1656:. He was a charismatic leader who was followed by a group of fellow army officers and many among the lower classes. He became the centre of a protest aimed at protecting the Egyptians from their Turkish and European oppressors. The movement began among the Arab officers, who complained of the preference shown to the officers of Turkish origin; it then expanded into an attack on the privileged position and predominant influence of foreigners; finally, it was directed against all Christians, foreign and native. The government, being too weak to suppress the agitation and disorder, had to make concessions, and each concession produced fresh demands. Urabi was first promoted, then made under-secretary for war, and ultimately a member of the cabinet.
1531:. Writing in 1867 she said: "I cannot describe the misery here now every day some new tax. Every beast, camel, cow, sheep, donkey and horse is made to pay. The fellaheen can no longer eat bread; they are living on barley-meal mixed with water, and raw green stuff, vetches, &c. The taxation makes life almost impossible: a tax on every crop, on every animal first, and again when it is sold in the market; on every man, on charcoal, on butter, on salt. . . . The people in Upper Egypt are running away by wholesale, utterly unable to pay the new taxes and do the work exacted. Even here (Cairo) the beating for the years taxes is awful."
729:
1771:
million by the 1880s, and the first modern census registered 9,734,405 people in Egypt in 1897. This was achieved by a radical decrease in mortality rates and concomitant growth of life expectancy by 10â15 years, which, of course, indicates that
Muhammad Ali and his successors in fact achieved impressive success in the effective modernization of Egypt and that the actual quality of life of the majority of the Egyptian population significantly increased in the 19th century. In Egypt in the 19th century the overall pattern of the population growth was explicitly non-
2057:
2083:
1326:
participate (it having some warm feelings to the
Khedive, and mainly participating with what was considered a token force to try to block a British expansion in North Africa.) However, in spite of France's dislike of an Egypt dominated by the British, it was equally unwilling to allow the ambitious Governor to upset the balance of power, and thus, by waiting for the hope of a better chance at victory, Muhammad Ali had to suffer a harder defeat.
1369:, while they were forced to the building of magnificent public works by unpaid labor. In 1844â45 there was some improvement in the condition of the country as a result of financial reforms the pasha executed. Muhammad Ali, who had been granted the honorary rank of grand vizier in 1842, paid a visit to Istanbul in 1846, where he became reconciled to his old enemy Khosrev Pasha, whom he had not seen since he spared his life at Cairo in 1803.
4007:
1649:
to interfere with the power, privileges and perquisites of the local elite. This elite, so far as its civilian members were concerned, was not very formidable, because these were not likely to go beyond the bounds of intrigue and passive resistance; but it contained a military element who had more courage, and who had learned their power when Ismail employed them for overturning his constitutional ministry.
4017:
158:
2252:
36:
559:
4027:
1330:
treaty was harsh, it achieved one of
Muhammad Ali's greatest dreams: to place his family firmly in the reigns of Egyptian power. It was far from all that the crafty Pasha had wanted, but it was what he had to live with, for even in the ending days of the Syrian War, Muhammad was starting to show his age, and would find that he did not have much time left in the world.
4037:
1624:. Professing to be quite satisfied with this arrangement, he announced that Egypt was no longer in Africa but a part of Europe. Within seven months however, he found his constitutional position intolerable, got rid of his irksome cabinet by means of a secretly organized military riot in Cairo, and reverted to his old autocratic methods of government.
1472:, obtained on condition that he increase his annual tribute from ÂŁ376,000 to ÂŁ720,000. This made the succession to the throne of Egypt descend to the eldest of the male children and in the same manner to the eldest sons of these successors, instead of to the eldest male of the family, following the practice of Turkish law. In the next year another
1593:, in which an English official would superintend the revenues and a French official would superintend the expenditures of the country. Another result was the international control of the railways and the port of Alexandria, to balance these items. Then, in May 1878, a commission of inquiry of which the principal members were Sir
1668:, the British fleet bombarded the city. The leaders of the national movement prepared to resist further aggression by force. A conference of ambassadors was held in Constantinople, and the sultan was invited to quell the revolt; but he hesitated to employ his troops against what was far more a threat to European interests.
1752:, and to insist on the principle that Egypt must be governed in a truly liberal spirit. Passing in review all the departments of the administration, he laid down the general lines on which the country was to be restored to order and prosperity, and endowed, if possible, with the elements of self-government for future use.
1393:. Abbas put an end to the system of commercial monopolies, and during his reign the railway from Alexandria to Cairo was begun at the instigation of the British government. Opposed to European ways, Abbas lived in great seclusion. After a reign of less than six years he was murdered in July 1854 by two of his slaves.
1174:; though it was not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own vessels. By 1823, moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and Albanian elements being replaced by Sudanese and
1719:
instead. The
British forces retreating to their main base at Alexandria. The British then transported a large force of Ismailia where 13,000 of them engaged 16,000 Egyptians. They met Uraby at El-Tal El-Kebier which was weakly prepared comparing with the defence lines at Kafr- El- Shiekh to withstand
1648:
and
Monsieur de Blignières. For two years the Dual Control governed Egypt. Discontent within various sectors of the elite and among elements of the population at large led to a reaction against European interference. Without any efficient means of self-protection and coercion at its disposal, it had
1534:
In the late 1860s Egypt attempted to build a modern navy and ordered several armored ironclads, two each of the "Nijmi
Shevket" class and the "Lutfi Djelil" class. Although intended for the Egyptian Navy, these ironclads had to be delivered to the Ottoman Navy in 1869. Egypt was able to keep a navy
1345:
The government of the pashalik of Egypt was made hereditary within the family of
Muhammad Ali. A map showing the boundaries of Egypt accompanied the firman granting Muhammad Ali the pashalik, a duplicate copy being retained by the Porte. The Egyptian copy is supposed to have been lost in a fire which
1313:
Now, with the defeat of the
Ottomans and the conquest of Syria, Muhammad Ali had reached the height of his power. For one brief moment in time, he had become the envy of the Egyptian kings of antiquity, controlling Egypt, the Sudan, and Syria (which alone would have made him their better in power) he
1229:
For the next ten years relations between the Sultan and the Pasha remained in the forefront of the questions which agitated the diplomatic world. It was not only the very existence of the
Ottoman empire that seemed to be at stake, but Egypt itself had become more than ever the object of international
1225:
Ali went to war against the sultan on in order to obtain raw materials lacking in Egypt (especially timber for his navy) and a captive market for Egypt's new industrial output. From fall 1831 to
December 1832 Ibrahim led the Egyptian army through Lebanon and Syria and across the Taurus Mountains into
1202:
His naval superiority wrested from the Greeks the command of a great deal of the sea, on which the fate of the insurrection ultimately depended, while on land the Greek irregular bands, having largely soundly beaten the Porte's troops, had finally met a worthy foe in Ibrahim's disciplined troops. The
915:
The Pasha also attempted to reorganize his troops along European lines, but this led to a formidable mutiny in Cairo. Muhammad Ali's life was endangered, and he sought refuge by night in the citadel, while the soldiers committed many acts of plunder. The effects of the revolt were reduced by gifts to
1770:
During this period the stagnation of the Egyptian population that had been fluctuating at about 4 million level for many centuries prior to 1805 was changed by the start of a rapid population growth. This growth was quite slow till the 1840s, but since then the Egyptian population grew up to about 7
1727:
as one of its leading members. On assuming office, the first thing it had to do was to bring to trial the chiefs of the rebellion. Urabi pleaded guilty, was sentenced to death, the sentence being commuted by the khedive to banishment; and Riaz resigned in disgust. This solution of the difficulty was
1329:
However, though he had lost Syria and his position of great power, the war with the West had not been a complete disaster by any means. For though humiliated and defeated by the Western Powers, the West had no intention of removing him and the block he placed on Ottoman Power. Thus, though the peace
907:
Other domestic efforts were made to promote education and the study of medicine. Muhammad Ali showed much favor, to European merchants, on whom he was dependent for the sale of his monopoly exports, and under his influence the port of Alexandria again rose into importance. It was also under Muhammad
1702:
With no fleet to protect the city, British battleships easily bombarded the city, forcing many civilians to migrate. Uraby, the Egyptian army commander, was not allowed to have troopers exceeding 800 men strong. Defeated in Alexandria, he decided to fight the British on ground he gathered the 2,200
1548:
In the years that followed the condition of things grew worse. A public health crisis arose in Egypt. The Constantinople Board of Health reported that the plague could still be found in Egypt, within the districts of Marj and Assyr. A 21-day quarantine was imposed on the ports of El Wedj. Thousands
1376:
Muhammad Ali survived another eight months, dying on August 2, 1849. He had done a great work in Egypt, the most permanent being the weakening of the tie binding the country to Turkey, the starting of the great cotton industry, the recognition of the advantages of European science, and the conquest
1372:
In 1847 Muhammad Ali laid the foundation stone of the great bridge across the Nile at the beginning of the Delta. Towards the end of 1847, the aged pasha's previously sharp mind began to give way, and by the following June he was no longer capable of administering the government. In September 1848
1557:
had reached such a high point that the ordinary resources of the country no longer sufficed for the most urgent necessities of administration; and the khedive Ismail, having repeatedly broken faith with his creditors, could not raise any more loans on the European market. The taxes were habitually
1421:
a concession "to form a financial company to pierce the isthmus" and operate a canal for 99 years. Lord Palmerston was opposed to this project, and the British opposition delayed the ratification of the concession by the Porte for two years. This prompted a second concession in 1856 that obligated
1359:
service. Florence Nightingale, the famous British nurse, recounts in her letters from Egypt written in 1849â50, that many an Egyptian family thought it be enough to "protect" their children from the inhumanities of the military service by blinding them in one eye or rendering them unfit by cutting
1349:
Various restrictions were laid upon Muhammad Ali, emphasizing his position as vassal. He was forbidden to maintain a fleet and his army was not to exceed 18,000 men. The pasha no longer a disrupting figure in European politics, but he continued to occupy himself with his improvements in Egypt. But
1294:
and Arabs, into revolt, after first welcoming him as a deliverer. The unrest was suppressed by Muhammad Ali in person, and the Syrians were terrorized, but their discontent encouraged the Sultan Mahmud to hope for revenge, and a renewal of the conflict was only staved off by the anxious efforts of
864:
During Ibrahim's engagement in the second Arabian campaign, the pasha turned his attention to further strengthening the Egyptian economy, and his control over it. He created state monopolies for the chief products of the country, and created a number of factories. In 1819 he began digging the new
1325:
was prompt, launching an invasion by a primarily British force (with some French and Greek elements), they made short work of Muhammad Ali's pride and joy: Egypt's modern Armed forces. However, while his army was being defeated, Muhammad saw the possibility of victory in France's unwillingness to
860:
While the process had begun in 1808, Muhammad Ali's representative at Cairo had completed the confiscation of almost all the lands belonging to private individuals, while he was absent in Arabia (1813â15). The former owners were forced to accept inadequate pensions instead. By this revolutionary
665:
mercenaries along with Egyptians loyal to Muhammad Ali. It lasted from 1803 to 1807 with the Muhammad Ali Pasha taking control of Egypt in 1805, when the Ottoman Sultan acknowledged his position. Thereafter, Muhammad Ali was the undisputed ruler of Egypt, and his efforts henceforth were directed
1698:
on September 13, 1882. While it had been claimed this was meant to be only a temporary intervention, British troops would remain in Egypt until 1956. The landing in Ismailia happened due to the British failure to perform the original plan to destroy defences in Alexandria, then march to Cairo.
1165:
Mahmud also was already planning reforms borrowed from the West, and Muhammad Ali, who had plenty of opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare, was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet and an army on European lines, partly as a measure of
1558:
collected many months in advance, and the colossal floating debt was increasing rapidly. In these circumstances Ismail had to realize his remaining assets, and among them sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British government for ÂŁ976,582, which surrendered Egyptian control of the waterway.
1491:
Ismail re-established and improved Muhammad Ali's administrative system, which had fallen into decay under Abbas's uneventful rule. This included a thorough revamping of the customs system which was anarchic, and remodeled on British lines and by English officials. In 1865, he established the
1314:
saw the Ottoman armies collapse or fall into disorganization after their defeat in Syria, and it looked like the Middle East and Anatolia were his for the taking. It looked like he could march all the way to Istanbul, in the minds of some, and place himself on the Sultan's throne.
781:
in charge of the country. He encountered serious obstacles in Arabia, predominantly stemming from the nature of the country and the harassing mode of warfare adopted by his adversaries, but on the whole his forces proved superior to those of the enemy. He deposed and exiled the
1290:. However the unsound foundations of his authority were not long in revealing themselves. Scarcely a year from the signing of the Convention of Kutaya the application by Ibrahim of Egyptian methods of government, notably of the monopolies and conscription, had driven Syrians,
1569:
was inevitable. With no alternatives, European powers used Egypt's indebtedness to extract concessions regarding how the debts would be repaid. Other commissions of inquiry followed, and each one brought Ismail increasingly under European control. The establishment of the
1447:
1346:
destroyed a great part of the Egyptian archives. The Turkish copy has never been produced and its existence now appears doubtful. The point was of importance, as in 1892 and again in 1906 boundary disputes arose between Ottoman Empire and the Egyptian Khiedevate.
1454:
The reign of Ismail, from 1863 to 1879, was initially hailed as a new era of bringing Egypt into modernity. He completed vast development schemes and attempted positive administrative reforms, but this progress, coupled with his personal extravagance led to
1131:
The subsequent years saw an imposition of order across Egypt and Ali's new highly trained and disciplined forces spread across the nation. Public order was rendered perfect; the Nile and the highways were secure to all travelers, Christian or Muslim; the
852:(in some references he was sent to Cairo), where, in spite of Ibrahim's promise of safety and of Muhammad Ali's intercession in their favor, they were put to death. At the close of the year 1819 Ibrahim returned having subdued all opposition in Arabia.
1354:
of cattle in 1842 and a destructive Nile flood made matters worse. In 1843 there was a plague of locusts where whole villages were depopulated. Even the sequestered army was a strain enough for a population unaccustomed to the rigidities of the
1627:
Britain and France, anxious about losing influence under this affront, decided to administer chastisement by the hand of the suzerain power, which was delighted to have an opportunity of asserting its authority. The Europeans and the Sublime
1400:, the favorite son of Muhammad Ali, who lacked the strength of mind or physical health needed to execute the beneficent projects which he conceived. His endeavour, for instance, to put a stop to the slave raiding which devastated the
1735:
One of his first acts, after preventing the application of capital punishment to the ringleaders of the revolt, was to veto the project of protecting the khedive and his government by means of a Praetorian guard recruited from
1360:
off their limb. But Muhammad Ali was not to be confounded by such tricks of bodily non-compliance, and with that view he set up a special corps of disabled musketeers declaring that one can shoot well enough even with one eye.
1180:. The effectiveness of the new force was demonstrated in the suppression of an 1823 revolt of the Albanians in Cairo by six disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more troubled with military mutinies.
1123:
The insurrection was crushed by Muhammad Ali, and about one fourth of Ahmad's followers perished, but he himself escaped and was never heard of again. Few of these unfortunates possessed any other weapon than the long staff
1211:, who early in August 1828 appeared before Alexandria and induced the pasha, by no means sorry to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of bombardment, to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his army.
1729:
1128:) of the Egyptian peasant; still they offered an obstinate resistance, and the combat in which they were defeated resembled a massacre. This movement was the last internal attempt to destroy the pasha's authority.
1109:. He proclaimed himself a prophet, and was soon followed by between 20,000 and 30,000 insurgents, mostly peasants, but some of them deserters from the Nizam Gedid, for that force was yet in a half-organized state.
1516:, Egypt was compelled to pay more than ÂŁ3 million in compensation to the Canal Company. The funds helped pay for the elaborate dredging equipment brought in to replace the labour and needed to complete the canal.
1703:
men at Kafr-el-sheikh and constructed strong base which he held against a force of 2,600 British who were trying to advance on Cairo from the north. The battle took place between an Egyptian army, headed by
1663:
and massive British investments in Egypt the Europeans looked to intervene. The French hesitated, however, and the British alone tried to suppress the revolt. On July 11, 1882, after widespread revolts in
1565:, MP, and Colonel (later Sir) John Stokes, RE, were sent to Egypt to inquire into Egypt's financial situation. Mr Cave's report, made public only in April 1876, showed that under the existing administration
1492:
Egyptian post office; he reorganized the military schools of his grandfather, and gave some support to the cause of education. Railways, telegraphs, irrigation projects, lighthouses, the harbour works at
53:
3856:
2889:
1459:. The later part of his reign is historically and nationally important simply for its result, which brought European intervention deeply into Egyptian finances and development, and led to the
2884:
2879:
1581:, instituted in May 1876 as a result of the Cave mission, led to international control over a large portion of the government's revenue. In November 1876, the mission of Mr (afterwards Lord)
1466:
In his earlier years of reign, much was changed regarding Egypt's sovereignty, which seemed likely to give Ismail a more important place in history. In 1866 the Ottoman Sultan granted him a
1234:. Ibrahim, who once more commanded in his father's name, launched another brilliant campaign beginning with the storming of Acre on May 27, 1832, and culminating in the rout and capture of
1230:
attention, to British statesmen especially, and in the issue of the struggle were involved the interests of Britain in the two routes to India by the Isthmus of Suez and the valley of the
1632:
decided to force Ismail out of office. On the June 26, 1879 Ismail suddenly received from the sultan a curt telegram, addressed to him as ex-khedive of Egypt, informing him that his son
916:
the insurgent's leaders; Muhammad Ali also ordered that those who suffered from the disturbances should receive compensation from the state treasury. The conscription portion of the
1154:, whose whole policy had been directed to curbing the power of his too ambitious vassals, and who was under the influence of the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt, notably of
1508:
at the Suez's midpoint. When Khedive Ismail sought to terminate Egypt's corvee labour obligation, because he needed it for cotton production to take advantage of vastly inflated
1644:
After a short period of inaction, when it seemed as if the change might be for the worse, Britain and France in November 1879, re-established the Dual Control in the persons of
1561:
These crises induced the British government to inquire more carefully into the financial condition of the country, where Europeans had invested much capital. In December 1875,
1245:
Soon after he was blocked by the intervention of Russia, however. As the result of endless discussions between the representatives of the powers, the Porte and the pasha, the
1191:, which he had occupied with a small Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824 a fleet of 60 Egyptian warships carrying a large force of 17,000 disciplined troops concentrated in
1051:
The forces destined for this service were led by Ismail, his youngest son. They consisted of between 4000 and 5000 men, being Turks and Arabs. They left Cairo in July 1820.
1523:, as well as the actual labor, were remorselessly extorted from a poverty-stricken population. A striking picture of the condition of the people at this period is given by
869:
to Alexandria, named after the reigning Sultan of Turkey. The old canal had long fallen into decay, and the necessity of providing a safe channel between Alexandria and the
3411:
1612:
Driven to desperation in September 1878, Ismail made a virtue of necessity and, in lieu of the Dual Control, accepted a constitutional ministry, under the presidency of
1085:; following this incident the defterdar, a man infamous for his cruelty, assumed the command of those provinces, and exacted terrible retribution from the inhabitants.
1150:
Muhammad Ali was fully conscious that the empire which he had so laboriously built up might at any time have to be defended by force of arms against his master Sultan
978:
were introduced to Egyptian industrial manufacturing. While there was a lack of coal deposits in Egypt, prospectors searched for coal deposits there, and manufactured
833:, and with the non-fulfillment of certain of its clauses, determined to send another army to Arabia, and to include in it the soldiers who had recently proved unruly.
797:
Following reports that the Turks, whose cause he was upholding in Arabia, were treacherously planning an invasion of Egypt, and hearing of the escape of Napoleon from
2309:
1048:. He also saw in the campaign a means of getting rid of his disaffected troops, and of obtaining a sufficient number of captives to form the nucleus of the new army.
1496:, and the breakwater at Alexandria, were carried out during his reign, by some of the best contractors of Europe. Most important of all, was Egypt's support for the
4061:
3280:
1006:, which had a yearly coal output of 4,000 tons. Compared to Western Europe, Egypt also had superior agriculture and an efficient transport network through the
1170:
in 1821, he had already expended much time and energy in organizing a fleet and in training, under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and
100:
1793:
1788:
1582:
1183:
His foresight was rewarded by the invitation of the sultan to help him in the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offering as reward the pashaliks of the
881:(Lord Dalling), struck the death knell to the system of monopolies, though its application regarding Egypt was delayed for some years, and finally included
72:
2273:
2906:
2874:
878:
587:
1762:. The document was limited in scope and was effectively more of an organic law of the Consultative Council to the khedive than an actual constitution.
1519:
Once that conflict ended Ismail had to find new sources of funding to keep his development and reform efforts alive. Thus the funds required for these
1500:, which finally opened in 1869. Not only did the government buy many shares in the venture, initially intended for British investors, it provided the
79:
3735:
3263:
2745:
2264:
1002:
was also imported from overseas, at similar prices to what imported coal cost in France, until the 1830s, when Egypt gained access to coal sources in
787:
777:
But some mishaps followed, and Muhammad Ali, who had determined to conduct the war in person, left Egypt in the summer of 1813âleaving his other son
3747:
1682:
The British government decided to employ armed force, and invited France to cooperate. The French government declined, and a similar invitation to
3182:
2916:
1220:
86:
2459:
1207:
and the liberation of Greece is told elsewhere; the withdrawal of the Egyptians from the Morea was ultimately due to the action of Admiral Sir
929:
1105:
In 1824 a native rebellion broke out in Upper Egypt headed by one Ahmad, an inhabitant of al-Salimiyyah, a village situated a few miles above
3984:
2428:
2360:
2173:
2041:
2014:
1987:
1659:
The danger of a serious rising brought the British and French fleets in May 1882 to Alexandria. Because of concerns over the safety of the
68:
3808:
3462:
3406:
3362:
3175:
2849:
2839:
2799:
2326:
1342:
and certain places on the Arabian side of the Red Sea, and to the Sudan. The most important of these documents is dated February 13, 1841.
904:, and with the organization of the new irrigation and industry, Muhammad Ali was able to extract considerable revenue in a few years time.
3467:
3207:
3093:
1089:
was founded at this time, and in the following years the rule of the Egyptians was greatly extended and control of the Red Sea ports of
243:
1779:, whereby the increase in population was accompanied not by decreases of the relative population growth rates, but by their increases.
1077:
with like result, but not without a hard-fought engagement. In October 1822, Ismail, with his retinue, was burnt to death by Nimr, the
3920:
3851:
3730:
3352:
3229:
2896:
2777:
2704:
2692:
2653:
2126:
1945:
1732:, then British ambassador at Istanbul, who had been sent to Egypt as high commissioner to adjust affairs and report on the situation.
1460:
1422:
the Egyptian government to provide 80% of the labour for the canal's construction. Said also made concessions to the British, for the
1310:
on the 24th of June. Once more the Ottomans were utterly routed. Six days later, before the news reached Constantinople, Mahmud died.
1027:
963:
654:
648:
510:
463:
263:
223:
3455:
2984:
2150:
1893:
1857:
1708:
1645:
1598:
119:
728:
3588:
3251:
2974:
1800:
2804:
3947:
3915:
3668:
3394:
2524:
1590:
1553:. Eventually, Egypt successfully annexed the region of Darfur, further expanding the state. In 1875, the impoverishment of the
4096:
4091:
3516:
3273:
1755:
1574:
in 1876, in place of the system of consular jurisdiction in civil actions, made some of the courts of justice international.
1434:âł, the actual amount received by the pasha being ÂŁ2,640,000. In January 1863 Said Pasha died and was succeeded by his nephew
580:
93:
57:
4030:
3715:
2306:
4066:
3803:
3598:
3004:
2529:
2512:
1812:
1759:
1338:
The end was reached early in 1841. New 'firmans' were issued which confined the pasha's authority to Egypt, including the
203:
1609:. One result of that inquiry was the extension of international control to the enormous property of the khedive himself.
3779:
3583:
3551:
3367:
2999:
2869:
2792:
1321:, designed to end the war and deal with the likely contingency of Muhammad Ali's refusal. Their intervention during the
273:
1723:
The khedive, who had taken refuge in Alexandria, returned to Cairo, and a ministry was formed under Sherif Pasha, with
3942:
3784:
3526:
3416:
3239:
3034:
2901:
2844:
2740:
2615:
1677:
1318:
632:
540:
2673:
1636:
was appointed his successor. Surprised, he made no attempt at resistance, and Tewfik was at once proclaimed khedive.
1431:
1166:
precaution, partly as an instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes of ambition. Before the outbreak of the
1155:
4086:
4076:
3937:
3639:
3622:
3605:
3546:
3372:
3327:
3258:
3197:
3170:
2814:
2452:
1040:. Ali's intentions for Sudan was to extend his rule southward, to capture the valuable caravan trade bound for the
2731:
1881:
Between Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800-1870
1845:
Between Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800-1870
46:
3903:
3846:
3813:
3578:
3488:
3450:
3445:
3433:
3332:
3138:
3024:
2994:
2979:
1571:
1549:
of people died and large sums expended in extending Ismail's dominions in the Sudan and in futile conflicts with
1423:
1167:
1145:
573:
137:
4081:
3979:
3959:
3767:
3593:
3389:
3377:
3214:
3192:
2859:
2809:
2750:
2709:
2585:
2580:
2546:
2507:
1066:
346:
194:
2787:
1246:
942:
per capita. The industry was initially driven by machinery that relied on traditional energy sources, such as
1317:
With the Ottoman Empire at the feet of Muhammad Ali, the European powers were greatly alarmed and issued the
840:, left in the autumn of 1816. The war was long and arduous but in 1818 Ibrahim captured the Saudi capital of
829:, but died in 1816 at the early age of twenty. Muhammad Ali, dissatisfied with the treaty concluded with the
3888:
3742:
3511:
3246:
3098:
3071:
3056:
3051:
2687:
1817:
1524:
1322:
882:
602:
501:
233:
17:
4071:
3969:
3898:
3720:
3688:
3382:
3320:
3315:
3029:
2494:
2296:
1695:
1171:
837:
778:
1249:
was signed on May 14, 1833, by which the sultan agreed to bestow on Muhammad Ali the pashaliks of Syria,
762:. In the end of the year Tusun, having received reinforcements, again assumed the offensive and captured
751:
716:
in 1802, the Ottoman sultan ordered Muhammad Ali of Egypt to start moving against Wahabbis to re-conquer
680:
3974:
3866:
3836:
3725:
3705:
3651:
3563:
3202:
3160:
3155:
3133:
2941:
2931:
2716:
2595:
2563:
2445:
2370:
Hopkins, A. G. (1986). "The Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of Egypt, 1882".
1621:
1617:
1594:
1520:
987:
874:
742:, in 1811 Muhammad Ali dispatched an army of 20,000 men (and 2,000 horses) under the command of his son
732:
694:
606:
1373:
Ibrahim was acknowledged by the Porte as ruler of the pashalik, but he died in the following November.
1298:
In the spring of 1839 the sultan ordered his army, concentrated under Reshid in the border district of
1235:
1602:
1226:
Anatolia where he defeated the Ottoman forces and pushed on to Kutahya, only 150 miles from Istanbul.
3841:
3791:
3661:
2765:
2755:
1916:
1418:
253:
213:
3952:
3932:
3752:
3700:
3695:
3634:
3536:
3219:
3150:
3145:
2864:
2340:
The Cambridge History Of Egypt Volume 2 Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century
1606:
1566:
1417:
The pasha was much under French influence, and in 1854 was induced to grant to the French engineer
1390:
1265:. The announcement of the pasha's appointment had already been made in the usual way in the annual
443:
4016:
3762:
3673:
3573:
3440:
3268:
3234:
3187:
3165:
3061:
2963:
2834:
2721:
2668:
2403:
2395:
2214:
1578:
1513:
1204:
939:
814:
755:
624:
616:
520:
483:
355:
1586:
4040:
861:
method of land nationalization Muhammad Ali became proprietor of nearly all the soil of Egypt.
3910:
3772:
3710:
3656:
3617:
3568:
3521:
3506:
3421:
3337:
3224:
3122:
3103:
2936:
2610:
2605:
2536:
2519:
2502:
2424:
2387:
2356:
2234:
2206:
2169:
2146:
2122:
2037:
2031:
2010:
2004:
1983:
1941:
1889:
1879:
1853:
1776:
1397:
1276:
1208:
1063:
were defeated, the remnant of the Mamluks dispersed, and Sennar was reduced without a battle.
1011:
901:
866:
845:
830:
791:
747:
636:
405:
395:
375:
365:
308:
176:
167:
2118:
2111:
1977:
1937:
1930:
1704:
1282:
Muhammad Ali now ruled over a virtually independent empire, stretching from the Sudan to the
1258:
3871:
3828:
3798:
3683:
3646:
3428:
3357:
3310:
3299:
3014:
3009:
2989:
2911:
2726:
2627:
2558:
2541:
2482:
2379:
2198:
1386:
1283:
917:
806:
628:
530:
425:
146:
3861:
3678:
3629:
3531:
3347:
3083:
3066:
2697:
2622:
2313:
2300:
1691:
1468:
1435:
1339:
935:
783:
415:
1306:, to advance over the Syrian frontier. Ibrahim, seeing his flank menaced, attacked it at
1446:
1010:. Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions for rapid
888:
Another notable addition to the economic progress of the country was the development of
4010:
3964:
3818:
3757:
3541:
3342:
2854:
2782:
2641:
2575:
1908:
1589:
on behalf of the British and French bondholders, one result being the establishment of
1536:
1411:
1106:
1073:, with another force of about the same strength, was then sent by Muhammad Ali against
1056:
955:
698:
620:
328:
298:
4055:
3893:
3881:
3876:
3556:
2646:
2417:
2407:
2317:
2268:
2258:
1885:
1849:
1629:
1501:
1427:
971:
739:
612:
453:
2352:
Egypt Under the Khedives, 1805â1879: From Household Government to Modern Bureaucracy
2165:
Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends in Africa
1504:
to dig the canal, as well as digging a canal to bring Nile water to the new city of
4020:
3610:
3019:
2678:
1633:
1562:
1356:
1159:
1113:
1112:
The peasants were angered by many of Ali's reforms, especially the introduction of
1036:. He first sent an expedition westward (Feb. 1820) which conquered and annexed the
975:
943:
563:
2322:
1187:
and of Syria. Mehemet Ali had already, in 1821, been appointed by him governor of
848:, their chief, was made prisoner and with his treasurer and secretary was sent to
157:
2350:
2290:â by Ahmed S. Kamel, Hassan Kamel Kelisli-Morali, Georges Soliman and Magda Malek
1843:
1488:
placed the khedive in many respects in the position of an independent sovereign.
934:
Egypt under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century had the fifth most productive
3039:
2770:
2760:
2568:
2553:
1749:
1653:
1613:
1542:
1195:, and, in the following March, with Ibrahin as commander-in-chief landed in the
959:
947:
909:
743:
738:
Acknowledging the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultan, and at the commands of the
318:
35:
1385:
On Ibrahim's death in November 1848 the government of Egypt fell to his nephew
3088:
3046:
2383:
2225:
Panzac, D. (March 1987). "The Population of Egypt in the Nineteenth Century".
2202:
2189:
McCarthy, Justin A. (October 1976). "Nineteenth-Century Egyptian Population".
1772:
1737:
1724:
1686:
met with a similar refusal. Britain therefore, acting alone, landed troops at
1665:
1660:
1497:
1456:
1037:
1018:
as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.
991:
967:
893:
2391:
2210:
896:
starting in 1822. The cotton seed for the new crop had been brought from the
801:
and fearing danger to Egypt from France or Britain, Muhammad Ali returned to
3927:
3399:
2343:
2277:. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 110â113.
1711:. As a result, the British abandoned any hope they may have had of reaching
1652:
Among the mutinous soldiers on that occasion was an officer calling himself
1303:
1231:
1151:
1070:
983:
702:
2238:
1117:
754:. After a successful advance this force met with a serious repulse at the
2600:
1822:
1716:
1687:
1550:
1505:
1250:
1192:
1086:
1074:
951:
849:
385:
1014:
existed in Egypt during the 1820sâ1830s, as well as for the adoption of
2218:
1766:
Demographic changes during the reign of Muhammad Ali and his successors
1745:
1484:, borne by Mehemet Ali and his immediate successors. In 1873 a further
1477:
1430:. He also began the national debt by borrowing ÂŁ3,293,000 from Messrs âł
1404:
was wholly ineffectual. He had a genuine regard for the welfare of the
1351:
1299:
1287:
1133:
1094:
1060:
1041:
1003:
995:
920:(New System) was temporarily abandoned, as consequence of this mutiny.
841:
662:
2399:
1720:
heavy artillery, so the fort was taken and Uraby was exiled to India.
908:
Ali's encouragement that the overland transit of goods from Europe to
2632:
2590:
1796:
spanned the 148 years of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty from 1805 to 1953.
1741:
1509:
1406:
1365:
1267:
1254:
1176:
1090:
1082:
1045:
1032:
In 1820 Muhammad Ali gave orders to commence the conquest of eastern
979:
889:
774:, defeating the Saudi beyond the latter and capturing their general.
767:
763:
658:
2163:
1758:
of 1882, a constitution, followed an abortive attempt to promulgate
657:
was a long three way civil war between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian
2663:
2468:
2257:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
1712:
1683:
1445:
1401:
1307:
1291:
1272:
1262:
1239:
1196:
1188:
1184:
1052:
1044:, and to secure the rich gold mines which he believed to exist in
1033:
897:
826:
802:
771:
759:
727:
717:
713:
690:
2287:
3076:
1620:
became minister of finance and de Blignières became minister of
1493:
1078:
1007:
999:
870:
810:
798:
706:
3486:
3297:
3120:
2961:
2480:
2441:
2437:
1535:
with a few unarmored warships including the iron steam frigate
1410:, and a land law of 1858 secured for them an acknowledgment of
2293:
1015:
29:
825:
Tusun returned to Egypt on hearing of the military revolt at
1363:
Meantime the uttermost farthing was wrung from the wretched
666:
primarily to the maintenance of his practical independence.
1162:, who had never forgiven his humiliation in Egypt in 1803.
974:, it was under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century that
1512:
prices, caused by the loss of American exports during its
1915:, p. 34â35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science,
1979:
Islamic Law and Civil Code: The Law of Property in Egypt
1715:
from the north, and shifted their base of operations to
1426:, and another in 1854 allowing the establishment of the
1279:, or collector of the crown revenues, a few days later.
962:
had been experimented with in Ottoman Egypt by engineer
877:
in 1838 between Turkey and Britain, negotiated by Sir
1350:
times were not all good; the long wars combined with
790:
he concluded a treaty with Saud's son and successor,
2355:. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press.
982:
which were installed in Egyptian industries such as
3827:
3499:
2925:
2827:
2493:
1545:which survives in rebuilt form to the present day.
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2416:
2110:
1929:
954:, which were also the principle energy sources in
2323:Collection: Egypt in the 19th Century Photography
873:was much felt. The conclusion of the commercial
69:"History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty"
1965:. New York: Longmans, Green and Co. p. 438.
2453:
2162:Korotaev, Andrey; Khaltourina, Daria (2006).
2143:Constitution Writing, Religion and Democracy.
2117:. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. p.
1936:. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. p.
1913:Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering
720:and return the honour of the Ottoman Empire.
581:
8:
1961:Butler, Geoffrey G.; Maccoby, Simon (1928).
1789:List of monarchs of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty
2036:. Princeton University Press. p. 223.
2009:. Princeton University Press. p. 222.
1275:was bestowed on Ibrahim under the style of
1136:tribes were won over to peaceful pursuits.
709:who had conquered Hejaz from the Ottomans.
18:Egypt under Muhammad Ali and his successors
3496:
3483:
3294:
3117:
2958:
2490:
2477:
2460:
2446:
2438:
2145:Cambridge University Press, 2017. p. 293.
1873:
1871:
1869:
623:occupation, and the nominally independent
588:
574:
131:
2294:L'Egypte D'Antan... Egypt in Bygone Days
1982:. Columbia University Press. p. 42.
1203:history of the events that led up to the
813:, reaching the capital on the day of the
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
938:in the world, in terms of the number of
786:and after the death of the Saudi leader
611:(1805â1953) spanned the later period of
1834:
145:
134:
930:Economic history of the Ottoman Empire
836:This expedition, under his eldest son
766:after a prolonged siege. He next took
7:
4062:Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty
4036:
2327:University of Michigan Museum of Art
1963:The Development of International Law
1286:, subject only to a moderate annual
58:adding citations to reliable sources
4026:
2113:A History of the Modern Middle East
1932:A History of the Modern Middle East
1694:, and suppressed the revolt by the
1059:immediately beyond the province of
1028:Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1820-24
746:, a youth of sixteen, against the
25:
3407:Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces
1601:(afterwards Lord Cromer) and MM.
4035:
4025:
4015:
4006:
4005:
3264:Refugees of the Syrian civil war
2307:Early Photos: Egypt in the 1800s
2263:Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). "
2250:
1801:Muhammad Ali Dynasty family tree
1261:, together with the district of
557:
156:
34:
3748:Identification card controversy
2141:AslÄą Ă. Bâli and Hanna Lerner.
1707:, and British forces headed by
1476:bestowed upon him the title of
964:Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf
655:Muhammad Ali's seizure of power
649:Muhammad Ali's seizure of power
45:needs additional citations for
2654:Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt
2423:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
1756:Egyptian Fundamental Ordinance
1450:1881 drawing of the Suez Canal
1396:He was succeeded by his uncle
1221:EgyptianâOttoman War (1831â33)
1116:and the increase in taxes and
689:in 1811â18 was fought between
1:
1813:Category:Muhammad Ali dynasty
1672:Egypt occupied by the British
642:
27:Later period of Ottoman Egypt
3281:Twin towns and sister cities
2793:Assassination of Anwar Sadat
2084:"Royal Geographical Society"
1775:and can be characterized as
1414:as against state ownership.
1319:Convention of London of 1840
966:in 1551, when he invented a
958:up until around 1870. While
643:Muhammad Ali's rise to power
3809:Vehicle registration plates
3463:Water supply and sanitation
2109:Cleveland, William (2013).
1928:Cleveland, William (2013).
1678:British occupation of Egypt
1461:British occupation of Egypt
1022:Invasion of Libya and Sudan
675:Campaign against the Saudis
4113:
3468:Water resources management
2415:Perry, Glenn Earl (2004).
2372:Journal of African History
2349:Hunter, F. Robert (1999).
2030:Tignor, Robert L. (2011).
2003:Tignor, Robert L. (2011).
1786:
1675:
1438:, a son of Ibrahim Pasha.
1380:
1334:End of Muhammad Ali's rule
1218:
1143:
1025:
927:
678:
646:
4001:
3495:
3482:
3363:Impact on the environment
3353:Entrepreneurship policies
3306:
3293:
3129:
3116:
2970:
2957:
2489:
2476:
2384:10.1017/s0021853700036719
2227:Asian and African Studies
2203:10.1080/00263207608700321
1976:Debs, Richard A. (2010).
1424:Eastern Telegraph Company
1381:Muhammad Ali's successors
1168:War of Greek Independence
1146:Greek War of Independence
635:and the formation of the
319:Roman and Byzantine Egypt
3134:Administrative divisions
2810:2011 Egyptian revolution
2751:1952 Egyptian revolution
2547:Lighthouse of Alexandria
970:driven by a rudimentary
670:Egypt under Muhammad Ali
3338:Egyptian stock exchange
2274:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
1818:History of Modern Egypt
1541:and a large yacht, the
1529:Last Letters from Egypt
1323:Oriental Crisis of 1840
1055:at once submitted, the
912:via Egypt was resumed.
821:Second Arabian campaign
264:3rd Intermediate Period
244:2nd Intermediate Period
224:1st Intermediate Period
3669:International rankings
2674:EgyptianâEthiopian War
2191:Middle Eastern Studies
2033:Egypt: A Short History
2006:Egypt: A Short History
1760:a constitution in 1879
1696:battle of Tel-el-Kebir
1451:
1442:Ismail the Magnificent
1432:FrĂźhling & GĂśschen
735:
724:First Arabian campaign
712:When Wahabis captured
4097:20th century in Egypt
4092:19th century in Egypt
3274:Terrorism and tourism
2732:1948 ArabâIsraeli War
2564:Library of Alexandria
1783:Rulers of the Dynasty
1676:Further information:
1595:Charles Rivers Wilson
1449:
1295:the European powers.
1247:Convention of KĂźtahya
988:textile manufacturing
875:Treaty of Balta Liman
731:
204:Early Dynastic Period
4067:Muhammad Ali dynasty
3985:World Heritage Sites
3804:Units of measurement
3259:Proposed new capital
3005:Environmental issues
2766:United Arab Republic
2659:Muhammad Ali dynasty
2419:The History of Egypt
1917:University of Aleppo
1888:. pp. 193â196.
1709:Sir Archibald Alison
1463:shortly thereafter.
1419:Ferdinand de Lesseps
1333:
883:foreign intervention
474:Muhammad Ali dynasty
54:improve this article
3657:Freedom of religion
3552:Mass sexual assault
2917:Timekeeping devices
2815:2013 Rabaa massacre
2788:EgyptianâLibyan War
2090:. November 11, 1874
2088:The Times of London
2064:. November 25, 1874
2062:The Times of London
1878:Jean Batou (1991).
1842:Jean Batou (1991).
1567:national bankruptcy
1480:in lieu of that of
1215:War with the Sultan
892:cultivation in the
758:, and retreated to
693:under the reign of
309:Ptolemaic dynasties
3847:Art (contemporary)
3527:Capital punishment
3417:Telecommunications
3094:Towns and villages
3062:Qattara Depression
2875:Muslim Brotherhood
2845:Cigarette industry
2705:British occupation
2616:Crusader invasions
2586:Rashidun Caliphate
2312:2011-02-19 at the
2299:2019-05-22 at the
1579:Caisse de la Dette
1452:
1205:battle of Navarino
815:Battle of Waterloo
756:Battle of Al-Safra
736:
733:Muhammad Ali Pasha
633:Revolution of 1952
631:, ending with the
625:Sultanate of Egypt
617:Khedivate of Egypt
521:Sultanate of Egypt
511:British occupation
484:Khedivate of Egypt
356:Rashidun caliphate
177:Predynastic Period
4087:Egyptian nobility
4077:Egyptian families
4049:
4048:
3997:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3921:Football stadiums
3852:Botanical gardens
3731:Catholic dioceses
3623:Gender inequality
3547:Human trafficking
3478:
3477:
3412:Tallest buildings
3373:Military industry
3289:
3288:
3230:Political parties
3183:Islamic extremism
3171:Foreign relations
3112:
3111:
2953:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2693:French occupation
2611:Fatimid Caliphate
2606:Ikhshidid dynasty
2430:978-0-313-32264-8
2362:978-977-424-544-2
2175:978-5-484-00560-4
2043:978-0-691-15307-0
2016:978-0-691-15307-0
1989:978-0-231-15044-6
1728:brought about by
1271:issued on May 3.
1209:Edward Codrington
1012:industrialization
867:Mahmoudiyah Canal
752:OttomanâSaudi War
697:(nominally under
687:Ottoman-Saudi war
681:OttomanâSaudi War
637:Republic of Egypt
598:
597:
549:
548:
502:Late Modern Egypt
492:
491:
464:French occupation
434:
433:
396:Ikhshidid dynasty
366:Umayyad caliphate
337:
336:
291:Greco-Roman Egypt
282:
281:
185:
184:
168:Prehistoric Egypt
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
4104:
4039:
4038:
4029:
4028:
4019:
4009:
4008:
3814:Waste management
3579:Academic grading
3497:
3484:
3456:Railway stations
3434:Cultural tourism
3333:Economic regions
3295:
3118:
2959:
2628:Mamluk Sultanate
2559:Diocese of Egypt
2542:Battle of Actium
2491:
2478:
2462:
2455:
2448:
2439:
2434:
2422:
2411:
2366:
2303:â by Max Karkegi
2288:Egyptian Royalty
2278:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2243:
2242:
2222:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2159:
2153:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2116:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1935:
1925:
1919:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1875:
1864:
1863:
1839:
1603:Kremer-Baravelli
1525:Lady Duff Gordon
1284:Taurus Mountains
1242:on December 21.
629:Kingdom of Egypt
603:history of Egypt
590:
583:
576:
564:Egypt portal
562:
561:
560:
531:Kingdom of Egypt
507:
506:
450:
449:
352:
351:
295:
294:
200:
199:
173:
172:
160:
150:
132:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
4112:
4111:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4101:
4082:Egyptian pashas
4052:
4051:
4050:
4045:
3989:
3980:Public holidays
3970:National anthem
3823:
3736:Coptic Churches
3679:Egyptian Arabic
3589:Medical schools
3491:
3474:
3390:Nuclear program
3302:
3285:
3215:Nationality law
3208:Supreme Council
3193:Law enforcement
3125:
3108:
3084:Sinai Peninsula
3067:Red Sea Riviera
2966:
2945:
2921:
2823:
2710:1919 revolution
2698:Revolt of Cairo
2623:Ayyubid dynasty
2601:Tulunid dynasty
2485:
2472:
2466:
2431:
2414:
2369:
2363:
2348:
2335:
2333:Further reading
2316:â slideshow by
2314:Wayback Machine
2301:Wayback Machine
2284:
2265:Egypt/3 History
2262:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2224:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2140:
2136:
2129:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2093:
2091:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2067:
2065:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2044:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1877:
1876:
1867:
1860:
1852:. p. 181.
1841:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1809:
1791:
1785:
1768:
1692:Garnet Wolseley
1680:
1674:
1642:
1572:Mixed Tribunals
1444:
1383:
1340:Sinai peninsula
1336:
1223:
1217:
1148:
1142:
1103:
1030:
1024:
936:cotton industry
932:
926:
858:
823:
784:Sharif of Mecca
726:
683:
677:
672:
653:The process of
651:
645:
594:
558:
556:
551:
550:
504:
494:
493:
447:
436:
435:
416:Ayyubid dynasty
406:Fatimid dynasty
386:Tulunid dynasty
376:Abbasid dynasty
349:
339:
338:
292:
284:
283:
197:
187:
186:
170:
148:
141:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4110:
4108:
4100:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4054:
4053:
4047:
4046:
4044:
4043:
4033:
4023:
4013:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3995:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3956:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3930:
3925:
3924:
3923:
3918:
3916:Football clubs
3908:
3907:
3906:
3901:
3891:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3833:
3831:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3789:
3788:
3787:
3777:
3776:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3723:
3718:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3692:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3671:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3649:
3644:
3643:
3642:
3637:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3603:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3512:Animal welfare
3509:
3503:
3501:
3493:
3492:
3487:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3438:
3437:
3436:
3426:
3425:
3424:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3395:Power stations
3392:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3343:Egyptian pound
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3313:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3298:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3247:Prime Minister
3244:
3243:
3242:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3080:
3079:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3052:Northern coast
3049:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2962:
2955:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2812:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2783:Yom Kippur War
2775:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2666:
2661:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2625:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2578:
2573:
2572:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2527:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2505:
2499:
2497:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2474:
2473:
2467:
2465:
2464:
2457:
2450:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2429:
2412:
2378:(2): 363â391.
2367:
2361:
2346:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2320:
2304:
2291:
2283:
2282:External links
2280:
2269:Chisholm, Hugh
2245:
2244:
2181:
2174:
2154:
2134:
2128:978-0813340487
2127:
2101:
2075:
2049:
2042:
2022:
2015:
1995:
1988:
1968:
1953:
1947:978-0813340487
1946:
1920:
1909:Ahmad Y Hassan
1901:
1894:
1886:Librairie Droz
1865:
1858:
1850:Librairie Droz
1833:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1787:Main article:
1784:
1781:
1767:
1764:
1673:
1670:
1641:
1638:
1443:
1440:
1382:
1379:
1377:of the Sudan.
1335:
1332:
1219:Main article:
1216:
1213:
1144:Main article:
1141:
1140:Greek campaign
1138:
1102:
1099:
1057:Shaigiya tribe
1026:Main article:
1023:
1020:
956:Western Europe
928:Main article:
925:
922:
857:
854:
822:
819:
725:
722:
701:rule) and the
679:Main article:
676:
673:
671:
668:
647:Main article:
644:
641:
596:
595:
593:
592:
585:
578:
570:
567:
566:
553:
552:
547:
546:
543:
537:
536:
533:
527:
526:
523:
517:
516:
513:
505:
500:
499:
496:
495:
490:
489:
486:
480:
479:
476:
470:
469:
466:
460:
459:
456:
448:
442:
441:
438:
437:
432:
431:
428:
426:Mamluk dynasty
422:
421:
418:
412:
411:
408:
402:
401:
398:
392:
391:
388:
382:
381:
378:
372:
371:
368:
362:
361:
358:
350:
347:Medieval Egypt
345:
344:
341:
340:
335:
334:
331:
329:Sasanian Egypt
325:
324:
321:
315:
314:
311:
305:
304:
301:
299:Argead dynasty
293:
290:
289:
286:
285:
280:
279:
276:
270:
269:
266:
260:
259:
256:
250:
249:
246:
240:
239:
236:
234:Middle Kingdom
230:
229:
226:
220:
219:
216:
210:
209:
206:
198:
193:
192:
189:
188:
183:
182:
179:
171:
166:
165:
162:
161:
153:
152:
143:
142:
135:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4109:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4072:Ottoman Egypt
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4042:
4034:
4032:
4024:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4012:
4004:
4003:
4000:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3935:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3909:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3842:Art (ancient)
3840:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3832:
3830:
3826:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3793:
3790:
3786:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3778:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3760:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3728:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3721:Blasphemy law
3719:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3690:
3689:Sign Language
3687:
3685:
3684:Saʽidi Arabic
3682:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3576:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3485:
3481:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3443:
3442:
3439:
3435:
3432:
3431:
3430:
3427:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3401:
3398:
3397:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3322:
3321:National Bank
3319:
3318:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3282:
3279:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3245:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3128:
3124:
3119:
3115:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2924:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2739:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2647:Ottoman Egypt
2645:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2470:
2463:
2458:
2456:
2451:
2449:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2432:
2426:
2421:
2420:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2318:Life magazine
2315:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2259:public domain
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2185:
2182:
2177:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2151:9781107070516
2148:
2144:
2138:
2135:
2130:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2114:
2105:
2102:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2076:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2050:
2045:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2026:
2023:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2007:
1999:
1996:
1991:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1972:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1895:9782600042932
1891:
1887:
1883:
1882:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1859:9782600042932
1855:
1851:
1847:
1846:
1838:
1835:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1794:Eleven rulers
1790:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1731:
1730:Lord Dufferin
1726:
1721:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1679:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1618:Rivers Wilson
1615:
1610:
1608:
1607:de Blignières
1605:and Monsieur
1604:
1600:
1599:Evelyn Baring
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1502:corvee labour
1499:
1495:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1470:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1448:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1428:Bank of Egypt
1425:
1420:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1392:
1391:Tusun Abbasad
1389:, the son of
1388:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1368:
1367:
1361:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1343:
1341:
1331:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1227:
1222:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1129:
1127:
1121:
1119:
1118:forced labour
1115:
1110:
1108:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
976:steam engines
973:
972:steam turbine
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
931:
923:
921:
919:
918:Nizam-Äą Cedid
913:
911:
905:
903:
899:
895:
891:
886:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
862:
855:
853:
851:
847:
843:
839:
838:Ibrahim Pasha
834:
832:
828:
820:
818:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
795:
793:
789:
785:
780:
775:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
740:Ottoman Porte
734:
730:
723:
721:
719:
715:
710:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
682:
674:
669:
667:
664:
660:
656:
650:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
613:Ottoman Egypt
610:
608:
604:
591:
586:
584:
579:
577:
572:
571:
569:
568:
565:
555:
554:
544:
542:
539:
538:
534:
532:
529:
528:
524:
522:
519:
518:
514:
512:
509:
508:
503:
498:
497:
487:
485:
482:
481:
477:
475:
472:
471:
467:
465:
462:
461:
457:
455:
454:Ottoman Egypt
452:
451:
445:
440:
439:
429:
427:
424:
423:
419:
417:
414:
413:
409:
407:
404:
403:
399:
397:
394:
393:
389:
387:
384:
383:
379:
377:
374:
373:
369:
367:
364:
363:
359:
357:
354:
353:
348:
343:
342:
332:
330:
327:
326:
322:
320:
317:
316:
312:
310:
307:
306:
302:
300:
297:
296:
288:
287:
277:
275:
272:
271:
267:
265:
262:
261:
257:
255:
252:
251:
247:
245:
242:
241:
237:
235:
232:
231:
227:
225:
222:
221:
217:
215:
212:
211:
207:
205:
202:
201:
196:
195:Ancient Egypt
191:
190:
180:
178:
175:
174:
169:
164:
163:
159:
155:
154:
151:
144:
139:
133:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: â
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3867:Coat of arms
3837:Architecture
3726:Christianity
3706:Prostitution
3652:Human rights
3611:Abaza family
3599:Universities
3564:Demographics
3517:Billionaires
3161:Constitution
3156:Conscription
3139:Governorates
3020:Halfaya Pass
2890:1954âpresent
2850:Constitution
2805:2010s Crisis
2717:World War II
2679:Urabi revolt
2658:
2596:Islamization
2530:31st Dynasty
2525:27th Dynasty
2418:
2375:
2371:
2351:
2339:
2272:
2248:
2233:(1): 11â32.
2230:
2226:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2164:
2157:
2142:
2137:
2112:
2104:
2092:. Retrieved
2087:
2078:
2066:. Retrieved
2061:
2052:
2032:
2025:
2005:
1998:
1978:
1971:
1962:
1956:
1931:
1923:
1912:
1904:
1880:
1844:
1837:
1792:
1769:
1754:
1734:
1722:
1705:Ahmed âUrabi
1701:
1681:
1658:
1651:
1646:Major Baring
1643:
1640:Dual control
1626:
1622:public works
1611:
1591:Dual Control
1576:
1563:Stephen Cave
1560:
1554:
1547:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1521:public works
1518:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1473:
1467:
1465:
1453:
1416:
1405:
1395:
1384:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1362:
1357:conscription
1348:
1344:
1337:
1328:
1316:
1312:
1297:
1281:
1266:
1244:
1236:Reshid Pasha
1228:
1224:
1201:
1182:
1175:
1164:
1160:Grand Vizier
1156:HĂźsrev Pasha
1149:
1130:
1125:
1122:
1114:conscription
1111:
1104:
1101:Ahmad Revolt
1067:Mahommed Bey
1065:
1050:
1031:
948:water wheels
944:animal power
933:
914:
906:
887:
879:Henry Bulwer
863:
859:
835:
824:
796:
776:
737:
711:
695:Muhammad Ali
686:
684:
652:
607:Muhammad Ali
601:
599:
545:1953âpresent
473:
444:Early modern
323:30 BCâ641 AD
258:1550â1069 BC
248:1650â1550 BC
238:2055â1650 BC
228:2181â2055 BC
218:2686â2181 BC
208:3150â2686 BC
181:6000â3000 BC
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
4031:WikiProject
3792:Scientology
3662:LGBT rights
3584:Law schools
3368:Lighthouses
3311:Agriculture
3040:Mount Sinai
3000:Earthquakes
2800:Mubarak era
2771:Six-Day War
2761:Suez Crisis
2756:Land reform
2503:Prehistoric
2338:Daly, M.W.
2197:(3): 1â39.
1750:Switzerland
1654:Ahmed Urabi
1614:Nubar Pasha
1543:"Mahroussa"
992:paper mills
960:steam power
605:under the
274:Late Period
268:1069â664 BC
254:New Kingdom
214:Old Kingdom
147:History of
4056:Categories
3943:Newspapers
3933:Mass media
3785:Synagogues
3753:Irreligion
3701:Literature
3696:Liberalism
3635:Healthcare
3537:Corruption
3220:Parliament
3151:Corruption
3146:Civil Code
3089:Suez Canal
3047:Nile Delta
2932:Alexandria
2902:Population
2897:Parliament
2865:Healthcare
2746:Nasser era
2520:Achaemenid
2495:Chronology
1829:References
1777:hyperbolic
1773:Malthusian
1738:Asia Minor
1725:Riaz Pasha
1690:under Sir
1666:Alexandria
1661:Suez Canal
1587:M. Joubert
1498:Suez Canal
1457:bankruptcy
1398:Said Pasha
1172:artificers
1097:obtained.
1081:(king) of
1038:Siwa oasis
968:steam jack
894:Nile Delta
846:Abdullah I
805:by way of
792:Abdullah I
303:332â310 BC
278:664â332 BC
110:March 2023
80:newspapers
3938:Magazines
3928:Egyptians
3763:Ahmadiyya
3674:Languages
3640:Hospitals
3574:Education
3441:Transport
3400:Aswan Dam
3328:Companies
3269:Terrorism
3235:President
3198:Massacres
3188:Judiciary
3166:Elections
3035:Mountains
2964:Geography
2942:Port Said
2885:1939â1954
2880:1928â1938
2835:Anarchism
2778:Sadat era
2722:Sultanate
2669:Khedivate
2569:Christian
2537:Ptolemaic
2408:162732269
2392:0021-8537
2325:from the
2211:0026-3206
1514:Civil War
1304:Euphrates
1232:Euphrates
1152:Mahmud II
1071:defterdar
984:ironworks
952:windmills
794:in 1815.
535:1922â1953
525:1914â1922
515:1882â1922
488:1867â1914
478:1805â1953
468:1798â1801
458:1517â1867
430:1250â1517
420:1171â1250
313:310â30 BC
4011:Category
3975:Olympics
3911:Football
3743:Hinduism
3711:Religion
3618:Feminism
3606:Families
3569:Diaspora
3532:Censuses
3522:Cannabis
3507:Abortion
3451:Airports
3446:Airlines
3422:Internet
3225:Passport
3203:Military
3176:Missions
3123:Politics
3104:Wildlife
2828:By topic
2741:Republic
2576:Sassanid
2310:Archived
2297:Archived
2239:11616642
2168:. URSS.
1911:(1976),
1823:Al-Nahda
1807:See also
1717:Ismailia
1688:Ismailia
1597:, Major
1551:Ethiopia
1506:Ismailia
1412:freehold
1407:fellahin
1366:fellahin
1277:muhassil
1251:Damascus
1193:Suda Bay
1177:fellahin
1087:Khartoum
1075:Kordofan
940:spindles
902:Maho Bey
850:Istanbul
703:Wahabbis
663:Albanian
541:Republic
410:969â1171
138:a series
136:Part of
4041:Commons
3960:Museums
3904:regions
3872:Cuisine
3857:Castles
3829:Culture
3799:Smoking
3780:Judaism
3768:Mosques
3647:Housing
3594:Schools
3500:General
3489:Society
3429:Tourism
3358:Fishing
3316:Banking
3300:Economy
3025:Islands
3015:Geology
3010:Fossils
2995:Deserts
2990:Climate
2980:Borders
2926:By city
2912:Saladin
2860:Genetic
2840:Capital
2727:Kingdom
2642:Ottoman
2508:Ancient
2483:History
2342:(1998)
2271:(ed.).
2261::
2219:4282605
2058:"Egypt"
1746:Austria
1583:Goschen
1538:Ibrahim
1478:khedive
1387:Abbas I
1352:murrain
1302:on the
1288:tribute
1259:Itcheli
1134:Bedouin
1095:Massawa
1061:Dongola
1042:Red Sea
1004:Lebanon
998:mills.
996:hulling
980:boilers
924:Economy
856:Reforms
842:Diriyah
807:Kosseir
779:Ibrahim
750:in the
699:Ottoman
659:Mamluks
621:British
609:dynasty
400:935â969
390:868â905
380:750â935
370:661â750
360:641â661
333:619â629
94:scholar
4021:Portal
3862:Cinema
3716:BahĂĄĘźĂ
3630:Health
3378:Mining
3348:Energy
3072:Rivers
2985:Cities
2907:Postal
2688:Modern
2633:Mamluk
2591:Fustat
2581:Muslim
2513:topics
2471:topics
2427:
2406:
2400:181140
2398:
2390:
2359:
2344:online
2267:". In
2255:
2237:
2217:
2209:
2172:
2149:
2125:
2094:May 3,
2068:May 3,
2040:
2013:
1986:
1944:
1892:
1856:
1742:Epirus
1634:Tewfik
1555:fellah
1510:cotton
1486:firman
1474:firman
1469:firman
1436:Ismail
1268:firman
1255:Aleppo
1158:, the
1126:nabbut
1107:Thebes
1091:Suakin
1083:Shendi
1069:, the
1046:Sennar
950:, and
890:cotton
831:Saudis
768:Jeddah
764:Medina
748:Saudis
661:, and
619:under
615:, the
140:on the
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
3965:Music
3948:Radio
3889:Films
3819:Women
3773:NiqÄb
3758:Islam
3542:Crime
3383:Mines
3099:Wadis
3057:Oases
3030:Lakes
2975:Biota
2937:Cairo
2855:Copts
2664:Nahda
2554:Roman
2469:Egypt
2404:S2CID
2396:JSTOR
2215:JSTOR
1713:Cairo
1684:Italy
1630:Porte
1402:Sudan
1308:Nezib
1292:Druze
1273:Adana
1263:Adana
1240:Konya
1197:Morea
1189:Crete
1185:Morea
1053:Nubia
1034:Libya
910:India
898:Sudan
827:Cairo
803:Cairo
772:Mecca
760:Yanbu
744:Tusun
718:Mecca
714:Mecca
691:Egypt
446:Egypt
149:Egypt
101:JSTOR
87:books
3899:list
3894:Flag
3882:Wine
3877:Beer
3557:Rape
3252:list
3240:list
3077:Nile
2870:Jews
2425:ISBN
2388:ISSN
2357:ISBN
2235:PMID
2207:ISSN
2170:ISBN
2147:ISBN
2123:ISBN
2096:2023
2070:2023
2038:ISBN
2011:ISBN
1984:ISBN
1942:ISBN
1890:ISBN
1854:ISBN
1748:and
1585:and
1577:The
1494:Suez
1482:vali
1257:and
1093:and
1008:Nile
1000:Coal
994:and
871:Nile
811:Kena
809:and
799:Elba
788:Saud
770:and
707:Najd
685:The
627:and
600:The
73:news
2380:doi
2199:doi
1527:in
1300:Bir
1238:at
1079:mek
1016:oil
900:by
705:of
56:by
4058::
3953:TV
2402:.
2394:.
2386:.
2376:27
2374:.
2231:21
2229:.
2223:;
2213:.
2205:.
2195:12
2193:.
2121:.
2119:92
2086:.
2060:.
1940:.
1938:66
1884:.
1868:^
1848:.
1744:,
1740:,
1616:;
1253:,
1199:.
1120:.
990:,
986:,
946:,
885:.
844:.
817:.
639:.
2461:e
2454:t
2447:v
2433:.
2410:.
2382::
2365:.
2241:.
2221:.
2201::
2178:.
2131:.
2098:.
2072:.
2046:.
2019:.
1992:.
1950:.
1898:.
1862:.
1124:(
589:e
582:t
575:v
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
98:¡
91:¡
84:¡
77:¡
50:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
