347:
38:
1326:
2447:
2470:
1592:
begins to contribute significant emission current. In this regime, the combined effects of field-enhanced thermionic and field emission can be modeled by the Murphy-Good equation for thermo-field (T-F) emission. At even higher fields, FN tunneling becomes the dominant electron emission mechanism, and
467:
in a solid that are free to move from atom to atom. This is sometimes collectively referred to as a "sea of electrons". Their velocities follow a statistical distribution, rather than being uniform, and occasionally an electron will have enough velocity to exit the metal without being pulled back in.
2427:
Provisional specification for a thermionic valve was lodged on
November 16, 1904. In this document, Fleming coined the British term "valve" for what in North America is called a "vacuum tube": "The means I employ for this purpose consists in the insertion in the circuit of the alternating current of
1286:
are both given the same name; and (3) a variety of names exist for these equations, including "Richardson equation", "Dushman's equation", "Richardson–Dushman equation" and "Richardson–Laue–Dushman equation". In the literature, the elementary equation is sometimes given in circumstances where the
319:
376:
and flowed along the arrows from the filament through the partial vacuum to the electrode) or negatively (which resulted in no measurable current). We now know that in addition to carbon molecules, the filament was emitting electrons, which have negative charge are thus are attracted to a
246:
in
Britain. While doing work on charged objects, Guthrie discovered that a red-hot iron sphere with a negative charge would lose its charge (by somehow discharging it into air). He also found that this did not happen if the sphere had a positive charge. Other early contributors included
291:
cast a light shadow on the glass, as if negatively-charged carbon emanated from the negative end and was attracted towards and sometimes absorbed by the positive end of the filament loop. This projected carbon was deemed "electrical carrying" and initially ascribed to an effect in
304:
move from a negative to a positive electrode. To try to redirect the charged carbon particles to a separate electrode instead of the glass, Edison did a series of experiments (a first inconclusive one is in his notebook on 13 February 1880) such as the following successful one:
1624:
that harnesses both the light and heat of the sun to generate electricity and increases the efficiency of solar power production by more than twice the current levels. The device developed for the process reaches peak efficiency above 200 °C, while most silicon
910:
2340:
1287:
generalized equation would be more appropriate, and this in itself can cause confusion. To avoid misunderstandings, the meaning of any "A-like" symbol should always be explicitly defined in terms of the more fundamental quantities involved.
1128:
1231:
1557:
1479:
121:, that remaining charge is neutralized by charge supplied by the battery as particles are emitted, so the emitter will have the same charge it had before emission. This facilitates additional emission to sustain an
618:
754:
661:
In the period 1911 to 1930, as physical understanding of the behaviour of electrons in metals increased, various theoretical expressions (based on different physical assumptions) were put forward for
779:
2562:
543:
483:
published the results of his experiments: the current from a heated wire seemed to depend exponentially on the temperature of the wire with a mathematical form similar to the modified
2612:
3126:
392:
device using the effect on 15 November 1883, notably the first US patent for an electronic device. He found that sufficient current would pass through the device to operate a
1719:
963:
1641:
can increase the device's efficiency to 55–60 percent, nearly triple that of existing systems, and 12–17 percent more than existing 43 percent multi-junction solar cells.
428:(patented 16 November 1904). Thermionic diodes can also be configured to convert a heat difference to electric power directly without moving parts as a device called a
2835:
1026:
476:(eV). Thermionic currents can be increased by decreasing the work function. This often-desired goal can be achieved by applying various oxide coatings to the wire.
117:
After emission, an opposite charge of equal magnitude to the emitted charge is initially left behind in the emitting region. But if the emitter is connected to a
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987:
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397:
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received several bulbs from Edison to investigate. Preece's 1885 paper on them referred to the one-way current through the partial vacuum as the
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3757:
1765:
1378:
2910:
2412:
1879:
3551:
1995:
4099:
3873:
2780:
Y. S. Ang, Xueyi Chen, Chuan Tan and L. K. Ang (July 2019). "Generalized high-energy thermionic electron injection at graphene interface".
1850:
1810:
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2130:
1885:
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of the outgoing electrons would be reflected as they reached the emitter surface, so the emission current density would be reduced, and
551:
1279:(and sometimes the name "Richardson constant") indiscriminately; (2) equations with and without the correction factor here denoted by
704:
1340:, the thermionic electron emitter will be biased negative relative to its surroundings. This creates an electric field of magnitude
1251:
of the same material. At least qualitatively, these experimental differences can be explained as due to differences in the value of
4114:
4074:
2428:
an appliance which permits only the passage of electric current in one direction and constitutes therefore an electrical valve."
3934:
3261:
3236:
3878:
3812:
3797:
3787:
3546:
3163:
Ang, Yee Sin; Ang, L. K. (2016). "Current-Temperature
Scaling for a Schottky Interface with Nonparabolic Energy Dispersion".
1360:) or field enhanced thermionic emission. It can be modeled by a simple modification of the Richardson equation, by replacing
3012:
Svensson, R.; Holmlid, L. (1992). "Very low work function surfaces from condensed excited states: Rydber matter of cesium".
1608:
which yield a decrease of collector emitting work function from 1.5 eV to 1.0–0.7 eV. Due to long-lived nature of
1576:
Electron emission that takes place in the field-and-temperature-regime where this modified equation applies is often called
1600:
Thermionic emission can also be enhanced by interaction with other forms of excitation such as light. For example, excited
4027:
3838:
2670:
S. J. Liang and L. K. Ang (January 2015). "Electron
Thermionic Emission from Graphene and a Thermionic Energy Converter".
1824:
1786:
905:{\displaystyle A_{0}={4\pi mk^{2}q_{\text{e}} \over h^{3}}=1.20173\times 10^{6}\,\mathrm {A{\cdot }m^{-2}{\cdot }K^{-2}} }
243:
4003:
3976:
3777:
2725:
Y. S. Ang, H. Y. Yang and L. K. Ang (August 2018). "Universal scaling in nanoscale lateral
Schottky heterostructures".
2445:, "Improvements in instruments for detecting and measuring alternating electric currents", published 1905-09-21
3984:
3767:
3608:
3650:
215:
is now also used to refer to any thermally-excited charge emission process, even when the charge is emitted from one
2260:
384:
This effect had many applications. Edison found that the current emitted by the hot filament increased rapidly with
4145:
3848:
3822:
3782:
3254:
1344:
at the emitter surface. Without the field, the surface barrier seen by an escaping Fermi-level electron has height
2468:, "Instrument for converting alternating electric currents into continuous currents", published 1905-11-07
1261:
Considerable confusion exists in the literature of this area because: (1) many sources do not distinguish between
3561:
3014:
456:
in 1928 "for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him".
52:
showing white thermionic emission mix coating on the central portion of the coil. Typically made of a mixture of
2509:
684:. Over 60 years later, there is still no consensus among interested theoreticians as to the exact expression of
490:
4019:
3410:
681:
3726:
3706:
2567:
2858:
2635:
2617:
4135:
4109:
3843:
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3165:
2969:
2782:
2727:
2672:
1594:
1589:
480:
449:
337:
336:
such as a metal plate in this example (variants used platinum foil or extra wire instead) isolated from the
276:
1871:
1612:
this low work function remains low which essentially increases the low-temperature converter's efficiency.
1247:, but do differ significantly as between different emitting materials, and can differ as between different
996:
In fact, by about 1930 there was agreement that, due to the wave-like nature of electrons, some proportion
4155:
3900:
3752:
3640:
3601:
3541:
3075:
Schwede, J. W.; et al. (2010). "Photon-enhanced thermionic emission for solar concentrator systems".
3047:"New solar energy conversion process discovered by Stanford engineers could revamp solar power production"
2967:
Mal'Shukov, A. G.; Chao, K. A. (2001). "Opto-Thermionic
Refrigeration in Semiconductor Heterostructures".
2085:
2051:
2009:
1983:
1941:
1899:
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of the emitting material must also be taken into account. This would introduce a second correction factor
453:
248:
149:
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3440:
2829:
2438:
2176:
2155:
2089:
2055:
2013:
1248:
260:
235:
in 1897, the word "electron" was not used when discussing experiments that took place before this date.
176:. The hot cathode can be a metal filament, a coated metal filament, or a separate structure of metal or
157:
2239:
2218:
1945:
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4084:
4011:
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3680:
3577:
3556:
3536:
3475:
3415:
3341:
3184:
3086:
3019:
2978:
2941:
2930:
Murphy, E. L.; Good, G. H. (1956). "Thermionic
Emission, Field Emission, and the Transition Region".
2867:
2801:
2691:
2644:
2633:
Crowell, C. R. (1965). "The
Richardson constant for thermionic emission in Schottky barrier diodes".
2465:
2461:
2442:
2331:
2297:
2197:
2101:
2025:
1957:
1915:
1903:
472:. The work function is characteristic of the material and for most metals is on the order of several
429:
409:
361:
153:
110:
specifically refers to emission of electrons and occurs when thermal energy overcomes the material's
3227:
2485:
4094:
4079:
3701:
3500:
3389:
1757:
1694:
1621:
1570:
1330:
938:
216:
42:
1676:
408:
although that term is occasionally used to refer to thermionic emission itself. British physicist
4058:
3200:
3174:
3145:
2817:
2791:
2762:
2736:
2707:
2681:
1987:
1655:
1357:
648:
484:
49:
46:
2240:"Ueber die Electricitätserregung beim Contact verdünnter Gase mit galvanisch glühenden Drähten"
318:
3949:
3863:
3645:
3510:
3495:
3102:
2994:
2906:
2754:
2408:
2358:
2313:
1875:
1865:
1828:
1790:
1721:
Thermionic
Electron Emission Properties of Nitrogen-Incorporated Polycrystalline Diamond Films
1577:
1348:
equal to the local work-function. The electric field lowers the surface barrier by an amount Δ
1123:{\displaystyle J=(1-r_{\mathrm {av} })\lambda _{\text{B}}A_{0}T^{2}\mathrm {e} ^{-W \over kT}}
966:
677:
389:
287:
deposited from the filament and was darkest near the positive end of the filament loop, which
280:
185:
130:
79:
2242:(On the generation of electricity by contact of rarefied gas with electrically heated wires)
2127:
3918:
3807:
3460:
3400:
3192:
3135:
3094:
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3027:
2986:
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1965:
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373:
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239:
122:
118:
346:
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3240:
3230:, Owen Richardson's Nobel lecture on thermionics. nobelprize.org. December 12, 1929. (PDF)
2932:
2134:
1634:
1320:
1311:
The thermionic emission law has been recently revised for 2D materials in various models.
990:
673:
628:
413:
252:
2614:
forms, Richardson preferred the latter, stating that it was theoretically better founded.
1736:
1290:
Because of the exponential function, the current increases rapidly with temperature when
3188:
3090:
3023:
2982:
2945:
2871:
2805:
2695:
2648:
2301:
2105:
2029:
1961:
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1605:
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401:
365:
91:
87:
2849:
Kiziroglou, M. E.; Li, X.; Zhukov, A. A.; De Groot, P. A. J.; De Groot, C. H. (2008).
4129:
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3520:
3515:
3405:
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3204:
3031:
2821:
2813:
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2656:
2335:
1580:. This equation is relatively accurate for electric field strengths lower than about
640:
469:
468:
The minimum amount of energy needed for an electron to leave a surface is called the
445:
425:
272:
256:
232:
138:
126:
111:
3196:
3149:
2711:
2703:
2397:
2179:(On the generation of electricity by the contact of gases and incandescent bodies),
3721:
3655:
3485:
3379:
3311:
3306:
3233:
2750:
1679:[Researches on the electrical conductivity of gases at high temperatures].
1650:
1620:
Photon-enhanced thermionic emission (PETE) is a process developed by scientists at
1337:
1325:
669:
473:
297:
293:
193:
161:
37:
3222:
How vacuum tubes really work with a section on thermionic emission, with equations
1226:{\displaystyle A_{\mathrm {G} }=\lambda _{\mathrm {B} }(1-r_{\mathrm {av} })A_{0}}
452:
began work on the topic that he later called "thermionic emission". He received a
1633:
collectors, which reach temperatures up to 800 °C. Although the team used a
1020:. Thus, one sometimes sees the thermionic emission equation written in the form:
356:
configured his bulb (large circle) such that its electrode was in series with an
3736:
3711:
3665:
3582:
3490:
3349:
3301:
3277:
2990:
2404:
1552:{\displaystyle \Delta W={\sqrt {{q_{\text{e}}}^{3}E \over 4\pi \epsilon _{0}}},}
1135:
460:
433:
421:
417:
301:
165:
145:
1795:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
1677:"Reserches sur la conductibilité électrique des gaz à des températures élevées"
3817:
3675:
3670:
3505:
3435:
3425:
3420:
3364:
2879:
1806:
1626:
205:
133:
noticed this current, so subsequent scientists referred to the current as the
99:
68:
2953:
2317:
2113:
2071:
2037:
1969:
1927:
766:
is a material-specific correction factor that is typically of order 0.5, and
545:. Later, he proposed that the emission law should have the mathematical form
17:
4053:
3685:
3470:
3465:
3445:
2902:
393:
333:
103:
83:
57:
3106:
2998:
2758:
2375:
1845:
2177:"Ueber Electricitätserregung beim Contact von Gasen und glühenden Körpern"
3450:
3430:
3369:
3221:
2359:"On a peculiar behaviour of glow lamps when raised to high incandescence"
1695:"Researches on the electrical conductivity of gases at high temperatures"
275:
in 1880 while his team was trying to discover the reason for breakage of
228:
177:
1637:
semiconductor in its proof-of-concept device, it claims that the use of
1474:{\displaystyle J(E,T,W)=A_{\mathrm {G} }T^{2}e^{-(W-\Delta W) \over kT}}
3384:
3374:
2851:"Thermionic field emission at electrodeposited Ni-Si Schottky barriers"
385:
369:
357:
201:
181:
173:
61:
31:
3234:
Derivations of thermionic emission equations from an undergraduate lab
2309:
1732:
3395:
3359:
3354:
3331:
3140:
3121:
3098:
1601:
329:
284:
279:
and undesired blackening of the interior surface of the bulbs in his
231:
was not identified as a separate physical particle until the work of
197:
189:
169:
53:
3246:
2285:
1134:
However, a modern theoretical treatment by Modinos assumes that the
377:
positively-charged electrode but not a negatively-charged electrode.
3179:
2796:
2741:
2686:
1629:
become inert after reaching 100 °C. Such devices work best in
1324:
94:
to escape the material's surface. The particles, sometimes called
64:
36:
613:{\displaystyle J=A_{\mathrm {G} }T^{2}\mathrm {e} ^{-W \over kT}}
3593:
464:
144:
Thermionic emission is crucial to the operation of a variety of
141:
that scientists understood that electrons were emitted and why.
3597:
3250:
749:{\displaystyle A_{\mathrm {G} }=\;\lambda _{\mathrm {R} }A_{0}}
1298:. (For essentially every material, melting occurs well before
372:
the electrode either positively (in which case electrons were
71:
away through normal use, eventually resulting in lamp failure.
416:, discovered that the Edison effect could be used to detect
1352:, and increases the emission current. This is known as the
3120:
Green, M. A.; Emery, K.; Hishikawa, Y.; Warta, W. (2011).
2221:(On the electrification of gases by incandescent bodies")
1604:(Cs) vapors in thermionic converters form clusters of Cs-
368:(separate from the power source heating the filament) to
2619:
The emission of electricity from hot bodies, 2nd edition
2219:"Ueber die Electrisirung der Gase durch glühende Körper"
1233:. Experimental values for the "generalized" coefficient
208:). Charge flow increases dramatically with temperature.
27:
Thermally induced flow of charge carriers from a surface
2261:"How Japanese Bamboo Helped Edison Make The Light Bulb"
2385:
Preece coins the term the "Edison effect" on page 229.
2338:, "Electrical indicator", published 1884-10-21
1994:(in German). Jubalband (anniversary volume): 430–445.
2570:
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1488:
1381:
1158:
1029:
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941:
921:
782:
707:
554:
493:
3127:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
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3910:
3887:
3831:
3745:
3694:
3631:
3570:
3529:
3340:
3284:
3228:
Thermionic Phenomena and the Laws which Govern Them
1791:"On a relation between heat and static electricity"
172:and may steer those emitted electrons with applied
30:"Thermion" redirects here. Not to be confused with
2606:
2556:
2490:Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
2396:
1551:
1473:
1225:
1122:
981:
957:
927:
904:
748:
612:
537:
2286:"Contribution of Thomas A. Edison to Thermionics"
238:The phenomenon was initially reported in 1853 by
2200:(On the unipolar conductivity of heated gases")
1829:"On a new relation between heat and electricity"
446:J. J. Thomson's identification of the electron
3763:Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe
3609:
3262:
2486:"On the negative radiation from hot platinum"
2092:[On electrical conduction of gases].
2058:[On electrical conduction of gases].
2016:[On electrical conduction of gases].
1990:[On electrical conduction of gases].
1948:[On electrical conduction of gases].
1906:[On electrical conduction of gases].
8:
2834:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2198:"Ueber die unipolare Leitung erhitzter Gase"
400:in Philadelphia. Visiting British scientist
3122:"Solar cell efficiency tables (version 37)"
2506:While the empirical data favoured both the
1727:(PhD dissertation). Vanderbilt University.
1584:. For electric field strengths higher than
1240:are generally of the order of magnitude of
420:. Fleming went on to develop a two-element
398:International Electrical Exhibition of 1884
3616:
3602:
3594:
3269:
3255:
3247:
2557:{\displaystyle T^{1/2}\mathrm {e} ^{-b/T}}
2363:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
1833:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
1569:is the electric constant (also called the
723:
538:{\displaystyle T^{1/2}\mathrm {e} ^{-b/T}}
311:Experiment demonstrating the Edison effect
271:Thermionic emission was observed again by
3178:
3139:
2795:
2740:
2685:
2594:
2587:
2582:
2575:
2569:
2544:
2537:
2532:
2521:
2517:
2511:
2374:
2090:"Ueber die Electricitätsleitung der Gase"
2056:"Ueber die Electricitätsleitung der Gase"
2014:"Ueber die Electricitätsleitung der Gase"
1988:"Ueber die Electricitätsleitung der Gase"
1946:"Ueber die Electricitätsleitung der Gase"
1904:"Ueber die Electricitätsleitung der Gase"
1844:
1718:Paxton, William Francis (18 April 2013).
1536:
1515:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1487:
1435:
1425:
1414:
1413:
1380:
1336:In electron emission devices, especially
1217:
1200:
1199:
1179:
1178:
1164:
1163:
1157:
1099:
1094:
1087:
1077:
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498:
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98:in early literature, are now known to be
2607:{\displaystyle T^{2}\mathrm {e} ^{-c/T}}
1667:
1329:Schottky-emitter electron source of an
3758:Edison and Swan Electric Light Company
2827:
1853:from the original on January 13, 2018.
1593:the emitter operates in the so-called
2128:"Ueber electrische Leitung in Vacuum"
463:, there are one or two electrons per
192:tends to become significant only for
7:
3874:General Electric Research Laboratory
1595:"cold field electron emission (CFE)"
396:sounder, which was exhibited at the
2899:Handbook of Charged Particle Optics
2156:"Ueber die Electricität der Flamme"
2137:(On electric conduction in vacuum)
1867:Thermionic Emission from Hot Bodies
1616:Photon-enhanced thermionic emission
242:. It was observed again in 1873 by
137:, though it wasn't until after the
3057:from the original on 11 April 2011
2583:
2533:
1489:
1450:
1415:
1204:
1201:
1180:
1165:
1095:
1054:
1051:
969:of an electron, respectively, and
889:
871:
862:
730:
714:
585:
567:
514:
25:
1691:Extract translated into English:
773:is a universal constant given by
635:is the temperature of the metal,
340:(hairpin-shaped in this example).
4115:Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar
4075:Thomas Edison in popular culture
3869:Storage Battery Company Building
2919:from the original on 2017-01-17.
2814:10.1103/PhysRevApplied.12.014057
2616:Owen Willans Richardson (1921).
2383:from the original on 2014-06-26.
2158:(On the electricity of flames),
1998:from the original on 2018-01-13.
1888:from the original on 2013-12-31.
1813:from the original on 2018-01-13.
345:
317:
3935:The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace
3197:10.1103/PhysRevApplied.6.034013
2704:10.1103/PhysRevApplied.3.014002
1768:from the original on 2016-11-23
658:is a parameter discussed next.
448:in 1897, the British physicist
3813:Motion Picture Patents Company
3798:Edison Storage Battery Company
3788:Edison Portland Cement Company
3045:Bergeron, L. (2 August 2010).
2751:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.056802
1590:Fowler–Nordheim (FN) tunneling
1456:
1441:
1403:
1385:
1210:
1186:
1060:
1036:
691:, but there is agreement that
332:bulb with an externally-wired
139:1897 discovery of the electron
1:
2284:Johnson, J. B. (1960-12-01).
2244:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2223:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2202:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2181:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2160:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2139:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2094:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2060:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2018:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
1992:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
1950:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
1908:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
958:{\displaystyle -q_{\text{e}}}
698:must be written in the form:
4004:The Execution of Mary Stuart
3778:Edison Manufacturing Company
3032:10.1016/0039-6028(92)91335-9
2657:10.1016/0038-1101(65)90116-4
1758:"Thermionic power converter"
422:thermionic vacuum tube diode
148:devices and can be used for
90:gives some particles enough
3985:Tales from the Bully Pulpit
3768:Edison Illuminating Company
2991:10.1103/PhysRevLett.86.5570
2290:American Journal of Physics
1372:). This gives the equation
414:Wireless Telegraphy Company
388:, and filed a patent for a
277:carbonized bamboo filaments
4172:
3823:Oriental Telephone Company
3783:Edison Ore-Milling Company
2096:. 3rd series (in German).
2062:. 3rd series (in German).
2020:. 3rd series (in German).
1952:. 2nd series (in German).
1910:. 2nd series (in German).
1864:Richardson, O. W. (2003).
1675:Becquerel, Edmond (1853).
1318:
1275:, but just use the symbol
412:, working for the British
29:
3977:Edison's Conquest of Mars
3854:Memorial Tower and Museum
3392:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
2880:10.1016/j.sse.2008.03.002
2484:O. W. Richardson (1901).
2238:Elster and Geitel (1889)
2217:Elster and Geitel (1887)
2196:Elster and Geitel (1885)
2175:Elster and Geitel (1883)
2154:Elster and Geitel (1882)
1807:10.1080/14786447308640935
296:where negatively-charged
160:) or cooling. Thermionic
108:Thermal electron emission
3859:National Historical Park
3651:Edison's Phonograph Doll
3411:Backward-wave oscillator
2954:10.1103/PhysRev.102.1464
2114:10.1002/andp.18842570105
2072:10.1002/andp.18832561214
2038:10.1002/andp.18792430804
1970:10.1002/andp.18692120203
1928:10.1002/andp.18692120102
682:Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim
129:in 1880 while inventing
4110:Statue of Thomas Edison
3717:Incandescent light bulb
3166:Physical Review Applied
2970:Physical Review Letters
2859:Solid-State Electronics
2783:Physical Review Applied
2728:Physical Review Letters
2673:Physical Review Applied
2636:Solid-State Electronics
1762:Encyclopedia Britannica
450:Owen Willans Richardson
188:. Vacuum emission from
3901:Theodore Miller Edison
3818:Mine Safety Appliances
3753:Thomas A. Edison, Inc.
3641:List of Edison patents
3285:Theoretical principles
2608:
2558:
2395:Josephson, M. (1959).
2376:10.1098/rspl.1884.0093
1846:10.1098/rspl.1872.0037
1699:Philosophical Magazine
1693:Becquerel, E. (1853).
1553:
1475:
1333:
1249:crystallographic faces
1227:
1124:
983:
959:
929:
906:
750:
614:
539:
454:Nobel Prize in Physics
283:. This blackening was
249:Johann Wilhelm Hittorf
164:emit electrons from a
158:electrodynamic tethers
150:electricity generation
72:
3441:Inductive output tube
2609:
2559:
2466:Fleming, John Ambrose
2443:Fleming, John Ambrose
2355:Preece, William Henry
2265:www.amusingplanet.com
1872:Wexford College Press
1827:(February 13, 1873).
1554:
1476:
1328:
1228:
1125:
1010:would have the value
984:
960:
930:
907:
751:
615:
540:
261:Hans Friedrich Geitel
219:region into another.
154:thermionic converters
78:is the liberation of
40:
4085:Pearl Street Station
3773:Edison Machine Works
3681:Quadruplex telegraph
3583:List of tube sockets
3578:List of vacuum tubes
3416:Beam deflection tube
3224:, john-a-harper.com.
3018:. 269/270: 695–699.
2568:
2510:
2369:(235–238): 219–230.
2126:E. Goldstein (1885)
1839:(139–147): 168–169.
1486:
1379:
1156:
1027:
973:
939:
919:
780:
705:
552:
491:
430:thermionic converter
410:John Ambrose Fleming
362:conventional current
47:low pressure mercury
4095:Thomas Edison House
4080:War of the currents
3732:Thermionic emission
3727:Nickel–iron battery
3707:Edison–Lalande cell
3702:Consolidated Edison
3501:Traveling-wave tube
3292:Thermionic emission
3189:2016PhRvP...6c4013A
3091:2010NatMa...9..762S
3024:1992SurSc.269..695S
2983:2001PhRvL..86.5570M
2946:1956PhRv..102.1464M
2895:"Schottky emission"
2893:Orloff, J. (2008).
2872:2008SSEle..52.1032K
2806:2019PhRvP..12a4057A
2696:2015PhRvP...3a4002L
2649:1965SSEle...8..395C
2302:1960AmJPh..28..763J
2106:1884AnP...257...90H
2030:1879AnP...243..553H
1962:1869AnP...212..197H
1920:1869AnP...212....1H
1622:Stanford University
1571:vacuum permittivity
1331:electron microscope
439:
213:thermionic emission
76:Thermionic emission
4059:Edisonian approach
3239:2012-02-05 at the
2604:
2554:
2133:2018-01-13 at the
1825:Guthrie, Frederick
1787:Guthrie, Frederick
1656:Thermal ionization
1549:
1471:
1358:Walter H. Schottky
1334:
1223:
1120:
979:
955:
925:
902:
746:
649:Boltzmann constant
610:
535:
485:Arrhenius equation
390:voltage-regulating
326:Edison effect bulb
281:incandescent lamps
73:
50:gas-discharge lamp
4146:Energy conversion
4123:
4122:
4028:A Night of Terror
3646:Carbon microphone
3591:
3590:
3530:Numbering systems
3511:Video camera tube
3496:Talaria projector
3278:Thermionic valves
2977:(24): 5570–5573.
2912:978-1-4200-4554-3
2622:. pp. 63–64.
2414:978-0-07-033046-7
2336:Edison, Thomas A.
2310:10.1119/1.1935997
1881:978-1-929148-10-3
1578:Schottky emission
1544:
1543:
1511:
1468:
1315:Schottky emission
1117:
1070:
982:{\displaystyle h}
965:are the mass and
952:
928:{\displaystyle m}
839:
825:
678:Arnold Sommerfeld
668:, by Richardson,
607:
244:Frederick Guthrie
186:transition metals
168:into an enclosed
80:charged particles
67:, the coating is
16:(Redirected from
4163:
3919:Young Tom Edison
3808:General Electric
3618:
3611:
3604:
3595:
3401:Cathode-ray tube
3271:
3264:
3257:
3248:
3209:
3208:
3182:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3143:
3141:10.1002/pip.1088
3117:
3111:
3110:
3099:10.1038/nmat2814
3078:Nature Materials
3072:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2940:(6): 1464–1473.
2927:
2921:
2920:
2905:. pp. 5–6.
2901:(2nd ed.).
2890:
2884:
2883:
2866:(7): 1032–1038.
2855:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2833:
2825:
2799:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2744:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2689:
2667:
2661:
2660:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2605:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2548:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2525:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2446:
2435:
2429:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2402:
2392:
2386:
2384:
2378:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2257:
2251:
2236:
2230:
2215:
2209:
2194:
2188:
2173:
2167:
2152:
2146:
2124:
2118:
2117:
2082:
2076:
2075:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1848:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1801:(306): 257–266.
1789:(October 1873).
1783:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1744:
1735:. Archived from
1726:
1715:
1709:
1706:
1688:
1672:
1639:gallium arsenide
1587:
1583:
1558:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1509:
1500:
1499:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1459:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1307:
1232:
1230:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1221:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1129:
1127:
1126:
1121:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1108:
1100:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1082:
1081:
1072:
1071:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1019:
988:
986:
985:
980:
964:
962:
961:
956:
954:
953:
950:
934:
932:
931:
926:
911:
909:
908:
903:
901:
900:
899:
887:
882:
881:
869:
859:
858:
840:
838:
837:
828:
827:
826:
823:
817:
816:
797:
792:
791:
755:
753:
752:
747:
745:
744:
735:
734:
733:
719:
718:
717:
627:is the emission
619:
617:
616:
611:
609:
608:
606:
598:
590:
588:
582:
581:
572:
571:
570:
544:
542:
541:
536:
534:
533:
529:
517:
511:
510:
506:
440:Richardson's law
349:
328:consisted of an
321:
240:Edmond Becquerel
196:over 1,000
123:electric current
21:
4171:
4170:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4126:
4125:
4124:
4119:
4063:
4042:
3991:
3956:
3942:The Current War
3927:Edison, the Man
3906:
3883:
3827:
3741:
3690:
3633:
3627:
3622:
3592:
3587:
3566:
3552:Mullard–Philips
3525:
3476:Photomultiplier
3336:
3317:Suppressor grid
3280:
3275:
3241:Wayback Machine
3218:
3213:
3212:
3162:
3161:
3157:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3060:
3058:
3051:Stanford Report
3044:
3043:
3039:
3015:Surface Science
3011:
3010:
3006:
2966:
2965:
2961:
2933:Physical Review
2929:
2928:
2924:
2913:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2853:
2848:
2847:
2843:
2826:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2615:
2581:
2571:
2566:
2565:
2531:
2513:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2483:
2482:
2478:
2471:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2437:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2269:
2267:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2237:
2233:
2216:
2212:
2195:
2191:
2174:
2170:
2153:
2149:
2135:Wayback Machine
2125:
2121:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2066:(12): 705–755.
2050:
2049:
2045:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1882:
1874:. p. 196.
1863:
1862:
1858:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1785:
1784:
1780:
1771:
1769:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1742:
1740:
1724:
1717:
1716:
1712:
1692:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1647:
1635:gallium nitride
1618:
1585:
1581:
1568:
1532:
1525:
1504:
1502:
1501:
1484:
1483:
1460:
1437:
1431:
1421:
1409:
1377:
1376:
1354:Schottky effect
1323:
1321:Schottky effect
1317:
1299:
1285:
1274:
1267:
1257:
1246:
1239:
1213:
1195:
1174:
1159:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1144:
1109:
1101:
1093:
1083:
1073:
1063:
1045:
1025:
1024:
1018:
1011:
1009:
1002:
991:Planck constant
971:
970:
945:
937:
936:
917:
916:
888:
870:
850:
829:
818:
808:
798:
783:
778:
777:
772:
765:
736:
724:
708:
703:
702:
697:
690:
674:Ralph H. Fowler
667:
657:
629:current density
599:
591:
583:
573:
561:
550:
549:
512:
494:
489:
488:
442:
382:
381:
380:
379:
378:
360:(A) to measure
350:
342:
341:
338:carbon filament
322:
313:
312:
269:
253:Eugen Goldstein
225:
41:Closeup of the
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4169:
4167:
4159:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4136:Atomic physics
4128:
4127:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4105:Telephonoscope
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4071:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4062:
4061:
4056:
4050:
4048:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4032:
4024:
4016:
4008:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3981:
3973:
3969:The Future Eve
3964:
3962:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3946:
3938:
3931:
3923:
3914:
3912:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3904:
3898:
3895:Charles Edison
3891:
3889:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3879:Winter Estates
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3835:
3833:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3803:Edison Studios
3800:
3795:
3793:Edison Records
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3749:
3747:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3637:
3635:
3634:and inventions
3629:
3628:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3613:
3606:
3598:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3585:
3580:
3574:
3572:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3481:Selectron tube
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
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3344:
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3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3288:
3286:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3274:
3273:
3266:
3259:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3231:
3225:
3217:
3216:External links
3214:
3211:
3210:
3155:
3112:
3085:(9): 762–767.
3067:
3037:
3004:
2959:
2922:
2911:
2885:
2841:
2772:
2717:
2662:
2643:(4): 395–399.
2625:
2601:
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2590:
2585:
2578:
2574:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2540:
2535:
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2520:
2516:
2499:
2476:
2453:
2430:
2420:
2413:
2387:
2346:
2323:
2296:(9): 763–773.
2276:
2252:
2246:, 3rd series,
2231:
2225:, 3rd series,
2210:
2204:, 3rd series,
2189:
2183:, 3rd series,
2168:
2162:, 3rd series,
2147:
2141:, 3rd series,
2119:
2077:
2043:
2024:(8): 553–631.
2001:
1975:
1956:(2): 197–234.
1933:
1891:
1880:
1856:
1816:
1778:
1749:
1710:
1708:
1707:
1701:. 4th series.
1681:Comptes Rendus
1666:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1646:
1643:
1631:parabolic dish
1617:
1614:
1610:Rydberg matter
1606:Rydberg matter
1566:
1560:
1559:
1548:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1507:
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1412:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1368: − Δ
1319:Main article:
1316:
1313:
1283:
1272:
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1255:
1244:
1237:
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1216:
1212:
1206:
1203:
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1194:
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1167:
1162:
1149:
1142:
1136:band-structure
1132:
1131:
1115:
1112:
1107:
1104:
1097:
1090:
1086:
1080:
1076:
1066:
1062:
1056:
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1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1016:
1007:
1000:
978:
948:
944:
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912:
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891:
886:
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873:
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853:
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763:
757:
756:
743:
739:
732:
727:
722:
716:
711:
695:
688:
665:
655:
643:of the metal,
621:
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576:
569:
564:
560:
557:
532:
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524:
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516:
509:
505:
501:
497:
441:
438:
406:Edison effect,
402:William Preece
366:voltage source
351:
344:
343:
323:
316:
315:
314:
310:
309:
308:
307:
268:
265:
224:
221:
131:his light bulb
92:kinetic energy
88:thermal energy
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4168:
4157:
4156:Thomas Edison
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4090:Edison Museum
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4072:
4070:
4066:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4045:
4038:
4037:
4033:
4030:
4029:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3974:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3952:
3951:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3928:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3916:
3915:
3913:
3909:
3902:
3899:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3748:
3744:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3661:Etheric force
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3630:
3626:
3625:Thomas Edison
3619:
3614:
3612:
3607:
3605:
3600:
3599:
3596:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3547:Marconi-Osram
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3522:
3521:Fleming valve
3519:
3517:
3516:Williams tube
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3327:Glowing anode
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3297:Work function
3295:
3293:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3267:
3265:
3260:
3258:
3253:
3252:
3249:
3243:, csbsju.edu.
3242:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3173:(3): 034013.
3172:
3168:
3167:
3159:
3156:
3151:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3128:
3123:
3116:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3079:
3071:
3068:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3016:
3008:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2963:
2960:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2934:
2926:
2923:
2918:
2914:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2852:
2845:
2842:
2837:
2831:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2790:(1): 014057.
2789:
2785:
2784:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2735:(5): 056802.
2734:
2730:
2729:
2721:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2680:(1): 014002.
2679:
2675:
2674:
2666:
2663:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2637:
2629:
2626:
2621:
2620:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2576:
2572:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2538:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2503:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2477:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2444:
2440:
2434:
2431:
2424:
2421:
2416:
2410:
2406:
2401:
2400:
2391:
2388:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2347:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2324:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2277:
2266:
2262:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2123:
2120:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2100:(1): 90–139.
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2081:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2047:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1979:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1895:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1868:
1860:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1779:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1753:
1750:
1739:on 2016-11-23
1738:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1722:
1714:
1711:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1686:
1683:(in French).
1682:
1678:
1671:
1668:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1591:
1579:
1574:
1572:
1565:
1546:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1505:
1495:
1492:
1482:
1464:
1461:
1453:
1447:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1422:
1410:
1406:
1400:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1388:
1382:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1338:electron guns
1332:
1327:
1322:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1294:is less than
1293:
1288:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1236:
1218:
1214:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1175:
1171:
1160:
1148:
1141:
1137:
1113:
1110:
1105:
1102:
1088:
1084:
1078:
1074:
1064:
1046:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1015:
1006:
999:
994:
992:
976:
968:
946:
942:
922:
896:
893:
884:
878:
875:
866:
855:
851:
847:
844:
841:
834:
830:
819:
813:
809:
805:
802:
799:
793:
788:
784:
776:
775:
774:
769:
762:
741:
737:
725:
720:
709:
701:
700:
699:
694:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
664:
659:
654:
650:
646:
642:
641:work function
638:
634:
630:
626:
603:
600:
595:
592:
578:
574:
562:
558:
555:
548:
547:
546:
530:
526:
522:
519:
507:
503:
499:
495:
486:
482:
477:
475:
474:electronvolts
471:
470:work function
466:
462:
457:
455:
451:
447:
437:
435:
431:
427:
426:Fleming valve
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
348:
339:
335:
331:
327:
320:
306:
303:
299:
295:
294:Crookes tubes
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
273:Thomas Edison
267:Edison effect
266:
264:
263:(1882–1889).
262:
258:
257:Julius Elster
254:
251:(1869–1883),
250:
245:
241:
236:
234:
233:J. J. Thomson
230:
222:
220:
218:
214:
209:
207:
204:; 1,340
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
142:
140:
136:
135:Edison effect
132:
128:
127:Thomas Edison
124:
120:
115:
113:
112:work function
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
70:
66:
63:
59:
55:
51:
48:
44:
39:
33:
19:
18:Edison effect
4151:Vacuum tubes
4100:Edison Hotel
4034:
4026:
4020:Frankenstein
4018:
4010:
4002:
3983:
3975:
3967:
3948:
3940:
3925:
3917:
3849:Depot Museum
3731:
3722:Movie camera
3695:Advancements
3656:Edison screw
3486:Storage tube
3380:Beam tetrode
3312:Control grid
3307:Space charge
3291:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3131:
3125:
3115:
3082:
3076:
3070:
3059:. Retrieved
3050:
3040:
3013:
3007:
2974:
2968:
2962:
2937:
2931:
2925:
2898:
2888:
2863:
2857:
2844:
2830:cite journal
2787:
2781:
2775:
2732:
2726:
2720:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2618:
2502:
2493:
2489:
2479:
2456:
2439:GB 190424850
2433:
2423:
2398:
2390:
2366:
2362:
2349:
2326:
2293:
2289:
2279:
2268:. Retrieved
2264:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2234:
2226:
2222:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2192:
2184:
2180:
2171:
2163:
2159:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2122:
2097:
2093:
2080:
2063:
2059:
2046:
2021:
2017:
2004:
1991:
1978:
1953:
1949:
1936:
1911:
1907:
1894:
1866:
1859:
1836:
1832:
1819:
1798:
1794:
1781:
1770:. Retrieved
1761:
1752:
1741:. Retrieved
1737:the original
1720:
1713:
1702:
1698:
1684:
1680:
1670:
1651:Space charge
1619:
1599:
1588:, so-called
1575:
1563:
1561:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1310:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1289:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1262:
1260:
1252:
1241:
1234:
1146:
1139:
1133:
1013:
1004:
997:
995:
914:
767:
760:
758:
692:
685:
670:Saul Dushman
662:
660:
652:
644:
636:
632:
624:
622:
478:
458:
443:
432:, a type of
405:
383:
325:
298:cathode rays
288:
270:
255:(1885), and
237:
227:Because the
226:
212:
210:
194:temperatures
162:vacuum tubes
143:
134:
116:
107:
95:
75:
74:
4141:Electricity
3996:Productions
3844:Black Maria
3737:Ticker tape
3712:Fluoroscopy
3666:Kinetoscope
3632:Discoveries
3491:Sutton tube
3302:Hot cathode
2405:McGraw-Hill
2086:Hittorf, W.
2052:Hittorf, W.
2010:Hittorf, W.
1984:Hittorf, W.
1942:Hittorf, W.
1914:(1): 1–31.
1900:Hittorf, W.
1627:solar cells
1586:10 V⋅m
1582:10 V⋅m
1356:(named for
461:band theory
434:heat engine
424:called the
418:radio waves
302:ionized gas
217:solid-state
166:hot cathode
82:from a hot
4130:Categories
3961:Literature
3864:State Park
3839:Birthplace
3676:Phonomotor
3671:Phonograph
3506:Trochotron
3436:Iconoscope
3426:Compactron
3421:Charactron
3365:Acorn tube
3180:1609.00460
3061:2010-08-04
2797:1907.07393
2742:1803.01771
2687:1501.05056
2496:: 286–295.
2270:2024-06-03
2250:: 315–329.
2229:: 109–127.
2187:: 588–624.
2166:: 193–222.
1772:2016-11-22
1743:2022-12-16
1733:1803/11438
1705:: 456–457.
1662:References
481:Richardson
444:Following
289:apparently
200:(730
146:electronic
4054:Edisonade
4036:Kidnapped
3832:Monuments
3686:Tasimeter
3471:Phototube
3466:Monoscope
3461:Magnetron
3456:Magic eye
3446:Kinescope
3390:Pentagrid
3205:119221695
3134:(1): 84.
2903:CRC Press
2822:197430947
2767:206314695
2589:−
2539:−
2462:US 803684
2332:US 307031
2318:0002-9505
1534:ϵ
1530:π
1490:Δ
1451:Δ
1448:−
1439:−
1193:−
1176:λ
1152:, giving
1103:−
1065:λ
1043:−
943:−
894:−
885:⋅
876:−
867:⋅
848:×
803:π
726:λ
593:−
520:−
394:telegraph
374:attracted
352:Edison's
334:electrode
330:evacuated
211:The term
152:(such as
104:electrons
96:thermions
84:electrode
69:sputtered
58:strontium
4012:The Kiss
3937:" (1998)
3746:Ventures
3571:Examples
3451:Klystron
3431:Eidophor
3406:Additron
3370:Nuvistor
3237:Archived
3150:97915368
3107:20676086
3055:Archived
2999:11415303
2917:Archived
2759:30118283
2712:55920889
2381:Archived
2357:(1885).
2145:: 79–92.
2131:Archived
2088:(1884).
2054:(1883).
2012:(1879).
1996:Archived
1986:(1874).
1944:(1869).
1902:(1869).
1886:Archived
1851:Archived
1811:Archived
1766:Archived
1687:: 20–24.
1645:See also
1597:regime.
479:In 1901
229:electron
178:carbides
43:filament
4068:Related
3562:Russian
3385:Pentode
3375:Tetrode
3185:Bibcode
3087:Bibcode
3020:Bibcode
2979:Bibcode
2942:Bibcode
2868:Bibcode
2802:Bibcode
2692:Bibcode
2645:Bibcode
2298:Bibcode
2102:Bibcode
2026:Bibcode
1958:Bibcode
1916:Bibcode
1797:. 4th.
989:is the
845:1.20173
647:is the
639:is the
386:voltage
358:ammeter
354:circuit
223:History
182:borides
174:voltage
119:battery
62:calcium
32:fermion
4039:(1917)
4031:(1911)
4023:(1910)
4015:(1896)
4007:(1895)
3988:(2004)
3980:(1898)
3972:(1886)
3953:(2020)
3945:(2017)
3930:(1940)
3922:(1940)
3888:Family
3396:Nonode
3360:Triode
3355:Audion
3332:Getter
3203:
3148:
3105:
2997:
2909:
2820:
2765:
2757:
2710:
2472:
2464:,
2449:
2441:,
2411:
2399:Edison
2342:
2334:,
2316:
2208:: 1–9.
1878:
1602:Cesium
1562:where
967:charge
915:where
759:where
651:, and
623:where
364:and a
285:carbon
190:metals
170:vacuum
86:whose
65:oxides
54:barium
4047:Terms
3950:Tesla
3911:Films
3903:(son)
3897:(son)
3542:RETMA
3350:Diode
3342:Types
3322:Anode
3201:S2CID
3175:arXiv
3146:S2CID
2854:(PDF)
2818:S2CID
2792:arXiv
2763:S2CID
2737:arXiv
2708:S2CID
2682:arXiv
1725:(PDF)
1145:into
459:From
300:from
45:in a
3103:PMID
2995:PMID
2907:ISBN
2836:link
2755:PMID
2564:and
2409:ISBN
2314:ISSN
1876:ISBN
1364:by (
1268:and
1012:1 −
935:and
680:and
465:atom
370:bias
324:One
259:and
156:and
100:ions
60:and
3557:JIS
3537:RMA
3193:doi
3136:doi
3095:doi
3028:doi
2987:doi
2950:doi
2938:102
2876:doi
2810:doi
2747:doi
2733:121
2700:doi
2653:doi
2371:doi
2306:doi
2110:doi
2068:doi
2034:doi
1966:doi
1954:136
1924:doi
1912:136
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