all used as potential fuels, depending on the country.
497:
in modern parlance is also associated with being a "public bakery," where flat-loaves of bread are baked wholesale to be sold in market, or where, in some countries, local villagers bring there certain produce, such as heaps of green chickpeas
672:
in Arabic-speaking countries), families also practised baking directly onto hot ashes and cinders, whereby bread was placed on leaves or pieces of tile set on a low hearth and covered by embers from the fire. Today, such bread is known as an
461:) in the ground. They line these with pebbles, and kindling the fire of dried-dung within and above, they afterwards remove the hot ashes and place the loaves of bread to bake upon these pebbles when they have become thus red-hot."
810:, which is a bush where there was a sticky, elastic-like flammable substance between its bark and wood. The substance was flammable and would light quickly. The fire is started in the oven by inserting a burning rag or paper.
600:). The space in between the ovens was often filled with sifted wood ash, instead of soil, because of its light weight and its ability to heat quickly and retain the heat. In the early 20th-century, German ethnographer
1998:
Ovadiah di
Bertinoro (1978), p. 14 (Keilim 5:1): "An ordinary oven is made like unto a large pot which has no brim, and they connect it to the ground with clay, whilst the pavement of the ground is the plinth of the
847:
seeds, to prevent the dough from sticking to the baker's hand when applying it to the inner surface of the oven. When bubble-like configurations appeared on the surface of the bread, it signaled that it was ready.
1988:
is made like unto a large pot which has no brim and is portable, and when he comes to fix it, he connects it onto the ground and applies clay to the outside and makes it thicker, in order that it may retain its
932:, it too was made like unto a large, bottomless eathenware pot, turned upside down and fixed permanently onto the ground by plastering it with clay, usually in a family's courtyard where there was a baking hut.
823:
trays. The bottom of the bread will take the shape of the pebbles or other materials used in constructing the oven floor. This baking process is unique and economical and produces aromatic and flavorful food.
798:; Arabic: لصوة) or twigs within the mouth of the oven, and directly on top of it she would place thin pieces of wood, followed by thicker pieces of wood. On the two sides of the wood pile she would set up two
481:
that had yet to be fired, there was a danger of its dividing compartment collapsing or crumbling apart at its first firing. Based on samples of bread collected in
Palestine, the leavened flatbread baked in a
780:
Where clay ovens are made with a top opening, it is covered and when coffee was to be prepared in kettles, they were laid on top of such ovens with the initial kindling of the fire. In the case of a
289:, the most common of clay ovens served both for baking and cooking. Its shape was cylindrical and reached half the height of man, and was made with a wide-open top, called the "mouth of the oven" (
617:) is in the front, about fifteen centimeters above the floor. Through this hole, wood, charcoal or dried dung is fed into the stove, and the cooking pots are placed on the upper opening.
806:; Arabic: الكبا), and then she would set down over the stove all the cooking pots and the coffee kettles that needed heating. The most important splinters for lighting were the
839:– the round, knitted baker's kerchief or pillow used for protection when sticking the dough into the oven, fitted snugly with a cloth. The dough was spread out firmly upon the
1427:
1294:) is made like unto a large pot which has no brim, and they construct it with clay upon the ground, while the ceramic tiles on the floor are the bottom of the oven.
2558:
2186:
1365:
981:
barrel that encloses a thinly-made clay oven of the same height, and where the intermediate space between the metal barrel and clay oven is filled with sand.
243:
shaped like a large, bottomless earthenware pot turned upside down and fastened permanently to the ground. It has a pebbled floor made of either smooth beach
677:. Small stationary ovens were later introduced in Italy, built into a kitchen range. Afterwards, even larger and more efficient ovens were made, namely, the
964:
helped to retain the oven's heat once it had been fired. Where clay ovens were made in a conical shape, they usually did not require the construction of a
835:
applied to the inner-wall of the oven, after the wall is dampened with a wet cloth, allowing for adhesion. The dough was traditionally flattened-out on a
346:
not be buried in the ground; it can be cylindrical, egg-shaped, pointed or curved. If necessary, it was also possible to convert a large water jug into a
867:'lightered'). When he finished baking, he then placed within the oven a knotted piece of wood, of the kind which are hardest to burn (Arabic:
237:
in the early 20th century, photographed several types of clay ovens which he saw in use there. Of those ovens used for baking bread, there was the
2206:
1954:
2356:
2326:
2099:
Earth, Man and Effort: A Study of Our
Material Civilization on Our Land (الارض، الأنسان والجهد : دراسة لحضارتنا المادية على ارضنا )
818:
When the smoke resides, the lid is removed and chunks of dough are hand flattened and placed directly on the limestones (in the case of
1501:
9:7, clarifies there that this covering was not a literal "network," but merely a flat clay tablet with perforated holes made therein.
2490:
2436:
2236:
1244:
76:
2402:(1955), "Perush Shishah Sidrei Mishnah - A Commentary on the Six Orders of the Mishnah", in Sachs, Mordecai Yehudah Leib (ed.),
794:, she would take-up a little of each kind of wood kindling and arrange them in the oven. First, she would place thin splinters (
641:(Latin) / κλίβανοι (Greek) denote "baking oven" in their respective languages. The words are transcribed in, both, the Greek
1065:
2701:
1072:, which according to its source means "He covered the fire in the earth, in order that it might not become extinguished."
1424:
2159:
583:
In Yemeni households, the kitchen or bake-room was built adjacent to an open-air courtyard and furnished with a hearth (
2042:
973:
it can better retain heat. The thickness of the oven wall (ca. 6 inches) helps preserve residual heat. As a modern-day
2076:
2691:
2676:
2650:
2633:
2621:
2094:
1950:
1937:
772:
1481:
makes note of the fact that its name is derived from the
Aramaic Targum on Exodus 27:4, where the Hebrew word
2671:
2376:(1/2 (Bread, Ovens and Hearths of the past)). Institut de Sociologie de l'Université de Bruxelles: 197–221.
2228:
2021:. , between the clay plastered-coating and the oven, by which the oven retains its heat and they bake in it"
1235:
1918:
665:
2114:
Cubberley, A.L.; Lloyd, J.A.; Roberts (1988). "Testa and
Clibani: The Baking Covers of Classical Italy".
2666:
2532:
1878:(in Hebrew). Vol. 1 (A.-G.). Jerusalem: Cana Publishing House Ltd. p. 37 (Field Baking-oven).
1675:
Dalman (1964 ), based on
Diagram 30 showing thirteen types of bread, and no. 9–12 which were baked in a
1344:
277:
504:) with their husks for roasting (when placed either in a clay oven or upon a convex griddle, known as
2454:
2399:
1478:
1387:
1230:
664:
Based on other literary and archaeological finds, scholars have identified five principal methods of
588:
57:
2681:
2539:(in Hebrew). Vol. 1–2 (Part II, responsum # 256) (2nd ed.). Jerusalem. pp. 262–263.
2639:
2262:
1619:
896:
Experienced bakers knew when they needed only a light heat, such as when roasting grain or baking
434:
in France, explained its meaning as being "our large ovens whose mouths are at their side" (i.e.,
2597:
2552:
2387:
2180:
2139:
2131:
1477:. While explaining the Hebrew name used for the type of covering laid over the clay oven,
1359:
943:
556:
342:
234:
212:
706:, they made use of combustible fuels that were made available to them, the best wood comprising
312:
kettles beside the ash-covered coals. Such ovens were almost always built within baking rooms (
271:
2540:
2520:
2516:
2496:
2486:
2482:
2462:
2432:
2407:
2334:
2314:
2310:
2280:
2253:
2232:
2202:
2168:
2102:
1960:
1879:
1657:
1584:
1558:
1536:
1335:
1281:
1273:
1250:
1240:
1207:
2587:
2377:
2123:
742:
298:
230:
207:
2696:
1431:
1025:
500:
266:
152:
125:
118:
2277:
Dictionary of the
Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature
442:
2686:
2346:
2272:
1486:
955:
911:
740:), and which was usually sold in the Wood Market. The poor made use of tamarisk trees (
404:
184:
61:
2660:
2508:
2422:
2418:
2218:
2194:
2154:
2143:
1353:
The knitted kerchief which is used when baking must be replaced during each supper .
1020:
1000:
995:
974:
799:
646:
601:
226:
111:
societies, bread was often baked within a clay oven called in some Arabic dialects a
2576:"Archaeology, experimental archaeology and ethnoarchaeology on bread ovens in Syria"
2366:"Archaeology, experimental archaeology and ethnoarchaeology on bread ovens in Syria"
2201:. Vol. II. Translated by Robert Schick. Ramallah: Dar Al Nasher. p. 164.
1589:
1005:
657:, the use of which seems to have entailed baking in what Roman authors have called
435:
172:
108:
2426:
2474:
2306:
1331:
960:
285:
languages in a generic sense, meaning, a place where bread is baked by fire. In
156:
104:
2592:
2575:
2382:
2365:
2350:
2644:
2627:
2615:
2338:
2295:
2127:
1931:
1639:
6:17), where it says: "Purna it is not made except to serve with the ground."
1494:
1211:
1199:
1010:
924:
782:
760:
642:
469:
heated from below. In
Palestine, these ovens also bore the additional name of
416:
365:
239:
202:
113:
52:
31:
2544:
2500:
2466:
2411:
2318:
2284:
2172:
2106:
1964:
1883:
2524:
2257:
1609:
is small and has a place for placing two pots, and its mouth is on the top."
1285:
1254:
844:
543:
from Syria all the way to Arabia, because it can be transported, unlike the
536:
509:
17:
605:
2248:(1924), "Hai Gaon's Commentary on Seder Taharot", in Epstein, J.N. (ed.),
1601:. It is an oven which is large and its mouth on the side, but every oven (
749:
Occasionally, there was no need for a large fire, such as when they baked
2245:
2030:
1339:
674:
540:
431:
423:
361:
302:
2601:
2391:
2329:(2018), "The Yemenite Cuisine", in Rachel Yedid; Danny Bar-Maoz (eds.),
2135:
790:
In Yemen, whenever the woman of the house wished to light a fire in her
529:
305:
was made in the same way. The sealed pot containing the Yemenite-Jewish
2300:
2222:
1959:(in Hebrew). Vol. Seder Taharot. Jerusalem: Beit Midrash Taharot.
1632:
1606:
1563:
1015:
560:
532:
528:), though also used in baking, is unlike the clay oven. It is rather a
352:
307:
180:
168:
167:
The earthen oven has historically been used to bake flatbreads such as
935:
668:, which, in addition to the above baking cover method (similar to the
327:
2586:(1/2). Institut de Sociologie de l'Université de Bruxelles: 197–221.
2331:
Ascending the Palm Tree: An Anthology of the Yemenite Jewish Heritage
2250:
The Geonic Commentary on Seder Taharot - Attributed to Rabbi Hai Gaon
1933:
Baking Bread in the Earthen Oven Part 2 - 18th Century Cooking Series
1662:
1541:
1114:
1051:
915:
732:
711:
653:), and are often mentioned by Greek and Latin authors under the name
564:
552:
457:, and those of them who can get burnt bricks make small bread-ovens (
450:
380:
313:
290:
282:
244:
100:
2404:
The Six Orders of the Mishnah: with the Commentaries of the Rishonim
2101:(in Arabic) (2 ed.). Ma’alot (Israel): Makhoul Brothers Press.
1930:
The 18th-century English baking oven, as explained by Jas Townsend,
1351:(in Hebrew). Vol. 2. Jerusalem. p. 16a (small number 15).
403:
is a furnace-like oven, the name being a loanword borrowed from the
621:
2167:] (in German). Vol. 4 (Bread, oil and wine). Hildesheim.
1876:
A Bag of Plants (The Useful Plants of Israel) (Yalḳuṭ ha-tsemaḥim)
990:
978:
934:
898:
827:
771:
751:
703:
625:
620:
571:, although the ingredients used in making their bread differ. The
427:
412:
388:
357:
326:
286:
206:
176:
75:
965:
681:(masonry oven). Another type included a portable version of the
608:, and which were similarly constructed by Jews and Arabs alike:
575:
is made to rest upon large stones and a fire is lit beneath it.
568:
486:
could be as large as, or smaller than, the flatbread baked in a
144:
141:
2079:(Image: Courtesy of the Hebrew National Library in Jerusalem).
508:), or the flat round bread made with an impression containing
36:
2537:
Questions & Responsa Pe'ulath Ṣadīq (ספר שו"ת פעולת צדיק)
2515:. Jerusalem: The Israel Oriental Society, affiliate of the
1940:, Townsends / Dec 2011, minutes 01:17–01:34; 03:44–04:02.
1280:(in Hebrew). Vol. 3. Jerusalem: Eshkol. p. 14.
2279:, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, p. 1147,
604:
described the ovens that he had seen in the Old City of
551:. It is still used today by Bedouins and other Arabs in
449:
that he had seen widely used in his day, writing: "The
30:"Earthen oven" redirects here. Not to be confused with
2333:(2018 ed.), Rehovot: E'ele BeTamar, p. 131,
1984:
Ovadiah di Bertinoro (1978), p. 17 (Keilim 5:7): "The
628:- mud adobe-built outdoor oven (near Taos, New Mexico)
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1276:(1978). "Commentary of Rabbi Ovadiah of Bertinoro".
1158:
1156:
875:
2017:Ovadiah di Bertinoro (1978), p. 17 (Keilim 5:8): "
1326:Suleiman ben Yosef Ṣaleh, "Sefer Zevaḥ Pesaḥ," in:
2431:. New York and London: Continuum. pp. 91–92.
1239:(in Hebrew). Vol. 6. ha-Milon he-ḥadash Ltd.
1204:Arabic Lexicon Lisān al-ʻArab (The Arabian Tongue)
379:In some societies, such as in the villages around
1142:
1140:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1064:The word exists in Arabic, from the root "طبن",
1045:
1043:
1041:
2067:Ovadiah di Bertinoro (1978), p. 15 (Keilim 5:1)
1423:Cf. paragraph, "Excavated ovens uncovered," in
1112:Maimonides (1967), p. 46 (Seder Taharot), s.v.
1049:Maimonides (1967), p. 46 (Seder Taharot), s.v.
539:. Dalman describes it in 1935 as being used by
1980:
1978:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1842:
2646:An Introduction to Cooking with Retained Heat
2461:(in Hebrew). Vol. 3. Jerusalem: Eshkol.
2252:(in Hebrew), vol. 2, Berlin: Itzkowski,
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
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1731:
1313:
1311:
977:, some baking ovens are made from a half-cut
8:
2513:Jewish Domestic Architecture in San'a, Yemen
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
922:) was constructed in similar fashion as the
324:) or rustic kitchens adjoining a courtyard.
80:18th-century baking oven (American-European)
1956:Commentary of the Mishnah (Keilim 5:1; 5:7)
928:(popularly in use amongst Arabs). Like the
884:
862:
151:, lit. 'oven', was shaped like a truncated
2557:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2185:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1869:
1867:
1697:Dalman (1935), p. 39. "Das Backen auf dem
1414:Mulder-Heymans (2002), p. 199, s.v. Tannur
1364:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1130:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1087:
830:, when the fire was kindled in the larger
587:) which was freestanding, consisting of a
559:, as well as by the indigenous peoples of
535:made of metal, on which is spread a thin,
2591:
2381:
2352:Description of Syria, including Palestine
2197:(2020) . Nadia Abdulhadi-Sukhtian (ed.).
1278:Six Orders of the Mishnah (ששה סדרי משנה)
1162:Mulder-Heymans (2002), p. 199, s.v. Tabun
969:insert fuel and to remove excess ashes.
914:during classical times, the baking oven (
633:Terracotta baking covers of ancient Italy
2305:(in Hebrew). Vol. 3. Translated by
464:Gustaf Dalman (1855–1941) describes the
2406:(in Hebrew), Jerusalem: El ha-Meqorot,
2261:(Available online, at HebrewBooks.org:
1037:
645:(q.v. Leviticus 11:35) and in Jerome's
2550:
2264:The Geonic Commentary on Seder Taharot
2178:
1357:
2459:Commentary on 'Shisha Sidrei Mishnah'
7:
2479:Halichot Teman (Jewish Life in Sanà)
2116:Papers of the British School at Rome
1485: = "grate" is translated by
1469:Nathan ben Abraham (1955), Mishnah
1081:Negev and Gibson (2001), pp. 91-92.
868:
857:
132:), or else in a clay oven called a
129:
2122:. British School at Rome: 98–119.
1493:, being a type of network.
356:, more commonly called as such in
147:, synonymous with the Hebrew word
25:
1719:The Great Turkish Dictionary book
1631:Dalman (1964 ), Diagram 27a; cf.
1220: (first published in 1290)
453:all of them possess ovens called
441:The 10th-century Arab geographer
2629:The Ultimate Clay Cob Oven Video
2357:Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society
2160:de:Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina
2077:Baking oven using a metal barrel
1206:(in Arabic). Beirut: Dār Ṣādir.
41:
1523:Maimonides (1967), p. 58, s.v.
1349:The Complete 'Tiklal 'Eṣ Ḥayyim
689:Preparatory steps before baking
253:placed atop dried cattle dung.
1721:(كتاب القاموس التركي الكبير);
1648:Dalman (1964 ), Diagrams 26–27
383:, in Syria, the earthen oven (
67:Proposed since September 2024.
1:
2574:Mulder-Heymans, Noor (2002).
2364:Mulder-Heymans, Noor (2002).
2303:, with Maimonides' Commentary
2199:Work and Customs in Palestine
2165:Work and Customs in Palestine
1725:(كتاب التراث الشعبي السيناوي)
2617:How to Build an Earthen Oven
229:(1855–1941), describing the
2640:Build an Outdoor Bread Oven
1896:Qafih (1982), p. 207, s.v.
1739:Rathjens (1957), pp. 25, 59
1434:(July 2016, vol. iv, no. 7)
1425:The Ancient Near East Today
1180:cf. Dalman (2020 ), p. 164.
1146:Maimonides (1967), p. 160 (
961:ground pieces of terracotta
876:
50:It has been suggested that
2718:
2653:, The Wood Fired Oven Chef
2593:10.4000/civilisations.1470
2383:10.4000/civilisations.1470
2097:(1993). Sāmī Marʻī (ed.).
2008:Dalman (1964 ), Diagram 14
1836:Qafih (1982), pp. 203–204.
1688:Dalman (2020), pp. 319-320
1510:Jastrow, ed. (2006), s.v.
1171:Dalman (1964 ), Diagram 14
415:, and which, according to
200:
29:
2128:10.1017/S0068246200009570
2038:
1490:
1482:
1474:
1395:
1302:
1260:
1217:
1068:An Arabic-English Lexicon
419:, was also made of clay.
276:
270:
257:Tannour / tannur; tandoor
2481:(in Hebrew). Jerusalem:
2054:Maimonides (1967), s.v.
1909:Mizrachi (2018), p. 131.
1874:Ḳrispil, Nissim (1983).
1748:Qafih, Y. (1982), p. 197
1723:Sinai Folk Heritage Book
1597:), where Rashi writes: "
1571:), where Rashi writes: "
1189:ʻArrāf (1993), pp. 53–54
800:briquettes of sheep dung
430:, who was of the Jewish
136:, and in other dialects
2229:Oxford University Press
2149:(subscription required)
1717:Mustafa Qatlab Dughan,
1236:Even-Shoshan Dictionary
341:described by Dalman in
1390:(1978), Commentary on
946:
906:Method of construction
777:
738:A. nilotica kraussiana
629:
619:
395:Furn / Purnei / Purnah
334:
223:
81:
27:Primitive baking ovens
1861:Dalman (2020), p. 164
1618:Mukaddasi (1886), p.
1573:The bread of a purnei
1378:Qafih (1982), p. 210.
1317:Qafih (1982), p. 204.
1066:Edward William Lane,
938:
775:
666:baking in Roman Italy
624:
610:
422:The eleventh-century
330:
210:
79:
2702:Primitive technology
2455:Ovadiah di Bertinoro
1852:Qafih (1982), p. 204
1388:Obadiah di Bertinoro
1328:Tiklāl Shīvat Ṣiyyon
1200:Ibn Manzur al-Ansari
942:oven with lid, from
368:, is related to the
192:Middle Eastern types
60:into this article. (
2519:. pp. 25, 59.
1761:(1988), pp. 100–101
1443:Maimonides (1967),
1396:והעבירו על פי התנור
1334:), Jerusalem 1952 (
1099:Saleh (1979), s.v.
171:(Persian: تافتون),
86:primitive clay oven
2400:Nathan ben Abraham
2345:Mukaddasi (1886).
2327:Mizrachi, Avshalom
2019:put sand or gravel
1605:) that is in the
1479:Nathan ben Abraham
1430:2022-09-14 at the
1290:An ordinary oven (
1274:Bertenura, Ovadiah
947:
778:
630:
391:; others without.
335:
224:
82:
2692:Firing techniques
2677:Jordanian cuisine
2517:Hebrew University
2483:Ben-Zvi Institute
2311:Mossad Harav Kook
2208:978-9950-385-84-9
1701:, 'Baking on the
1658:Babylonian Talmud
1585:Babylonian Talmud
1559:Babylonian Talmud
1537:Babylonian Talmud
888:
874:
866:
585:maḥall et-tanâwir
265:is often used in
163:History and usage
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1593:35b, Rashi s.v.
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1567:31b, Rashi s.v.
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1545:34a, Rashi s.v.
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883:
881:
873:romanized:
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864:
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859:
746:) for kindling.
743:Tamarix nilotica
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299:Unleavened bread
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2275:, ed. (2006),
2269:
2242:
2237:
2221:, ed. (1933),
2215:
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2195:Dalman, Gustaf
2155:Dalman, Gustaf
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2095:ʻArrāf, Shukrī
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688:
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676:
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667:
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652:
648:
647:Latin Vulgate
644:
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609:
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602:Carl Rathjens
599:
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222:
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109:North African
106:
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97:
95:
91:
87:
78:
68:
63:
59:
55:
54:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
2667:Arab cuisine
2583:
2579:
2536:
2512:
2478:
2458:
2442:. Retrieved
2427:
2403:
2373:
2369:
2351:
2330:
2299:
2289:
2276:
2263:
2249:
2223:
2198:
2164:
2158:
2119:
2115:
2098:
2087:Bibliography
2072:
2063:
2058:5:1 (p. 160)
2055:
2050:
2041: (p.
2034:
2026:
2018:
2013:
2004:
1994:
1985:
1968:
1955:
1945:
1926:
1914:
1905:
1897:
1892:
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1771:
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1684:
1676:
1671:
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1627:
1614:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:Avodah Zarah
1588:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1562:
1554:
1546:
1540:
1532:
1524:
1519:
1511:
1506:
1498:
1470:
1465:
1460:8:3 (note 2)
1457:
1452:
1444:
1439:
1419:
1391:
1383:
1374:
1352:
1348:
1342:); also in:
1327:
1322:
1298:
1291:
1289:
1277:
1268:
1234:
1225:
1203:
1194:
1185:
1176:
1167:
1147:
1113:
1108:
1100:
1077:
1067:
1060:
1050:
1006:Taboon bread
971:
952:
948:
939:
929:
923:
919:
909:
897:
895:
890:
877:
853:
850:
840:
836:
831:
825:
819:
817:
807:
803:
795:
791:
789:
781:
779:
756:
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748:
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731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
707:
701:
697:
682:
678:
669:
663:
658:
654:
650:
638:
636:
615:bâb al-manâq
614:
611:
597:
593:
584:
582:
579:Yemeni ovens
572:
548:
544:
525:
521:
519:
505:
499:
494:
492:
487:
483:
478:
474:
470:
465:
463:
458:
454:
446:
443:al-Muqaddasī
440:
436:masonry oven
421:
408:
400:
398:
384:
378:
374:
369:
351:
347:
338:
336:
331:
321:
317:
306:
295:bâb al-manaq
294:
262:
260:
249:
238:
225:
220:
219:, 2. and 3.
216:
173:taboon bread
166:
148:
137:
133:
121:
112:
98:
93:
90:earthen oven
89:
85:
83:
66:
51:
18:Earthen oven
2444:18 December
2307:Yosef Qafih
2273:Jastrow, M.
2224:The Mishnah
2039:ועינו קמורה
1790:Cubberley,
1770:Cubberley,
1757:Cubberley,
1447:9:7 (p. 62)
1394:10:5, s.v.
1332:Yosef Qafih
954:and wall a
720:Acacia asak
275:) Persian (
181:Sabbath day
157:Middle East
124:, from the
2682:Fireplaces
2661:Categories
2355:. London:
2339:1041776317
2296:Maimonides
2227:, Oxford:
2037:5:1, s.v.
1495:Maimonides
1301:5:1, s.v.
1212:4770801194
1070:, s.v. طبن
1032:References
1011:Tabun oven
761:Briquettes
659:sub testus
643:Septuagint
637:The words
477:). In new
417:Maimonides
407:(φούρνος,
366:Azerbaijan
203:Tabun oven
53:Tabun oven
32:earth oven
2553:cite book
2545:122773689
2533:Saleh, Y.
2501:863513860
2475:Qafih, Y.
2467:233308344
2412:233403923
2319:741081810
2285:614562238
2219:Danby, H.
2181:cite book
2173:312676221
2157:(1964) .
2144:162321943
2107:233144776
1965:646968062
1919:Saleh, Y.
1884:959573975
1360:cite book
1345:Saleh, Y.
1101:responsum
856:(Arabic:
845:fenugreek
726:(Arabic:
557:Palestine
510:omelettes
451:peasantry
426:exegete,
343:Palestine
318:al-daymeh
261:The word
235:Palestine
213:Palestine
2602:41229650
2535:(1979).
2525:48323774
2511:(1957).
2477:(1982).
2457:(1978).
2392:41229650
2298:(1967).
2266:- vol. 2
2258:13977130
2246:Hai Gaon
2136:40310885
2033:(1924),
2031:Hai Gaon
1953:(2015).
1569:פת פורני
1497:(1967),
1428:Archived
1347:(1971).
1340:34438995
1286:60034030
1255:55071836
1202:(1990).
985:See also
841:maḫbazeh
837:maḫbazeh
683:clibanus
675:ash cake
655:clibanus
651:op. cit.
541:Bedouins
432:Diaspora
424:talmudic
362:Pakistan
303:Passover
94:cob oven
2651:YouTube
2634:YouTube
2622:YouTube
2349:(ed.).
2301:Mishnah
2288:, s.v.
1986:tannour
1970:thicker
1938:YouTube
1633:Tosefta
1607:Mishnah
1603:tannour
1564:Pesahim
1487:Onkelos
1473:, s.v.
1305:
1292:tannour
1263:
1259:, s.v.
1216:, s.v.
1016:Tandoor
920:tannour
910:In the
887:
865:
832:tannour
792:tannour
716:الضهياء
639:clibani
598:tanâwir
561:Lebanon
533:griddle
488:tannour
385:tannour
370:tannour
364:and in
353:Tandoor
348:tannour
339:tannour
332:Tannour
308:kubaneh
263:tannour
245:pebbles
169:taftoon
159:today.
149:tannour
134:tannour
101:Arabian
62:Discuss
2697:Baking
2600:
2543:
2523:
2499:
2489:
2465:
2435:
2410:
2390:
2337:
2317:
2283:
2256:
2235:
2205:
2171:
2142:
2134:
2105:
2056:Ohalot
2035:Ohalot
1963:
1882:
1792:et al.
1772:et al.
1759:et al.
1663:Beitza
1599:Purnei
1542:Beitza
1525:Keilim
1499:Keilim
1471:Keilim
1458:Keilim
1445:Keilim
1338:
1299:Keilim
1284:
1253:
1243:
1210:
1148:Ohalot
1115:Keilim
1052:Keilim
916:Hebrew
891:tubnah
878:ʿuqdeh
854:mudhwa
814:Baking
808:jiʿdin
796:luṣwah
768:Firing
712:Arabic
679:furnus
606:Sana'a
596:, pl.
594:tannûr
567:, and
565:Turkey
553:Israel
549:tannūr
530:convex
459:tannûr
409:fūrnos
381:Aleppo
350:. The
322:الديمة
314:Arabic
291:Arabic
283:Arabic
281:) and
267:Hebrew
140:. The
138:mas'ad
126:Arabic
122:taboon
117:(also
58:merged
2687:Ovens
2598:JSTOR
2388:JSTOR
2290:פורני
2163:[
2140:S2CID
2132:JSTOR
1999:oven"
1989:heat"
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1595:פורני
1547:פורני
1512:פורני
1475:סרידא
1392:Parah
1330:(ed.
1103:# 256
991:Horno
979:metal
940:Tabun
930:tabun
925:tabun
899:lahoh
869:عُقدة
858:مَضوى
828:Yemen
820:tabun
783:tabun
757:hamal
752:laḥūḥ
724:qaraḍ
722:) or
708:ḍahya
704:Yemen
670:tabun
626:Horno
589:socle
545:tābūn
479:furns
475:qarṣa
471:ʻarṣa
428:Rashi
413:Latin
405:Greek
389:flues
358:India
287:Yemen
278:تَنور
250:tabun
240:tabun
221:tabun
215:: 1.
197:Tabun
177:laffa
130:طابون
114:tabun
88:, or
2559:link
2541:OCLC
2521:OCLC
2497:OCLC
2487:ISBN
2463:OCLC
2446:2021
2433:ISBN
2408:OCLC
2335:OCLC
2315:OCLC
2281:OCLC
2254:OCLC
2233:ISBN
2203:ISBN
2187:link
2169:OCLC
2103:OCLC
1961:OCLC
1898:צלוף
1880:OCLC
1677:furn
1666:34a)
1527:8:9.
1491:סרדא
1483:מכבר
1366:link
1336:OCLC
1282:OCLC
1261:תנור
1251:OCLC
1241:ISBN
1208:OCLC
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1055:5:1.
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885:lit.
863:lit.
804:kiba
694:Fuel
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547:and
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493:The
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455:furn
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