Earthing system - Knowledge (XXG)

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Switchboard/Panel.) In Australia and New Zealand the connection between the protective earth bar and the neutral bar at the main Switchboard/Panel is called the multiple earthed neutral Link or MEN Link. This MEN link is removable for installation testing purposes, but is connected during normal service by either a locking system (locknuts for instance) or two or more screws. In the MEN system, the integrity of the neutral is paramount. In Australia, new installations must also bond the foundation concrete re-enforcing under wet areas to the protective earth conductor (AS3000), typically increasing the size of the earthing (i.e. reducing resistance), and providing an equipotential plane in areas such as bathrooms. In older installations, it is not uncommon to find only the water pipe bond, and it is allowed to remain as such, but the additional earth electrode must be installed if any upgrade work is done. The incoming protective earth/neutral conductor is connected to a neutral bar (located on the customer's side of the electricity meter's neutral connection) which is then connected via the customer's MEN link to the earth bar – beyond this point, the protective earth and neutral conductors are separate.

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network when the neutral is suitably robust against failure, and conversion is not always possible. The PEN must be suitably reinforced against failure, as an open circuit PEN can impress full phase voltage on any exposed metal connected to the system earth downstream of the break. The alternative is to provide a local earth and convert to TT. The main attraction of a TN network is the low impedance earth path allows easy automatic disconnection (ADS) on a high current circuit in the case of a line-to-PE fault as the same breaker or fuse will operate for either L-N or L-PE faults, and an RCD is not needed to detect earth faults.

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plug-in equipment and permanently connected equipment. Normal imbalances in the circuit would create small equipment to ground voltages, a failure of the neutral conductor or connections would allow the equipment to go to full 120 volts to ground, an easily lethal situation. The 1996 and newer editions of the NEC no longer permit this practice. For similar reasons, most countries have now mandated dedicated protective earth connections in consumer wiring that are now almost universal. In the distribution networks, where connections are fewer and less vulnerable, many countries allow the earth and neutral to share a conductor.

1316:, CEAR, 2010, rule 41, there is provision of earthing, neutral wire of a 3-phase, 4-wire system and the additional third wire of a 2-phase, 3-wire system. Earthing is to be done with two separate connections. The grounding system must also have a minimum of two or more earth pits (electrodes) to better ensure proper grounding. According to rule 42, installation with connected load above 5 kW exceeding 250 V shall have a suitable Earth leakage protective device to isolate the load in case of earth fault or leakage. 405:, which distribute the electric power to the widest class of end users, the main concern for design of earthing systems is safety of consumers who use the electric appliances and their protection against electric shocks. The earthing system, in combination with protective devices such as fuses and residual current devices, must ultimately ensure that a person does not come into contact with a metallic object whose potential relative to the person's potential exceeds a 1757: 1404: 1767:

of metal ores, the temperature of the geological layer, the presence of archeological or structural features, the presence of dissolved salts, and contaminants, porosity and permeability. There are several basic methods for measuring soil resistance. The measurement is performed with two, three or four electrodes. The measurement methods are: pole-pole, dipole-dipole, pole-dipole, Wenner method, and the Schlumberger method.

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RCD (formerly ELCB) is usually employed. Earlier TT installations may lack this important safety feature, allowing the CPC (Circuit Protective Conductor or PE) and perhaps associated metallic parts within reach of persons (exposed-conductive-parts and extraneous-conductive-parts) to become energized for extended periods under fault conditions, which is a real danger.

628:, because of the practice of connecting the combined neutral-and-earth conductor via the shortest practicable route to local earth rods at the source and at intervals along the distribution networks to each premises, to provide both system earthing and equipment earthing at each of these locations. Similar systems in Australia and New Zealand are designated as 974:(NGR) is used to limit the current to ground to less than 750 mA. Due to the fault current restriction it is safer for gassy mines. Since the earth leakage is restricted, leakage protection devices can be set to less than 750 mA. By comparison, in a solidly earthed system, earth fault current can be as much as the available short-circuit current. 1165:

second insulation fault can lead to dangerous body currents. Worse, in a multi-phase system, if one of the line conductors made contact with earth, it would cause the other phase cores to rise to the phase-phase voltage relative to earth rather than the phase-neutral voltage. IT systems also experience larger transient overvoltages than other systems.

1652:, conductivity and others. There are several types derived from copper and steel: copper-bonded, stainless-steel, solid copper, galvanized steel ground. In recent decades, there has been developed chemical grounding rods for low impedance ground containing natural electrolytic salts. and Nano-Carbon Fiber Grounding rods. 1002:

A separate pilot wire is run from distribution/ equipment supply system in addition to earth wire, to supervise the continuity of the wire. This is used in the trailing cables of mining machinery. If the earth wire is broken, the pilot wire allows a sensing device at the source end to interrupt power

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mitigate this disadvantage, the TT earthing system has become much more attractive providing that all AC power circuits are RCD-protected. In some countries (such as the UK) TT is recommended for situations where a low impedance equipotential zone is impractical to maintain by bonding, where there is

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It is possible to have both TN-S and TN-C-S supplies taken from the same transformer. For example, the sheaths on some underground cables corrode and stop providing good earth connections, and so homes where high resistance "bad earths" are found may be converted to TN-C-S. This is only possible on a

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Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point split up into separate PE and N lines. The combined PEN conductor typically occurs between the substation and the entry point into the building, and earth and neutral are separated in the service head. In the UK, this system is

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From 1947 to 1996 for ranges (including separate cook tops and ovens) and 1953 to 1996 for clothes dryers, US National Electrical Code allowed the supply neutral wire to be used as the equipment enclosure connection to ground if the circuit originated in the main service panel. This was permitted for

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Soil resistance is a major aspect in the design and calculation of an earthing system/grounding installation. Its resistance determines the efficiency of the diversion of unwanted currents to zero potential (ground). The resistance of a geological material depends on several components: the presence

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earthed neutral, transformer's star point is directly connected to the ground. In this solution, a low-impedance path is provided for the ground fault current to close and, as result, their magnitudes are comparable with three-phase fault currents. Since the neutral remains at the potential close to

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In TN, an insulation fault is very likely to lead to a high short-circuit current that will trigger an overcurrent circuit-breaker or fuse and disconnect the L conductors. With TT systems, the earth fault loop impedance can be too high to do this, or too high to do it within the required time, so an

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On low voltage electricity networks with a phase to neutral voltage exceeding 240 V to 690 V, which are mostly used in industry, mining equipment and machines rather than publicly accessible networks, the earthing system design is equally important from safety point of view as for domestic

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In remote areas, where the cost of an additional PE conductor outweighs the cost of a local earth connection, TT networks are commonly used in some countries, especially in older properties or in rural areas, where safety might otherwise be threatened by the fracture of an overhead PE conductor by,

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In Australia, the multiple earthed neutral (MEN) earthing system is used and is described in Section 5 of AS/NZS 3000. For an LV customer, it is a TN-C system from the transformer in the street to the premises, (the neutral is earthed multiple times along this segment), and a TN-S system inside the

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In single-ended single-phase systems where the Earth and neutral are combined (TN-C, and the part of TN-C-S systems which uses a combined neutral and earth core), if there is a contact problem in the PEN conductor, then all parts of the earthing system beyond the break will rise to the potential of

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construction and multiple earth electrodes. Due to the (small) risks of the lost neutral raising 'earthed' metal work to a dangerous potential, coupled with the increased shock risk from proximity to good contact with true earth, the use of TN-C-S supplies is banned in the UK for caravan sites and

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The "Grounded" current carrying conductor is the system "neutral". Australian and New Zealand standards use a modified protective multiple earthing (PME ) system called multiple earthed neutral (MEN). The neutral is grounded (earthed) at each consumer service point thereby effectively bringing the

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In IT systems, a single insulation fault is unlikely to cause dangerous currents to flow through a human body in contact with earth, because no low-impedance circuit exists for such a current to flow. However, a first insulation fault can effectively turn an IT system into a TN system, and then a

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In TN-C and TN-C-S systems, any connection between the combined neutral-and-earth core and the body of the earth could end up carrying significant current under normal conditions, and could carry even more under a broken neutral situation. Therefore, main equipotential bonding conductors must be

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terminology, in North America (United States and Canada), the term "equipment grounding conductor" refers to equipment grounds and ground wires on branch circuits, and "grounding electrode conductor" is used for conductors bonding an Earth/Ground rod, electrode or similar to a service panel. The

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The big advantage of the TT earthing system is the reduced conducted interference from other users' connected equipment. TT has always been preferable for special applications like telecommunication sites that benefit from the interference-free earthing. Also, TT networks do not pose any serious

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Equipment earthing provides electrical safety during an electrical fault. It prevents equipment damage and electric shock. This type of earthing is not an earth connection, technically speaking. When current flows from a line conductor to an earth wire, as is the case when a line conductor makes

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develops, which may be sustained even after the fault is cleared. For that reason, they are chiefly limited to underground and submarine networks, and industrial applications, where the reliability need is high and probability of human contact relatively low. In urban distribution networks with

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In most developed countries, 220 V, 230 V, or 240 V sockets with earthed contacts were introduced either just before or soon after World War II, though with considerable national variation. However in the United States and Canada, where the supply voltage is only 120 V power

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the TN-C-S system is in use; however, the wiring rules state that, in addition, each customer must provide a separate connection to earth, via a dedicated Earth electrode. (Any metallic water pipes entering the consumer's premises must also be "bonded" to the Earthing point at the distribution

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system, as in the IT system, there is no direct connection of the star point (or any other point in the network) and the ground. As a result, ground fault currents have no path to be closed and thus have negligible magnitudes. However, in practice, the fault current will not be equal to zero:

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If the fault path between accidentally energized objects and the supply connection has low impedance, the fault current will be so large that the circuit over-current protection device (fuse or circuit breaker) will open to clear the ground fault. Where the earthing system does not provide a

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LT supply is generally through TN-S system. Neutral is double grounded at each distribution transformer. Neutral and earth conductors run separately on overhead distribution lines. Separate conductors for overhead lines and armoring of cables are used for earth connection. Additional earth

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In TN-S and TT systems, the consumer has a low-noise connection to earth, which does not suffer from the voltage that appears on the N conductor as a result of the return currents and the impedance of that conductor. This is of particular importance with some types of telecommunication and

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In high-voltage networks (above 1 kV), which are far less accessible to the general public, the focus of earthing system design is less on safety and more on reliability of supply, reliability of protection, and impact on the equipment in presence of a short circuit. Only the magnitude of

1267:, the feed from the distribution transformer uses a combined neutral and grounding conductor, but within the structure separate neutral and protective earth conductors are used (TN-C-S). The neutral must be connected to earth only on the supply side of the customer's disconnecting switch. 1147:

In IT and TN-C networks, residual current devices are far less likely to detect an insulation fault. In a TN-C system, they would also be very vulnerable to unwanted triggering from contact between earth conductors of circuits on different RCDs or with real ground, thus making their use

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era, the TT earthing system was unattractive for general use because of the difficulty of arranging reliable automatic disconnection (ADS) in the case of a line-to-PE fault (in comparison with TN systems, where the same breaker or fuse will operate for either L-N or L-PE faults). But as

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is connected with earth, usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of the electrical device is connected with earth via this earth connection at the transformer. This arrangement is a current standard for residential and industrial electric systems particularly in Europe.

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connection) and there is another independently installed at the generator. There is no 'earth wire' between the two. The fault loop impedance is higher, and unless the electrode impedance is very low indeed, a TT installation should always have an RCD (GFCI) as its first isolator.

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Most modern homes in Europe have a TN-C-S earthing system. The combined neutral and earth occurs between the nearest transformer substation and the service cut out (the fuse before the meter). After this, separate earth and neutral cores are used in all the internal

1156:. Therefore, TN-C connections must not go across plug/socket connections or flexible cables, where there is a higher probability of contact problems than with fixed wiring. There is also a risk if a cable is damaged, which can be mitigated by the use of 1938:

The Electronics Handbook|Jerry C. Whitaker | 2018| page 2340: High-resistance grounding will limit ground fault current to a few amperes, thus removing the potential for arcing damage... Its function is to keep the entire grounding system at earth

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risks in the case of a broken neutral. In addition, in locations where power is distributed overhead, earth conductors are not at risk of becoming live should any overhead distribution conductor be fractured by, say, a fallen tree or branch.

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low-impedance metallic conductor between equipment enclosures and supply return (such as in a TT separately earthed system), fault currents are smaller, and will not necessarily operate the over-current protection device. In such case a

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Systems with isolated neutral may continue operation and provide uninterrupted supply even in presence of a ground fault. However, while the fault is present, the potential of other two phases relative to the ground reaches

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the L conductor. In an unbalanced multi-phase system, the potential of the earthing system will move towards that of the most loaded line conductor. Such a rise in the potential of the neutral beyond the break is known as a

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the Electricity Ordinance 1994 states that all consumers must use TT earthing, though in rare cases TN-C-S may be allowed (used in the same manner as in the United States). Rules are different when it comes to larger

1144:= 0 holds, and an RCD can disconnect the supply as soon as this sum reaches a threshold (typically 10 mA – 500 mA). An insulation fault between either L or N and PE will trigger an RCD with high probability 993:

is used. In industrial applications, earth leakage relays are used with separate core balanced current transformers. This protection works in the range of milli-Amps and can be set from 30 mA to 3000 mA.

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In TN-S and TT systems (and in TN-C-S beyond the point of the split), a residual-current device can be used for additional protection. In the absence of any insulation fault in the consumer device, the equation

492:— the earth connection is supplied by the electricity supply network, either separately to the neutral conductor (TN-S), combined with the neutral conductor (TN-C), or both (TN-C-S). These are discussed below. 1094:

TN-C networks save the cost of an additional conductor needed for separate N and PE connections. However, to mitigate the risk of broken neutrals, special cable types and many connections to earth are needed.

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High resistance grounding system grounds the neutral through a resistance which limits the ground fault current to a value equal to or slightly greater than the capacitive charging current of that system.

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Connectors for earthing installation are a means of communication between the various components of the earthing and lightning protection installations (earthing rods, earthing conductors, current leads,

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Some older homes, especially those built before the invention of residual-current circuit breakers and wired home area networks, use an in-house TN-C arrangement. This is no longer recommended practice.

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shore supply to boats, and strongly discouraged for use on farms and outdoor building sites, and in such cases it is recommended to make all outdoor wiring TT with RCD and a separate earth electrode.

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phase-to-ground short circuits, which are the most common, is significantly affected with the choice of earthing system, as the current path is mostly closed through the earth. Three-phase HV/MV

1352:. It is estimated that 70% of all households are connected to the grid via the IT system. Newer residential areas are however mostly built with TN-C-S, in a large degree driven by the fact that 962:

In the UK and some Commonwealth countries, the term "PNE", meaning phase-neutral-earth is used to indicate that three (or more for non-single-phase connections) conductors are used, i.e., PN-S.

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significant outdoor wiring, such as supplies to mobile homes and some agricultural settings, or where a high fault current could pose other dangers, such as at fuel depots or marinas.

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outlets installed before the mid-1960s generally did not include a ground (earth) pin. In the developing world, local wiring practice may or may not provide a connection to an earth.

515:: separate protective earth (PE) and neutral (N) conductors from transformer to consuming device, which are not connected together at any point after the building distribution point. 1378:

say, a fallen tree branch. TT supplies to individual properties are also seen in mostly TN-C-S systems where an individual property is considered unsuitable for TN-C-S supply.

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impracticable. Also, RCDs usually isolate the neutral core. Since it is unsafe to do this in a TN-C system, RCDs on TN-C should be wired to only interrupt the line conductor.

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products for the consumer market - such as electric vehicle charging stations - are developed for the European market where TN systems with 400V between the phases dominate.

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sized with this in mind; use of TN-C-S is inadvisable in situations such as petrol stations, where there is a combination of much buried metalwork and explosive gases.

2242: 2155: 2551: 2162:; Central Electricity Authority-(Measures relating to Safety and Electric Supply). Regulations, 2010; earthing system, rule 99 and protective devices, rule 100. 1087:

TN networks save the cost of a low-impedance earth connection at the site of each consumer. Such a connection (a buried metal structure) is required to provide

1370:. To mitigate the two-fault issues with IT systems, the isolation transformers should supply only a small number of loads each and should be protected with an 970:

A resistance earth system is used for mining in India as per Central Electricity Authority Regulations. Instead of a solid connection of neutral to earth, a

3224: 665:(Latin: terra–terra) earthing system, the protective earth connection for the consumer is provided by a local earth electrode, (sometimes referred to as the 549:: combined PEN conductor from transformer to building distribution point, but separate PE and N conductors in fixed indoor wiring and flexible power cords. 2171: 1362:

Laboratory rooms, medical facilities, construction sites, repair workshops, mobile electrical installations, and other environments that are supplied via

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In TT systems, each consumer has its own connection to earth, and will not notice any currents that may be caused by other consumers on a shared PE line.

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A combined PEN conductor fulfills the functions of both a PE and an N conductor. (on 230/400 V systems normally only used for distribution networks)

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The benefit of low fault current and continued system operation thereafter is offset by inherent drawback that the fault location is hard to detect.

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To limit short circuit earth fault an additional neutral earthing resistor (NER) is added between the neutral of transformer's star point and earth.

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The TT earthing system is used throughout Japan, with RCD units in most industrial settings or even at home. This can impose added requirements on

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To avoid accidental shock, current sensing circuits are used at the source to isolate the power when leakage current exceeds a certain limit.

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the ground, voltages in unaffected phases remain at levels similar to the pre-fault ones; for that reason, this system is regularly used in

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IEC 60364-1: Electrical installations of buildings — Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment of general characteristics, definitions.

1453:, are the most common source of supply for distribution networks, and type of grounding of their neutral determines the earthing system. 3121: 283:(IEC). Regulations may identify special cases for earthing in mines, in patient care areas, or in hazardous areas of industrial plants. 125: 3229: 2699: 2544: 228: 56: 2849: 2416: 2205: 1743: 1231: 1073: 977:

The neutral earthing resistor is monitored to detect an interrupted ground connection and to shut off power if a fault is detected.

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multiple underground feeders, the capacitive current may reach several tens of amperes, posing significant risk for the equipment.

2361: 271:, typically the equipments conductive surface, for safety and functional purposes. The choice of earthing system can affect the 1717: 1205: 1047: 3012: 2937: 2808: 2114: 1957: 1345:

tend to have TN-S supplies, with the earth connection delivered through the lead sheath of an underground lead-and-paper cable.

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In addition to electric power systems, other systems may require grounding for safety or function. Tall structures may have

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Jianli Zhao; Xiaoyan Zhang; Bo Chen; Zhihui Zheng; Yejun Liu; Zhuohong Evaluation Method of Nano-Carbon Fiber Grounding Grid

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Having Earth as a common reference point keeps the electrical system's potential difference limited to the supply voltage.

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may require particular grounding for operation, as well as to control static electricity and provide lightning protection.

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of the installation. Regulations for earthing systems vary among countries, though most follow the recommendations of the

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Presence of uninterrupted ground fault may pose a significant safety risk: if the current exceeds 4 A – 5 A an

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network (isolé–terre), the electrical distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it has only a very high-

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may use the Earth as one conductor of a circuit, saving the cost of installation of a return wire over a long circuit.

3264: 3259: 2977: 2952: 2942: 2918: 2913: 2619: 2068: 1524: 1868: 1706: 1194: 1036: 2249:; Central Electricity Authority-(Measures relating to Safety and Electric Supply). Regulations, 2010; rule 41 and 42 3313: 3308: 3179: 2897: 2867: 2644: 1353: 110: 1725: 1710: 1213: 1198: 1055: 1040: 3234: 2723: 2684: 2195: 971: 3209: 3017: 2957: 2614: 1264: 691: 390: 176: 94: 89: 1847: 479:

The second letter indicates the connection between earth or network and the electrical device being supplied:

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terminology this is called TN-C-S. In North America, the term "multigrounded neutral" system (MGN) is used.

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The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer's electrical installation is called

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where there is an increased risk of insulation faults, often use an IT earthing arrangement supplied from

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strikes or switching. Static buildup, as induced by friction for example, such as when wind blows onto a

3204: 2972: 2967: 2947: 1450: 1367: 264: 1918: 1802: 2798: 2560: 1994: 1494: 1363: 723: 581: 561: 486:— Earth connection is by a local direct connection to earth (Latin: terra), usually via a ground rod. 459: 291: 268: 31: 314:

System earthing serves a purpose of electrical safety throughout the system that is not caused by a

3169: 3002: 2902: 2877: 2830: 2639: 2629: 2594: 1822: 947:"local" Earth/Ground electrode provides "system grounding" at each building where it is installed. 402: 3318: 3043: 2654: 2086: 2057: 1797: 1784: 1679: 1592: 1498: 350: 335: 323: 201: 130: 120: 1983:"Testing Sensitivity of A-Type Residual Current Devices to Earth Fault Currents with Harmonics" 1293:

installation, from the Main Switchboard downwards. Looked at as a whole, it is a TN-C-S system.

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Functional earthing serves a purpose other than electrical safety. Example purposes include

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In the areas of UK where underground power cabling is prevalent, the TN-S system is common.

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to the machine. This type of circuit is a must for portable heavy electric equipment (like

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which often have substantial filters passing high frequency noise to the ground conductor.

475:— No point is connected with earth (Latin: īnsulātum), except perhaps via a high impedance. 3174: 3133: 3111: 2992: 2962: 2927: 2887: 2689: 2246: 2159: 2100: 2082: 370: 181: 70: 2495:

John Whitfield: The Electricians Guide to the 16th Edition IEE Regulations, Section 5.2:

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PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the power source.

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This article is about electrical supply earthing systems. For earthing pits/ground, see

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https://www.scribd.com/doc/31741300/Industrial-Power-Systems-Handbook-Donald-Beeman

1621: 1521: 589: 186: 145: 1374:(generally used only by medical, railway or military IT systems, because of cost). 1334:

electrodes/pits are installed at each user end to provide redundant path to earth.

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distinguishes three families of earthing arrangements, using the two-letter codes

346:(SPD) will divert the excess current to the Earth before it reaches an appliance. 2182: 942:

While the national wiring regulations for buildings of many countries follow the

389:(EMI) filtering in an EMI filter, and the use of the Earth as a return path in a 3064: 3032: 2825: 2813: 2733: 2659: 2649: 2579: 2435:

Methods for detecting ground faults in medium-voltage distribution power systems

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is installed to detect the current leaking to ground and interrupt the circuit.

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According to the IEEE standards, grounding rods are made from material such as

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conductors in the circuit — particularly underground cables — have an inherent

523: 506: 3027: 3022: 2835: 2818: 2674: 1774: 115: 2496: 2016: 1644:. For choosing a grounding rod there are several selection criteria such as: 2743: 2738: 2624: 2584: 1645: 1382: 1279: 1271: 956: 943: 706: 649: 440: 327: 84: 2285:"Indian Standard 3043 Code of practice for electrical wiring installations" 2034: 2857: 1301: 1348:

The IT system with 230V between the phases is quite extensively used in

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towards the earth, which provides a path of relatively high impedance.

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appliance, an automatic disconnection of supply (ADS) device such as a

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ENRICO The Pros and Cons of 4 Common Ground Rod Materials nvent.com/

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of the normal operating voltage, creating additional stress for the

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neutral potential difference towards zero along the whole length of

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to all metal works to prevent potential differences between them.

1755: 1659: 1641: 1544: 1433: 1330: 1309: 1282:(TN-C-S), the customers must provide their own ground connections. 705: 648: 1869:"The Basics of Grounding Electrical Systems - Technical Articles" 989:(RCDs, RCCBs or GFCIs) are used for this purpose. Previously, an 2728: 2533: 2523:

What Is a TN-C-S Earthing System? Definition, Meaning, Diagrams

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With low resistance fault current limit is relatively high. In

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http://www.schneider-electric.com/en/download/document/ECT173/

1689: 1398: 1177: 1019: 377:(RCD) will automatically open the circuit to clear the fault. 2328:"Nettkundenes nytte av en oppgradering av lavspenningsnettet" 1300:

the high voltage regulation (Stærkstrømsbekendtgørelsen) and

1289:, and building wiring uses TT earthing in most installations. 290:

as part of a system to protect them from lightning strikes.

2184:; Electrical Notes, Volume 1, By Sir Arthur Schuster, p.317 2101:"Mike Holt Enterprises - the leader in electrical training" 1547:

it is restricted for 50 A for open cast mines according to

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and the power-supply equipment (generator or transformer):

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buildup and protects against power surges caused by nearby

1951:"Grounding And Bonding National Electric Code Article 250" 334:, is dissipated to the Earth. In the event of a surge, a 2363:

Types of neutral earthing in power distribution (part 1)

469:— Direct connection of a point with earth (Latin: terra) 2438:, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc., p. 15 1415: 2513:

EU Leonardo ENERGY earthing systems education center:

2115:"The principles of Protective Multiple Earthing (PME)" 584:). The conductor that connects to the star point in a 1595: 2089:

from the original on 2021-12-21 – via YouTube.

3248: 3158: 3095: 3057: 2911: 2848: 2759: 2714: 2707: 2567: 2083:"Grounding - Safety Fundamentals (1hr:13min:19sec)" 600:). Three variants of TN systems are distinguished: 2226:Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 2173:, The Importance of the Neutral-Grounding Resistor 1605: 1439:Simulation of multiple grounding in one layer soil 458:The first letter indicates the connection between 588:system, or that carries the return current in a 2545: 2409:Electrical Power Systems: Theory and Practice 409:threshold, typically set at about 50 V. 236: 8: 2375: 2373: 306:There are three main purposes for earthing: 2411:. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 488–491. 2056:Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n° 173 / p.9| 1724:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1212:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1054:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 27:Electrical grounding for safety or function 2711: 2552: 2538: 2530: 1456:There are five types of neutral earthing: 560:earthing system, one of the points in the 243: 229: 38: 2488:International Electrotechnical Commission 2024: 2006: 1848:"The impact of lightning and its effects" 1744:Learn how and when to remove this message 1596: 1594: 1549:Central Electricity Authority Regulations 1314:Central Electricity Authority Regulations 1232:Learn how and when to remove this message 1074:Learn how and when to remove this message 349:System earthing allows for equipotential 281:International Electrotechnical Commission 733: 2355: 2353: 2351: 1814: 158: 102: 69: 48: 41: 2432:Fischer, Normann; Hou, Daqing (2006), 2398: 2396: 2231:(471): 317–325. Retrieved 2012-03-20. 1823:"Why is an Earthing System Important?" 1648:resistance, diameter depending on the 1341:Older urban and suburban homes in the 1101:(Ground fault interrupter) protection. 71:Regulation of electrical installations 2366:, EEP – Electrical Engineering Portal 1682:is used for underground connections. 1285:Appliances in Japan must comply with 714:(French: isolé–terre) earthing system 657:(French: terre–terre) earthing system 365:contact with an earthed surface in a 7: 2460:Chemical Ground Electrode erico.com/ 2197:Electrical Engineer's Reference Book 1722:adding citations to reliable sources 1210:adding citations to reliable sources 1052:adding citations to reliable sources 899:High loop impedance (step voltages) 85:IEC 60364 IEC international standard 49:Wiring practice by region or country 2360:Parmar, Jignesh (6 February 2012), 2141:"Grounding of Distribution Systems" 1527:, where insulation costs are high. 1007:) being used in underground mines. 263:(US) connects specific parts of an 126:Mineral-insulated copper-clad cable 95:U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC) 3230:Renewable energy commercialization 2508:. IEE Wiring Matters, Autumn 2005. 2261:Basic Electrical Installation Work 2222:Neutral inversion in power systems 2047:BS7671:2008. Part 2 – definitions. 966:Resistance-earthed neutral (India) 626:protective multiple earthing (PME) 90:Canadian Electrical Code (CE Code) 25: 2506:Earthing: Your questions answered 1981:Czapp, Stanislaw (January 2020). 3278: 3277: 2698: 2194:Laughton, M A; Say, M G (2013). 2081:MikeHoltNEC (14 November 2013). 1777: 1694: 1678:For high voltage installations, 1402: 1182: 1024: 539: 522: 505: 159:Switching and protection devices 1005:LHD (Load, Haul, Dump machine) 922:Continuity of operation, cost 796:Need earth electrode at site? 630:multiple earthed neutral (MEN) 1: 3225:Renewable Energy Certificates 3185:Cost of electricity by source 3107:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 2983:High-voltage shore connection 2403:Bandyopadhyay, M. N. (2006). 1174:Electromagnetic compatibility 991:earth leakage circuit breaker 876:Electromagnetic interference 836:Risk of broken PEN-conductor 277:electromagnetic compatibility 80:BS 7671 UK wiring regulations 3240:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 3038:Transmission system operator 2998:Mains electricity by country 2575:Automatic generation control 2290:. Bureau of Indian Standards 1372:insulation monitoring device 696:switched-mode power supplies 634:multi-grounded neutral (MGN) 387:electromagnetic interference 151:Thermoplastic-sheathed cable 3304:Electric power distribution 3265:List of electricity sectors 3260:Electric energy consumption 2978:High-voltage direct current 2953:Electric power transmission 2943:Electric power distribution 2620:Energy return on investment 1606:{\displaystyle {\sqrt {3}}} 1097:TT networks require proper 756:Earth fault loop impedance 3335: 3180:Carbon offsets and credits 2898:Three-phase electric power 2515:Earthing systems resources 2310:"El-trøbbel i norske hjem" 2263:. Routledge. p. 152. 1531:Resistance-earthed neutral 1471:Resistance-earthed neutral 1449:, located in distribution 972:neutral grounding resistor 902:Double fault, overvoltage 632:and, in North America, as 111:AC power plugs and sockets 29: 3273: 3235:Renewable Energy Payments 2724:Fossil fuel power station 2696: 1761:Vertical stress of a soil 1488:Reactance-earthed neutral 692:variable frequency drives 136:Steel wire armoured cable 3018:Single-wire earth return 2958:Electrical busbar system 2615:Energy demand management 2380:Guldbrand, Anna (2006), 2200:. Elsevier. p. 32. 1555:High-resistance earthing 1551:, CEAR, 2010, rule 100. 1481:High-resistance earthing 1265:Canadian Electrical Code 1261:National Electrical Code 998:Earth connectivity check 987:Residual-current devices 981:Earth leakage protection 684:residual current devices 391:single-wire earth return 177:Electrical busbar system 43:Electrical installations 3149:Residual-current device 3139:Power system protection 3129:Generator interlock kit 2259:Trevor Linsley (2011). 1539:Low-resistance earthing 1476:Low-resistance earthing 427:residual-current device 375:residual-current device 344:surge protection device 197:Residual-current device 103:Cabling and accessories 62:United Kingdom practice 57:North American practice 2933:Distributed generation 2605:Electric power quality 2405:"21. Neutral earthing" 1919:"Earthing connections" 1763: 1667: 1607: 1441: 1368:isolation transformers 1246:measurement equipment. 715: 658: 438:International standard 3205:Fossil fuel phase-out 2973:Electricity retailing 2968:Electrical substation 2948:Electric power system 1759: 1663: 1608: 1525:transmission networks 1507:Solid-earthed neutral 1495:earthing transformers 1461:Solid-earthed neutral 1437: 1259:In the United States 1091:in IT and TT systems. 709: 652: 393:distribution system. 265:electric power system 2561:Electricity delivery 2220:Gates, B.G. (1936). 1718:improve this section 1665:Grounding connectors 1656:Grounding connectors 1593: 1395:High-voltage systems 1321:Application examples 1206:improve this section 1048:improve this section 497:Types of TN networks 403:low-voltage networks 32:Ground (electricity) 3170:Availability factor 3122:Sulfur hexafluoride 3003:Overhead power line 2903:Virtual power plant 2878:Induction generator 2831:Sustainable biofuel 2640:Home energy storage 2630:Grid energy storage 2595:Droop speed control 2121:. November 23, 2018 1999:2020Senso..20.2044C 938:Other terminologies 397:Low-voltage systems 381:Functional earthing 3044:Transmission tower 2655:Nameplate capacity 2316:. 31 October 2016. 2245:2016-09-15 at the 2158:2016-09-15 at the 1949:Biesterveld, Jim. 1798:Ground and neutral 1785:Electronics portal 1764: 1680:exothermic welding 1668: 1603: 1499:Zigzag transformer 1447:power transformers 1442: 1414:. You can help by 1385:, New Zealand and 919:Safe and reliable 816:PE conductor cost 716: 659: 592:system, is called 360:Equipment earthing 336:lightning arrester 202:Distribution board 131:Multiway switching 121:Electrical conduit 3314:Electrical safety 3309:Electrical wiring 3291: 3290: 3195:Environmental tax 3075:Cascading failure 2844: 2843: 2680:Utility frequency 2270:978-1-136-42748-0 2008:10.3390/s20072044 1793:Electrical wiring 1754: 1753: 1746: 1601: 1564:Unearthed neutral 1466:Unearthed neutral 1432: 1431: 1364:engine-generators 1242: 1241: 1234: 1154:neutral inversion 1084: 1083: 1076: 935: 934: 253: 252: 212:Electrical switch 16:(Redirected from 3326: 3281: 3280: 3190:Energy subsidies 3144:Protective relay 3085:Rolling blackout 2712: 2702: 2670:Power-flow study 2610:Electrical fault 2554: 2547: 2540: 2531: 2521:Dmitry Makarov: 2504:Geoff Cronshaw: 2497:Earthing systems 2471: 2468: 2462: 2457: 2451: 2446: 2440: 2439: 2429: 2423: 2422: 2400: 2391: 2390: 2388: 2377: 2368: 2367: 2357: 2346: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2332: 2324: 2318: 2317: 2306: 2300: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2289: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2256: 2250: 2238: 2232: 2218: 2212: 2211: 2191: 2185: 2180: 2174: 2169: 2163: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2111: 2105: 2104: 2097: 2091: 2090: 2078: 2072: 2066: 2060: 2054: 2048: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2028: 2010: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1969: 1968: 1962: 1956:. Archived from 1955: 1946: 1940: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1906: 1904: 1890: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1865: 1859: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1844: 1838: 1837: 1835: 1834: 1819: 1803:Soil resistivity 1787: 1782: 1781: 1749: 1742: 1738: 1735: 1729: 1698: 1690: 1612: 1610: 1609: 1604: 1602: 1597: 1578:floating neutral 1427: 1424: 1406: 1399: 1237: 1230: 1226: 1223: 1217: 1186: 1178: 1158:concentric cable 1089:protective earth 1079: 1072: 1068: 1065: 1059: 1028: 1020: 931:Safety and cost 734: 620: 619: 574:protective earth 543: 526: 509: 320:electrical fault 261:grounding system 259:(UK and IEC) or 245: 238: 231: 217:Earthing systems 182:Circuit breakers 39: 21: 18:Earthing systems 3334: 3333: 3329: 3328: 3327: 3325: 3324: 3323: 3294: 3293: 3292: 3287: 3269: 3253: 3251: 3244: 3175:Capacity factor 3163: 3161: 3154: 3134:Numerical relay 3112:Circuit breaker 3100: 3098: 3091: 3053: 2993:Load management 2963:Electrical grid 2928:Demand response 2921: 2916: 2907: 2888:Microgeneration 2840: 2755: 2703: 2694: 2690:Vehicle-to-grid 2563: 2558: 2475: 2474: 2469: 2465: 2458: 2454: 2447: 2443: 2431: 2430: 2426: 2419: 2402: 2401: 2394: 2386: 2383:System earthing 2379: 2378: 2371: 2359: 2358: 2349: 2339: 2337: 2330: 2326: 2325: 2321: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2293: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2282: 2278: 2271: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2247:Wayback Machine 2239: 2235: 2219: 2215: 2208: 2193: 2192: 2188: 2181: 2177: 2170: 2166: 2160:Wayback Machine 2152: 2148: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2124: 2122: 2113: 2112: 2108: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2067: 2063: 2055: 2051: 2046: 2042: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1953: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1937: 1933: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1916: 1912: 1902: 1900: 1892: 1891: 1887: 1877: 1875: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1852: 1850: 1846: 1845: 1841: 1832: 1830: 1821: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1783: 1776: 1773: 1750: 1739: 1733: 1730: 1715: 1699: 1688: 1686:Soil resistance 1658: 1634: 1591: 1590: 1566: 1557: 1541: 1533: 1509: 1428: 1422: 1419: 1412:needs expansion 1397: 1323: 1256: 1238: 1227: 1221: 1218: 1203: 1187: 1176: 1143: 1136: 1129: 1122: 1108: 1080: 1069: 1063: 1060: 1045: 1029: 1018: 1013: 1000: 983: 968: 940: 776:RCD preferred? 732: 704: 647: 617: 616: 554: 553: 552: 551: 550: 544: 535: 534: 533: 527: 518: 517: 516: 510: 499: 435: 433:IEC terminology 399: 383: 371:circuit breaker 362: 312: 310:System earthing 304: 292:Telegraph lines 257:earthing system 249: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3332: 3330: 3322: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3296: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3285: 3274: 3271: 3270: 3268: 3267: 3262: 3256: 3254: 3250:Statistics and 3249: 3246: 3245: 3243: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3207: 3202: 3200:Feed-in tariff 3197: 3192: 3187: 3182: 3177: 3172: 3166: 3164: 3159: 3156: 3155: 3153: 3152: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3126: 3125: 3124: 3119: 3109: 3103: 3101: 3096: 3093: 3092: 3090: 3089: 3088: 3087: 3077: 3072: 3067: 3061: 3059: 3055: 3054: 3052: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2988:Interconnector 2985: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2938:Dynamic demand 2935: 2930: 2924: 2922: 2912: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2868:Combined cycle 2865: 2860: 2854: 2852: 2846: 2845: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2822: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2765: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2754: 2753: 2748: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2720: 2718: 2709: 2705: 2704: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2652: 2647: 2645:Load-following 2642: 2637: 2632: 2627: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2600:Electric power 2597: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2577: 2571: 2569: 2565: 2564: 2559: 2557: 2556: 2549: 2542: 2534: 2528: 2527: 2518: 2510: 2501: 2499:, 5th edition. 2492: 2482: 2481: 2473: 2472: 2463: 2452: 2441: 2424: 2417: 2392: 2369: 2347: 2319: 2301: 2276: 2269: 2251: 2233: 2213: 2206: 2186: 2175: 2164: 2146: 2132: 2106: 2092: 2073: 2061: 2049: 2040: 1973: 1941: 1931: 1910: 1885: 1860: 1839: 1813: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1772: 1769: 1752: 1751: 1702: 1700: 1693: 1687: 1684: 1657: 1654: 1633: 1632:Grounding rods 1630: 1600: 1565: 1562: 1556: 1553: 1540: 1537: 1532: 1529: 1508: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1490: 1485: 1484: 1483: 1478: 1468: 1463: 1430: 1429: 1409: 1407: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1391: 1379: 1375: 1360: 1357: 1346: 1339: 1335: 1327: 1322: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1306: 1294: 1290: 1283: 1268: 1255: 1252: 1251: 1250: 1247: 1240: 1239: 1190: 1188: 1181: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1134: 1127: 1120: 1113: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1102: 1095: 1092: 1082: 1081: 1032: 1030: 1023: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 999: 996: 982: 979: 967: 964: 955:lines. In the 939: 936: 933: 932: 929: 926: 923: 920: 917: 913: 912: 909: 906: 903: 900: 897: 893: 892: 889: 886: 883: 880: 877: 873: 872: 869: 866: 863: 860: 857: 853: 852: 849: 846: 843: 840: 837: 833: 832: 829: 826: 823: 820: 817: 813: 812: 809: 806: 803: 800: 797: 793: 792: 789: 786: 783: 780: 777: 773: 772: 769: 766: 763: 760: 757: 753: 752: 749: 746: 743: 740: 737: 731: 728: 703: 700: 646: 643: 638: 637: 624:also known as 621: 614: 611: 608: 605: 545: 538: 537: 536: 528: 521: 520: 519: 511: 504: 503: 502: 501: 500: 498: 495: 494: 493: 487: 477: 476: 470: 434: 431: 398: 395: 382: 379: 361: 358: 340:surge arrester 322:. It prevents 311: 308: 303: 300: 296:Radio antennas 288:lightning rods 251: 250: 248: 247: 240: 233: 225: 222: 221: 220: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 161: 160: 156: 155: 154: 153: 148: 143: 141:Ring main unit 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 113: 105: 104: 100: 99: 98: 97: 92: 87: 82: 74: 73: 67: 66: 65: 64: 59: 51: 50: 46: 45: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3331: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3301: 3299: 3284: 3276: 3275: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3261: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3247: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3223: 3221: 3220:Pigouvian tax 3218: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3181: 3178: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3167: 3165: 3157: 3150: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3127: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3117:Earth-leakage 3115: 3114: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3104: 3102: 3094: 3086: 3083: 3082: 3081: 3078: 3076: 3073: 3071: 3068: 3066: 3063: 3062: 3060: 3058:Failure modes 3056: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3039: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3016: 3014: 3011: 3009: 3008:Power station 3006: 3004: 3001: 2999: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2893:Rankine cycle 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2873:Cooling tower 2871: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2859: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2847: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2796: 2795: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2758: 2752: 2749: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2726: 2725: 2722: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2716:Non-renewable 2713: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2691: 2688: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2668: 2666: 2663: 2661: 2658: 2656: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2643: 2641: 2638: 2636: 2635:Grid strength 2633: 2631: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2590:Demand factor 2588: 2586: 2583: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2572: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2555: 2550: 2548: 2543: 2541: 2536: 2535: 2532: 2526: 2524: 2519: 2517: 2516: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2484: 2483: 2480: 2477: 2476: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2456: 2453: 2450: 2445: 2442: 2437: 2436: 2428: 2425: 2420: 2418:9788120327832 2414: 2410: 2406: 2399: 2397: 2393: 2385: 2384: 2376: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2364: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2336: 2329: 2323: 2320: 2315: 2311: 2305: 2302: 2286: 2280: 2277: 2272: 2266: 2262: 2255: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2237: 2234: 2230: 2227: 2223: 2217: 2214: 2209: 2207:9781483102634 2203: 2199: 2198: 2190: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2147: 2142: 2136: 2133: 2120: 2116: 2110: 2107: 2102: 2096: 2093: 2088: 2084: 2077: 2074: 2070: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2053: 2050: 2044: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2027: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1977: 1974: 1963:on 2020-07-06 1959: 1952: 1945: 1942: 1935: 1932: 1920: 1914: 1911: 1899: 1895: 1889: 1886: 1874: 1870: 1864: 1861: 1849: 1843: 1840: 1828: 1824: 1818: 1815: 1808: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1790: 1786: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1768: 1762: 1758: 1748: 1745: 1737: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1713: 1712: 1708: 1703:This section 1701: 1697: 1692: 1691: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1676: 1674: 1666: 1662: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1650:fault current 1647: 1643: 1639: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1618: 1616: 1598: 1586: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1563: 1561: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1538: 1536: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1518: 1514: 1506: 1502: 1500: 1497:(such as the 1496: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1473: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1440: 1436: 1426: 1417: 1413: 1410:This section 1408: 1405: 1401: 1400: 1394: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1284: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1257: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1243: 1236: 1233: 1225: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1201: 1200: 1196: 1191:This section 1189: 1185: 1180: 1179: 1173: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1140: 1133: 1126: 1119: 1114: 1110: 1109: 1105: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1090: 1086: 1085: 1078: 1075: 1067: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1043: 1042: 1038: 1033:This section 1031: 1027: 1022: 1021: 1015: 1010: 1008: 1006: 997: 995: 992: 988: 980: 978: 975: 973: 965: 963: 960: 958: 954: 948: 945: 937: 930: 927: 924: 921: 918: 915: 914: 910: 907: 904: 901: 898: 896:Safety risks 895: 894: 890: 887: 884: 881: 878: 875: 874: 870: 867: 864: 861: 858: 855: 854: 850: 847: 844: 841: 838: 835: 834: 830: 827: 824: 821: 818: 815: 814: 810: 807: 804: 801: 798: 795: 794: 790: 787: 784: 781: 778: 775: 774: 770: 767: 764: 761: 758: 755: 754: 750: 747: 744: 741: 738: 736: 735: 729: 727: 725: 721: 713: 708: 701: 699: 697: 693: 688: 685: 680: 675: 671: 668: 664: 656: 651: 644: 642: 635: 631: 627: 622: 615: 612: 609: 606: 603: 602: 601: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 570: 567: 563: 559: 548: 542: 531: 525: 514: 508: 496: 491: 488: 485: 482: 481: 480: 474: 471: 468: 465: 464: 463: 461: 456: 454: 450: 446: 442: 439: 432: 430: 428: 422: 418: 414: 410: 408: 404: 396: 394: 392: 388: 380: 378: 376: 372: 368: 359: 357: 354: 352: 347: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 316:short circuit 309: 307: 301: 299: 297: 293: 289: 284: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 246: 241: 239: 234: 232: 227: 226: 224: 223: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 207:Consumer unit 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 164: 163: 162: 157: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 108: 107: 106: 101: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 81: 78: 77: 76: 75: 72: 68: 63: 60: 58: 55: 54: 53: 52: 47: 44: 40: 37: 33: 19: 3215:Net metering 3162:and policies 3080:Power outage 3049:Utility pole 3013:Pumped hydro 2919:distribution 2914:Transmission 2863:Cogeneration 2665:Power factor 2520: 2512: 2503: 2494: 2485: 2478: 2466: 2455: 2444: 2434: 2427: 2408: 2382: 2362: 2338:. 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