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mutualistic behavior persists for enough generations, the dynamic can evolve into parasitism, which is a more stable dynamic due to the increased benefit to the parasite that propagates the behavior. In this case the parasite takes advantage of the previously mutualistic host and parasite dynamic, gaining greater benefits for itself.
218:. It likely evolved as a niche specialization, which allowed for greater diversity in ectosymbiotic behavior among species. Additionally, in the case of mutualism, the evolution improved the fitness of both species involved, propagating the success of ectosymbiosis. Ectosymbiosis has independently evolved through
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attached to their exoskeletons, both of which feed off of trees to provide vital energy to the beetles while the beetles provide necessary organic material to the fungi and mites to survive. In this case, the relationship between the fungi and mites is functional because while both do the same job,
327:
Commensalism is a form of symbiosis where one species is benefiting from the interactions between species and the other is neither helped nor harmed from the interaction. Ectosymbiotic commensalistic behavior is found frequently in organisms that attach themselves to larger species in order to move
408:
shrimp that provide the shrimp with vital organic material for their survival while simultaneously supporting the bacteria with different organic material that the bacterial cannot produce itself. Groups of organisms – greater than a single pair of a host and parasite – can also form mutualistic
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Skelton, James; Farrell, Kaitlin J.; Creed, Robert P.; Williams, Bronwyn W.; Ames, Catlin; Helms, Brian S.; Stoekel, James; Brown, Bryan L. (December 2013). "Servants, scoundrels, and hitchhikers: current understanding of the complex interactions between crayfish and their ectosymbiotic worms
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because of the constant battle to maximize one's self-benefits. This is due to the limited benefits offered to both the parasite and the host, with the possible outcome for at least one of the species to die out if the other species begins to take advantage of the other. In the case that the
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Parasitism is a form of symbiosis in which one species benefits from the interactions between species while the other organism is actively harmed. This is the most common form of ectosymbiotic interactions. One of the many examples of ectosymbiotic parasites includes head
290:, or cleaning the host organism. The diversity of advantages has yet to be fully explored, but by virtue of persisting throughout all of recent evolution, they likely confer an adaptive advantage to many of the species that exist solely due to ectosymbiosis.
244:. The evolutionary success of ectosymbiosis is based on the benefits experienced by the ectosymbiont and the host. Due to the dependence of the parasite on the host and the associated benefits and cost to both the parasite and host, the two will continue to
387:
Mutualism is a form of ectosymbiosis where both the host and parasitic species benefit from the interaction. There are many examples of mutualistic ectosymbiosis that occur in nature. One such relationship is between
1044:
Britz, R. & G. D. Johnson. 2012. Ontogeny and homology of the skeletal elements that form the sucking disc of remoras (Teleostei, Echeneoidei, Echeneidae). Journal of
Morphology, 273 (12) 1353-1366 , DOI:
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Ectosymbiosis allows niches to form that would otherwise be unable to exist without the support of their host. Inherently, this added niche opens up a new branch off of the
252:. The Red Queen hypothesis states that a host will continually evolve defenses against a parasitic attack, and the parasite species will also adapt to these changes in the
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will evolve and diversify rapidly in response to a change in the external environment, in order to stabilize and maintain a beneficial ectosymbiotic environment.
554:
Williams, Jason D; McDermott, John J (July 2004). "Hermit crab biocoenoses: a worldwide review of the diversity and natural history of hermit crab associates".
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acts as a bacterial gut cleaner for the crayfish species. Another example is the iron-oxide associated chemoautotrophic bacteria found crusted to the gills of
182:
In some species the symbiotic environment provided by both the parasite and host are mutually beneficial. In recent research it has been found that these
313:
Although ectosymbiosis is typically an evolutionary stable behavior, the different host and parasite dynamics independently vary in their stability.
730:"Bacterial symbionts and mineral deposits in the branchial chamber of the hydrothermal vent shrimp Rimicaris exoculata: relationship to moult cycle"
594:"Antagonistic evolution of an antibiotic and its molecular chaperone: how to maintain a vital ectosymbiosis in a highly fluctuating habitat"
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Six, D. L.; Bentz, B. J. (July 2007). "Temperature determines symbiont abundance in a multipartite bark beetle-fungus ectosymbiosis".
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to scavenge and travel. An additional ectosymbiotic example of commensalism is the relationship between small sessile organisms and
108:
267:. Specifically, ectosymbiosis provides a new niche or environment from which many new species can differentiate and flourish.
426:
46:
42:
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Tai, Vera; Carpenter, Kevin J.; Weber, Peter K.; Nalepa, Christine A.; Perlman, Steve J.; Keeling, Patrick J. (2016-08-01).
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771:"Repeatedly Evolved Host-Specific Ectosymbioses between Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria and Amphipods Living in a Cave Ecosystem"
61:
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933:"Genome Evolution and Nitrogen Fixation in Bacterial Ectosymbionts of a Protist Inhabiting Wood-Feeding Cockroaches"
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1144:"Evolutionary stability of mutualism: interspecific population regulation as an evolutionarily stable strategy"
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662:"Phylogenetic Position and In Situ Identification of Ectosymbiotic Spirochetes on Protists in the Termite Gut"
344:, where the echinoids provide substrate for the small organisms to grow and the echinoids remain unaffected.
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This niche specialization between species also leads to stabilization of symbiotic relationships between
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is an example of an ectosymbiotic parasite that lives on top of trees and removes nutrients and water.
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is an ectosymbiotic parasite that feeds off of the blood of humans by attaching itself to the scalp.
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179:. Ectosymbiosis is found throughout a diverse array of environments and in many different species.
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884:"Ectosymbiosis is a critical factor in the local benthic biodiversity of the Antarctic deep sea"
236:, with their many spines, provide protection for the ectosymbiotic parasites that live on them.
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M., Key Jr., Marcus; B., Jeffries, William; K., Voris, Harold; M., Yang, Chang (March 1996).
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Noda, Satoko; Ohkuma, Moriya; Yamada, Akinori; Hongoh, Yuichi; Kudo, Toshiaki (2003-01-01).
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in humans, which feed on blood by attaching to a human's scalp. Additionally, mature
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Papot, Claire; Massol, François; Jollivet, Didier; Tasiemski, Aurélie (2017-05-03).
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Hétérier, Vincent; David, Bruno; Ridder, Chantal De; Rigaud, Thierry (2008-07-29).
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behavior in which an organism lives on the body surface of another organism (the
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Holland, J. Nathaniel; DeAngelis, Donald L.; Schultz, Stewart T. (2004-09-07).
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Corbari, L; Zbinden, M; Cambon-Bonavita, M; Gaill, F; Compère, P (2008-01-15).
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Ectosymbiosis has evolved independently many times to fill a wide variety of
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Bauermeister, Jan; Ramette, Alban; Dattagupta, Sharmishtha (2012-11-29).
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of the environment, whether on land, in freshwater, in deserts, or in
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Symbiosis in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host
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long distances or scavenge food easily; this is documented in
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206:. Such temperate regions include the seas off the coast of
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annelids are mutualistic parasites. They will attach to a
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they are optimally functional at different temperatures.
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species to exist. In these cases, the head lice and the
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in order to scavenge food and travel long distances.
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fish form ectosymbiotic commensal interactions with
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556:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
475:are both parasites interacting with host species.
839:da Silva, Jack (2018-08-24), "Red Queen Theory",
210:while the extreme regions reach to the depths of
467:bacteria act as a nutrient thief in the gut of
413:can work in a dynamic mutualistic fashion with
278:organisms. The ectosymbiont can increase the
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843:, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–7,
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234:Sea urchins
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523:2018-11-29
496:References
452:Parasitism
446:Parasitism
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284:metabolism
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396:crayfish
366:bacteria
246:coevolve
147:and the
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340:in the
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222:in all
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198:, both
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