1270:
1259:
114:
are associated with construction and demolition, rather than combat. Because of its use in construction and demolition, it has become perhaps the most widespread explosive, and thus its toxicity is the most characterized and reported. The concentration of TNT in contaminated soil can reach 50 g kg of
106:
had estimated that over 1.2 million tons of soils have been contaminated with explosives on their training grounds alone. In the year 2004, it was estimated that 2,520,000 metric tons of explosive agents were sold for consumption in the United States alone. Figure 1 shows the world consumption of
93:
or volatilized and partially converted to secondary products. Over the past 150 years, millions of tons of explosives have been produced for military applications and other activities that have led to the accidental contamination of energetic materials in the
84:
work. In fact, the manufacture of explosives comprises a large amount of the chemical industry. In the course of their production, handling, loading, and disposal, explosives are released into the environment. It is there that they are dispersed by
793:
502:
119:(USEPA) has declared TNT a pollutant whose removal is priority. The USEPA maintains that TNT levels in soil should not exceed 17.2 gram per kilogram of soil and 0.01 milligrams per liter of water.
102:. Exact numbers cannot be obtained and estimations are generally conservative, because people make their own bombs, which is not a small activity in regions dealing with armed conflict. The
495:
691:
669:
632:
488:
706:
701:
674:
116:
659:
607:
110:
Generally, explosives are dispersed mainly when used in combat. Most explosives are used as warfare agents by militaries globally. However, modern uses for
681:
654:
627:
602:
1013:
753:
1283:
1278:
998:
622:
1309:
1273:
617:
1003:
1018:
696:
252:
1113:
961:
278:"Soils contaminated with explosives: Environmental fate and evaluation of state-of-the-art remediation processes (IUPAC Technical Report)"
57:
Explosives and their residual post explosion products can partition between multiple environmental compartments including aquatic, soil,
966:
612:
597:
1063:
877:
867:
788:
711:
1288:
897:
882:
716:
664:
944:
758:
649:
639:
344:
Ayoub K, van
Hullebusch ED, Cassir M, Bermond A (2010). "Application of advanced oxidation processes for TNT removal: A review".
324:
1078:
827:
805:
763:
686:
569:
552:
535:
511:
1262:
783:
778:
949:
887:
1319:
545:
401:
231:
Juhasz AL, Naidu R (2007). "Explosives: fate, dynamics, and ecological impact in terrestrial and marine environments".
916:
800:
557:
165:
160:
38:
use in warfare, explosives are also used in construction and demolition. Of greatest concern to the environment are
175:
1186:
1138:
1033:
926:
810:
24:
1191:
1146:
1048:
773:
589:
380:
1238:
1176:
579:
90:
1181:
1008:
564:
409:
1166:
934:
574:
540:
530:
86:
115:
soil, where the highest concentrations can be found on or near the surface. In the last decade, the
1314:
1228:
1221:
1161:
1098:
1058:
1053:
728:
39:
1243:
1201:
1196:
1156:
1108:
872:
644:
103:
1118:
993:
939:
738:
723:
467:
361:
258:
248:
1093:
1073:
1068:
1043:
842:
815:
457:
449:
353:
289:
240:
208:
1206:
1123:
1103:
1083:
983:
832:
422:
1233:
1128:
1028:
956:
313:
170:
212:
1303:
1216:
1171:
1151:
973:
748:
462:
437:
148:
909:
904:
892:
852:
837:
525:
453:
314:"Organic Explosives and Related Compounds: Environmental and Health Considerations"
81:
480:
357:
1023:
978:
847:
820:
244:
99:
28:
199:
Pennington JC, Brannon JM (February 2002). "Environmental fate of explosives".
1088:
144:
140:
132:
73:
58:
294:
277:
1211:
857:
136:
62:
20:
471:
365:
262:
743:
35:
321:
Technical Report: US Army
Biomedical Research and Development Laboratory
1038:
988:
768:
128:
31:
may have adverse effects on the environmental as well as human health.
862:
77:
127:
Explosives and their post-explosion by-products may be degraded by
95:
484:
54:
because they are produced and used in the greatest quantities.
180:
111:
51:
47:
43:
312:
Burrows EP, Rosenblatt DH, Mitchell WR, Parmer DL (1989).
235:. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
76:
have important applications in the military and in both
276:
Kalderis D, Juhasz AL, Boopathy R, Comfort S (2011).
1137:
925:
588:
518:
438:"Biological degradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene"
436:Esteve-Núñez A, Caballero A, Ramos JL (2001).
307:
305:
496:
226:
224:
222:
143:. Explosives may also be broken down through
117:United States Environmental Protection Agency
8:
339:
337:
23:and post-explosion by-products have on the
503:
489:
481:
1014:Environmental issues in the United States
461:
293:
999:Effects of climate change on agriculture
388:U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook
330:from the original on December 26, 2014.
191:
1004:Effects of climate change on livestock
418:
407:
19:are the effects that both unexploded
7:
1258:
1114:Tropical cyclones and climate change
1147:Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion
14:
794:pharmaceuticals and personal care
1269:
1268:
1257:
945:decline in amphibian populations
650:Deforestation and climate change
448:(3): 335–52, table of contents.
402:"Chemical Industries Newsletter"
17:Ecological impacts of explosives
1079:Land surface effects on climate
536:Environmental impact assessment
512:Human impact on the environment
1310:Environmental impact of mining
454:10.1128/MMBR.65.3.335-352.2001
1:
950:decline in insect populations
358:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.02.042
213:10.1016/S0040-6031(01)00801-2
181:TNT § Ecological impact
245:10.1007/978-0-387-69163-3_6
166:Formerly Used Defense Sites
161:Environmental impact of war
112:2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT)
1336:
282:Pure and Applied Chemistry
233:Rev Environ Contam Toxicol
176:Advanced oxidation process
1252:
1187:Environmental engineering
1034:Environmental degradation
811:fishing down the food web
442:Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev
1192:Environmental mitigation
1049:Greenhouse gas emissions
1009:Environmental insecurity
295:10.1351/PAC-REP-10-01-05
1239:Sustainable consumption
580:Social ecology (ethics)
404:. IHS Global Inc. 2009.
131:processes that include
1182:Ecological engineering
962:runaway climate change
417:Cite journal requires
565:List of global issues
69:Magnitude of exposure
34:In addition to their
27:. Explosive derived
1167:Community resilience
967:in the United States
935:Biodiversity threats
608:cannabis cultivation
575:Planetary boundaries
541:Environmental issues
531:Ecological footprint
107:explosives in 2008.
87:mechanical processes
40:secondary explosives
1320:Explosive chemicals
1229:Restoration ecology
1162:Climate engineering
1099:Ocean acidification
1089:Loss of green belts
1059:Holocene extinction
1054:Habitat destruction
729:Environmental crime
1244:Waste minimization
1202:Mitigation banking
1197:Industrial ecology
1157:Cleaner production
1109:Resource depletion
645:Corporate behavior
603:animal agriculture
201:Thermochimica Acta
104:United States Army
1297:
1296:
1119:Water degradation
994:Ecological crisis
940:biodiversity loss
739:Industrialisation
724:Genetic pollution
570:Impact assessment
379:Kramer D (2004).
254:978-0-387-69162-6
1327:
1272:
1271:
1261:
1260:
1094:Phosphorus cycle
1074:Land consumption
1069:Land degradation
1044:Freshwater cycle
843:Overexploitation
816:marine pollution
623:cocoa production
505:
498:
491:
482:
476:
475:
465:
433:
427:
426:
420:
415:
413:
405:
398:
392:
391:
385:
376:
370:
369:
346:J. Hazard. Mater
341:
332:
331:
329:
318:
309:
300:
299:
297:
288:(7): 1407–1484.
273:
267:
266:
228:
217:
216:
207:(1–2): 163–172.
196:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1293:
1248:
1207:Organic farming
1133:
1124:Water pollution
1104:Ozone depletion
1084:Loss and damage
984:Desertification
921:
833:Overconsumption
754:cleaning agents
655:Energy industry
618:meat production
584:
514:
509:
479:
435:
434:
430:
416:
406:
400:
399:
395:
383:
378:
377:
373:
343:
342:
335:
327:
316:
311:
310:
303:
275:
274:
270:
255:
230:
229:
220:
198:
197:
193:
189:
157:
125:
71:
12:
11:
5:
1333:
1331:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1302:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1265:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1234:Sustainability
1231:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1143:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1131:
1129:Water scarcity
1126:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1064:Nitrogen cycle
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1029:Forest dieback
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
970:
969:
964:
957:Climate change
954:
953:
952:
947:
942:
931:
929:
923:
922:
920:
919:
914:
913:
912:
902:
901:
900:
895:
890:
885:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
824:
823:
818:
813:
808:
798:
797:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
774:nanotechnology
771:
766:
761:
756:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
720:
719:
714:
709:
704:
699:
694:
689:
679:
678:
677:
672:
667:
662:
652:
647:
642:
637:
636:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
594:
592:
586:
585:
583:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
561:
560:
558:on marine life
550:
549:
548:
546:list of issues
538:
533:
528:
522:
520:
516:
515:
510:
508:
507:
500:
493:
485:
478:
477:
428:
419:|journal=
393:
371:
352:(1–3): 10–28.
333:
301:
268:
253:
218:
190:
188:
185:
184:
183:
178:
173:
171:Biodegradation
168:
163:
156:
153:
149:microorganisms
124:
121:
70:
67:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1332:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1266:
1264:
1255:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1217:Reforestation
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1172:Cultured meat
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1152:Birth control
1150:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
974:Deforestation
972:
968:
965:
963:
960:
959:
958:
955:
951:
948:
946:
943:
941:
938:
937:
936:
933:
932:
930:
928:
924:
918:
915:
911:
908:
907:
906:
903:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
880:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
803:
802:
799:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
751:
750:
749:Manufacturing
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
697:nuclear power
695:
693:
692:fracking (US)
690:
688:
685:
684:
683:
680:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
657:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
600:
599:
596:
595:
593:
591:
587:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
559:
556:
555:
554:
551:
547:
544:
543:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
523:
521:
517:
513:
506:
501:
499:
494:
492:
487:
486:
483:
473:
469:
464:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
432:
429:
424:
411:
403:
397:
394:
389:
382:
375:
372:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
340:
338:
334:
326:
322:
315:
308:
306:
302:
296:
291:
287:
283:
279:
272:
269:
264:
260:
256:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
227:
225:
223:
219:
214:
210:
206:
202:
195:
192:
186:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
158:
154:
152:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
122:
120:
118:
113:
108:
105:
101:
97:
92:
88:
83:
79:
75:
68:
66:
64:
60:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
32:
30:
26:
22:
18:
910:urban sprawl
905:Urbanization
853:Particulates
838:Overdrafting
733:
553:Human impact
526:Anthropocene
445:
441:
431:
410:cite journal
396:
390:: 24.1–24.6.
387:
381:"Explosives"
374:
349:
345:
320:
285:
281:
271:
236:
232:
204:
200:
194:
126:
109:
82:construction
72:
56:
33:
29:contaminants
16:
15:
1024:Externality
1019:Coral reefs
979:Defaunation
848:Overgrazing
821:overfishing
801:Marine life
675:electricity
598:Agriculture
239:: 163–215.
123:Degradation
100:groundwater
25:environment
1315:Pollutants
1304:Categories
1289:mitigation
1284:assessment
1279:by country
1177:Decoupling
1139:Mitigation
868:Reservoirs
789:pesticides
734:Explosives
712:reservoirs
613:irrigation
187:References
145:metabolism
141:photolysis
133:hydrolysis
74:Explosives
61:, and the
59:atmosphere
42:, such as
21:explosives
1212:Recycling
878:Transport
863:Quarrying
858:Pollution
717:transport
707:petroleum
702:oil shale
665:biodiesel
137:oxidation
91:dissolved
63:biosphere
1274:Category
898:shipping
883:aviation
769:plastics
759:concrete
744:Land use
660:biofuels
628:palm oil
472:11527999
366:20347218
325:Archived
263:17708075
155:See also
36:military
1263:Commons
1039:Erosion
989:Ecocide
927:Effects
873:Tourism
806:fishing
764:fashion
687:fashion
640:Bitcoin
519:General
129:abiotic
1267:
1256:
828:Mining
682:energy
590:Causes
470:
460:
364:
261:
251:
78:mining
50:, and
1222:urban
893:roads
784:paper
779:paint
463:99030
384:(PDF)
328:(PDF)
317:(PDF)
139:, or
888:rail
670:coal
633:(US)
468:PMID
423:help
362:PMID
259:PMID
249:ISBN
98:and
96:soil
80:and
917:War
458:PMC
450:doi
354:doi
350:178
290:doi
241:doi
237:191
209:doi
205:384
147:by
89:or
52:HMX
48:RDX
44:TNT
1306::
466:.
456:.
446:65
444:.
440:.
414::
412:}}
408:{{
386:.
360:.
348:.
336:^
323:.
319:.
304:^
286:83
284:.
280:.
257:.
247:.
221:^
203:.
151:.
135:,
65:.
46:,
504:e
497:t
490:v
474:.
452::
425:)
421:(
368:.
356::
298:.
292::
265:.
243::
215:.
211::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.