Railway electrification - Knowledge (XXG)

2488:. The percentage then continues falling in order with Laos, Montenegro, India, Belgium, Georgia, South Korea, Netherlands, and Japan, with all others being less than 75% electrified. Overall, China takes first place, with around 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of electrified railway, followed by India with over 60,000 km (37,000 mi) of electrified railway, and continuing with Russia, with over 54,000 km (34,000 mi) of electrified railway. A number of countries have zero electrified railways, instead relying on diesel multiple units, locomotive hauled services and many alternate forms of transport. The European Union contains the longest amount of electrified railways (in length), with over 114,000 km (71,000 mi) of electrified railway, however only making up around 55% of the total railway length. 914: 1402:

electrical bonding between pipe segments. The four-rail system solves the problem. Although the supply has an artificially created earth point, this connection is derived by using resistors which ensures that stray earth currents are kept to manageable levels. Power-only rails can be mounted on strongly insulating ceramic chairs to minimise current leak, but this is not possible for running rails, which have to be seated on stronger metal chairs to carry the weight of trains. However, elastomeric rubber pads placed between the rails and chairs can now solve part of the problem by insulating the running rails from the current return should there be a leakage through the running rails.

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electrification often goes hand in hand with a general infrastructure and rolling stock overhaul / replacement, which leads to better service quality (in a way that theoretically could also be achieved by doing similar upgrades yet without electrification). Whatever the causes of the sparks effect, it is well established for numerous routes that have electrified over decades. This also applies when bus routes with diesel buses are replaced by trolleybuses. The overhead wires make the service "visible" even in no bus is running and the existence of the infrastructure gives some long-term expectations of the line being in operation.

2411:, DC or AC, and at any voltage or frequency). Not so for electric trains, which can never run on non-electrified lines, and which even on electrified lines can run only on the single, or the few, electrical system(s) for which they are equipped. Even on fully electrified networks, it is usually a good idea to keep a few diesel locomotives for maintenance and repair trains, for instance to repair broken or stolen overhead lines, or to lay new tracks. However, due to ventilation issues, diesel trains may have to be banned from certain tunnels and underground train stations mitigating the advantage of diesel trains somewhat. 1623: 73: 2299: 1942:). Lowering the current reduces the ohmic losses and allows for less bulky, lighter overhead line equipment and more spacing between traction substations, while maintaining power capacity of the system. On the other hand, the higher voltage requires larger isolation gaps, requiring some elements of infrastructure to be larger. The standard-frequency AC system may introduce imbalance to the supply grid, requiring careful planning and design (as at each substation power is drawn from two out of three phases). The low-frequency AC system may be powered by 1883: 1924:

efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard the locomotive where space is limited and losses are significantly higher. However, the higher voltages used in many AC electrification systems reduce transmission losses over longer distances, allowing for fewer substations or more powerful locomotives to be used. Also, the energy used to blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware must be accounted for.

2319: 383: 894: 38: 1448: 3283:, Дробинский p. 65 and Иванова p.20.). But there are reductions needed in both efficiencies needed to make a comparison. First, one must degrade the efficiency of central power plants by the transmission losses to get the electricity to the locomotive. Another correction is due to the fact that efficiency for the Russian diesel is based on the lower heat of combustion of fuel while power plants in the U.S. use the higher heat of combustion (see 1920:

with the same task: converting and transporting high-voltage AC from the power grid to low-voltage DC in the locomotive. The difference between AC and DC electrification systems lies in where the AC is converted to DC: at the substation or on the train. Energy efficiency and infrastructure costs determine which of these is used on a network, although this is often fixed due to pre-existing electrification systems.

1794: 1956: 3287:). Still another correction is that the diesel's reported efficiency neglects the fan energy used for engine cooling radiators. See Дробинский p. 65 and Иванова p. 20 (who estimates the on-board electricity generator as 96.5% efficient). The result of all the above is that modern diesel engines and central power plants are both about 33% efficient at generating electricity (in the nominal regime). 2518: 2141: 1286: 1347: 4138: 2532: 2392:, ripping the wires from their supports. The damage is often not limited to the supply to one track, but extends to those for adjacent tracks as well, causing the entire route to be blocked for a considerable time. Third-rail systems can suffer disruption in cold weather due to ice forming on the conductor rail. 1898:, rather than single-phase electric power delivery due to ease of design of both power supply and locomotives. These systems could either use standard network frequency and three power cables, or reduced frequency, which allowed for return-phase line to be third rail, rather than an additional overhead wire. 2288:

If the entire network is electrified, diesel infrastructure such as fueling stations, maintenance yards and indeed the diesel locomotive fleet can be retired or put to other uses – this is often the business case in favor of electrifying the last few lines in a network where otherwise costs would be

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Newly electrified lines often show a "sparks effect", whereby electrification in passenger rail systems leads to significant jumps in patronage / revenue. The reasons may include electric trains being seen as more modern and attractive to ride, faster, quieter and smoother service, and the fact that

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must be used. This is mostly an issue for long-distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it can be

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are electric. The high power of electric locomotives also gives them the ability to pull freight at higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also

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to a lower DC voltage in preparation for use by traction motors. These motors may either be DC motors which directly use the DC or they may be three-phase AC motors which require further conversion of the DC to variable frequency three-phase AC (using power electronics). Thus both systems are faced

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together. The problem was exacerbated because the return current also had a tendency to flow through nearby iron pipes forming the water and gas mains. Some of these, particularly Victorian mains that predated London's underground railways, were not constructed to carry currents and had no adequate

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It turns out that the efficiency of electricity generation by a modern diesel locomotive is roughly the same as the typical U.S. fossil-fuel power plant. The heat rate of central power plants in 2012 was about 9.5k BTU/kwh per the Monthly Energy Review of the U.S. Energy Information Administration

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In most of the world's railway networks, the height clearance of overhead electrical lines is not sufficient for a double-stack container car or other unusually tall loads. To upgrade electrified lines to the correct clearances (21 ft 8 in or 6.60 m) to take double-stacked container

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that AC penetrates to 0.3 millimetres or 0.012 inches in a steel rail. This effect makes the resistance per unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC. Third rail is more compact than overhead wires and can be used in smaller-diameter tunnels, an important factor for subway systems.

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or a network of converter substations, adding the expense, also low-frequency transformers, used both at the substations and on the rolling stock, are particularly bulky and heavy. The DC system, apart from being limited as to the maximum power that can be transmitted, also can be responsible for

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A problem specifically related to electrified lines are gaps in the electrification. Electric vehicles, especially locomotives, lose power when traversing gaps in the supply, such as phase change gaps in overhead systems, and gaps over points in third rail systems. These become a nuisance if the

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are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any benefit, time-consuming

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On the other hand, electrification may not be suitable for lines with low frequency of traffic, because lower running cost of trains may be outweighed by the high cost of the electrification infrastructure. Therefore, most long-distance lines in developing or sparsely populated countries are not

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Central station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation are roughly the same in the nominal regime, diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal regimes at low

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The early electrification of railways used direct current (DC) power systems, which were limited in terms of the distance they could transmit power. However, in the early 20th century, alternating current (AC) power systems were developed, which allowed for more efficient power transmission over

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Both the transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). Power conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more

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The use of medium-voltage DC electrification (MVDC) would solve some of the issues associated with standard-frequency AC electrification systems, especially possible supply grid load imbalance and the phase separation between the electrified sections powered from different phases, whereas high

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too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand for container traffic, which is more efficient when utilizing the

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Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased by electrification, but many systems claim lower costs due to reduced wear-and-tear on the track from lighter rolling stock. There are some additional maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment around the track, such as power

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imposed by the overhead wires, double-stacked container trains have been traditionally difficult and rare to operate under electrified lines. However, this limitation is being overcome by railways in India, China and African countries by laying new tracks with increased catenary height.

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it was claimed that after the mid 1970s electrics used about 25% less fuel per ton-km than diesels. However, part of this savings may be due to less stopping of electrics to let opposing trains pass since diesels operated predominately on single-track lines, often with moderately heavy

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in England is one of few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third-rail and overhead networks, is provided by the running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at

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can supply a range of voltages. Separate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary machinery. More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the classic DC motor to be largely replaced with the three-phase

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Hz in a number of European countries, India, Saudi Arabia, eastern Japan, countries that used to be part of the Soviet Union, on high-speed lines in much of Western Europe (including countries that still run conventional railways under DC but not in countries using

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that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor speed. These drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify cross-border operation.

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See Винокуров p. 95+ Ch. 4: Потери и коэффициент полизного действия; нагреванние и охлаждение электрических машин и трансформаторов" (Losses and efficiency; heating and cooling of electrical machinery and transformers) magnetic losses pp. 96–97, ohmic losses pp.

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kV cables may end in the thief's death from electrocution. In the UK, cable theft is claimed to be one of the biggest sources of delay and disruption to train services – though this normally relates to signalling cable, which is equally problematic for diesel

187:, and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesel. They have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems provide 1983:

returns power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere, by other trains on the same system or returned to the general power grid. This is especially useful in mountainous areas where heavily loaded trains must descend long grades.

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Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some

2058:, also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost. 4079:Дмитриев, В.А., "Народнохозяйственная эффективность электрификации железных дорог и применения тепловозной тяги" (National economic effectiveness of railway electrification and application of diesel traction), Москва, Транспорт 1976. 195:

back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn petroleum products, electricity can be generated from diverse sources, including

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Appearance: the overhead line structures and cabling can have a significant landscape impact compared with a non-electrified or third rail electrified line that has only occasional signalling equipment above ground

4438: 3296:Хомич А. З. Тупицын О.И., Симсон А. Э. "Экономия топлива и теплотехническая модернизация тепловозов" (Fuel economy and the thermodynamic modernization of diesel locomotives). Москва: Транспорт, 1975. 264 pp. See 2088:

sub-stations and the catenary wire itself, but, if there is sufficient traffic, the reduced track and especially the lower engine maintenance and running costs exceed the costs of this maintenance significantly.

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power while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency. The electric train can save energy (as compared to diesel) by

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together, since in that case if the train stops with one collector in a dead gap, another multiple unit can push or pull the disconnected unit until it can again draw power. The same applies to the kind of

1699: 4126:Хомич А.З. Тупицын О.И., Симсон А.Э. "Экономия топлива и теплотехническая модернизация тепловозов" (Fuel economy and the thermodynamic modernization of diesel locomotives). Москва: Транспорт, 1975. 264 pp. 1927:

Standard AC electrification systems use much higher voltages than standard DC systems. One of the advantages of raising the voltage is that, to transmit certain level of power, lower current is necessary

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and by not needing to consume energy by idling as diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy.

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which have a locomotive at each end. Power gaps can be overcome in single-collector trains by on-board batteries or motor-flywheel-generator systems. In 2014, progress is being made in the use of large

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in 1887-1888, and led to the electrification of hundreds of additional street railway systems by the early 1890s. The first electrification of a mainline railway was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's

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Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. '

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Electrification cost: electrification requires an entire new infrastructure to be built around the existing tracks at a significant cost. Costs are especially high when tunnels, bridges and other

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Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service and requiring greater complexity of locomotive power. There used to be a historical concern for

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The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running rail carries any current. This scheme was introduced because of the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by the

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Birds may perch on parts with different charges, and animals may also touch the electrification system. Dead animals attract foxes or other scavengers, bringing risk of collision with trains.

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Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for European and international standardisation. Some of these are independent of the contact system used, so that, for example, 750

374:. Electrification is seen as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to diesel or steam power and is an important part of many countries' transportation infrastructure. 219:

that may be uneconomic on lightly trafficked routes, a relative lack of flexibility (since electric trains need third rails or overhead wires), and a vulnerability to power interruptions.

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There are a number of advantages including the fact there is no exposure of passengers to exhaust from the locomotive and lower cost of building, running and maintaining locomotives and

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V. Third rail systems almost exclusively use DC distribution. The use of AC is usually not feasible due to the dimensions of a third rail being physically very large compared with the

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P. Leandes and S. Ostlund. "A concept for an HVDC traction system" in "International conference on main line railway electrification", Hessington, England, September 1989 (Suggests 30

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kV). Glomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. "VSC-based MVDC Railway Electrification System" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v. 29, no. 1, Feb. 2014. (suggests 24

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Theft: the high scrap value of copper and the unguarded, remote installations make overhead cables an attractive target for scrap metal thieves. Attempts at theft of live 25

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More flexible primary energy source: can use coal, natural gas, nuclear or renewable energy (hydro, solar, wind) as the primary energy source instead of diesel fuel

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Increasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC.

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Gomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. "VSC-based MVDC Railway Electrification System" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v. 29, no. 1, Feb. 2014 pp.

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Fragility and vulnerability: overhead electrification systems can suffer severe disruption due to minor mechanical faults or the effects of high winds causing the

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As alternating current is used with high voltages. Inside the locomotive, a transformer steps the voltage down for use by the traction motors and auxiliary loads.

3701: 172:". Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor, but some systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose. 1081:

kV DC is used in Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Chile, the northern portion of the Czech Republic, the former republics of the

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Railway electrification has constantly increased in the past decades, and as of 2022, electrified tracks account for nearly one-third of total tracks globally.

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running rail, flowing through the iron tunnel linings instead. This can cause electrolytic damage and even arcing if the tunnel segments are not electrically

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locomotive stops with its collector on a dead gap, in which case there is no power to restart. This is less of a problem in trains consisting of two or more

4453: 4433: 4428: 4396: 4391: 4361: 4142: 4068:Винокуров В.А., Попов Д.А. "Электрические машины железно-дорожного транспорта" (Electrical machinery of railroad transportation), Москва, Транспорт, 1986. 3501: 1204: 1035: 3387: 1785:

Hz. It was announced in 1926 that all lines were to be converted to DC third rail and the last overhead-powered electric service ran in September 1929.

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Railway electrification continued to expand throughout the 20th century, with technological improvements and the development of high-speed trains and

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supply. Both are located to the side of the train, as the space between the running rails is occupied by an aluminum plate, as part of stator of the

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Britain's new railway: Electrification of the London-Midland main lines from Euston to Birmingham, Stoke-on-Trent, Crewe, Liverpool and Manchester

2596: 1275: 540: 1613: 4085:Иванова В.Н. (ed.) "Конструкция и динамика тепловозов" (Construction and dynamics of the diesel locomotive). Москва, Транспорт, 1968 (textbook). 2877: 4406: 4115:Сидоров Н.И., Сидорожа Н.Н. "Как устроен и работает электровоз" (How the electric locomotive works) Москва, Транспорт, 1988 (5th ed.). 233 pp, 1877: 1617: 1245: 1911:

The majority of modern electrification systems take AC energy from a power grid that is delivered to a locomotive, and within the locomotive,

44: 4517: 4163: 4120: 4093: 4005: 3824: 265:. The history of railway electrification dates back to the late 19th century when the first electric tramways were introduced in cities like 141:, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and 4351: 3782: 3526: 4098:Мирошниченко, Р.И., "Режимы работы электрифицированных участков" (Regimes of operation of electrified sections ), Москва, Транспорт, 1982. 3915: 3718: 1066:

V DC was the first electrification system launched in 1925 in Mumbai area. Between 2012 and 2016, the electrification was converted to 25

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is the largest fully electrified network in the world and one of only eleven countries or territories to achieve this, as listed in

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kV is used on some narrow-gauge lines in Japan. On "French system" HSLs, the overhead line and a "sleeper" feeder line each carry 25

1333: 1622: 3332: 5015: 4990: 4386: 4156: 4082:Дробинский В.А., Егунов П.М. "Как устроен и работает тепловоз" (How the diesel locomotive works) 3rd ed. Moscow, Транспорт, 1980. 2123:

in India where the wire height is at 7.45 m (24.4 ft) to accommodate double-stack container trains without the need of

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He was to produce the first motor that operated without gears of any sort, having its armature direct-connected to the car axle.

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from interference by traction current. Electrification typically requires line closures while new equipment is being installed.

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mitigate these problems somewhat as they are capable of running on diesel power during an outage or on non-electrified routes.

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mainly in Russia is completely electrified, making it one of the longest stretches of electrified railways in the world.

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does not use this system and instead uses more traditional motors attached to the wheels and third-rail electrification.

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Hz mains frequency divided by three) single-phase AC. On 16 October 1995, Germany, Austria and Switzerland changed from

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opened in June 1912. Further extensions were not made owing to the First World War. Two lines opened in 1925 under the

3646: 2298: 2106: 1758: 231: 1296: 2173: 4254: 4088:Калинин, В.К. "Электровозы и электропоезда" (Electric locomotives and electric train sets) Москва, Транспорт, 1991 4054: 4032: 3039:[Perspective of developing 12 or 24 kV DC electrification system for Moscow-Ekaterinburg high-speed line], 2556: 1895: 1882: 281: 142: 2151: 1513:

picks up the current from the vertical face of each guide bar. The return of each traction motor, as well as each

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too high. Having only one type of motive power also allows greater fleet homogeneity which can also reduce costs.

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Reduced environmental pollution, especially in highly populated urban areas, even if electricity is produced by

4947: 4112:Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В. Н., "Электрические железные дороги" (Electric Railways), Москва "Транспорт" 1993. 4101:Перцовский, Л. М.; "Энергетическая эффективность электрической тяги" (Energy efficiency of electric traction), 1976: 1592: 1110: 1043: 973: 83: 3279:

which corresponds to an efficiency of 36%. Diesel motors for locomotives have an efficiency of about 40% (see

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to power electric vehicles between stations, and so avoid the need for overhead wires between those stations.

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High speed lines in France, Spain, Italy, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium and Turkey operate under 25

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kV DC and found that the conversion would allow to use less bulky overhead wires (saving €20 million per 100

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60850. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.

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be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if train weights are to be increased on a system.

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Railway electrification is the development of powering trains and locomotives using electricity instead of

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Incompatibility: Diesel trains can run on any track without electricity or with any kind of electricity (

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Hz which is no longer exactly one-third of the grid frequency. This solved overheating problems with the

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There are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around the world, and the

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with their own motors) or both. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient

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Several countries have announced plans to electrify all or most of their railway network, including

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Five European countries – Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden – have standardized on 15

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V DC is used in Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong (parts), Ireland, Australia (parts), France (also using

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The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in standards BS

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used in DC locomotives for speed control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the

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systems as the traction motors accept this voltage without the weight of an on-board transformer.

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To the Edge of the World: The Story of the Trans-Siberian Express, the World's Greatest Railroad

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Various railway electrification systems in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries utilised

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In the 1920s and 1930s, many countries worldwide began to electrify their railways. In Europe,

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kV. The converters turned out to be unreliable and the experiment was curtailed. In 1970 the

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route-km; equalling about €150,000 p.a.). The line chosen is one of the lines, totalling 6000

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Switching the frequency in train electric power supply network from 16 2/3 Hz to 16,70 Hz

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As of 2012, electrified tracks accounted for nearly one third of total tracks globally.

1257:

Most electrification systems use overhead wires, but third rail is an option up to 1,500

4842: 4827: 4752: 4725: 4654: 4527: 3035:Аржанников, Б.А.; Галкин, А.Г.; Бурков, А.Т.; Мансуров, В.А.; Набойченко, И.О. (2015), 2374: 2045: 1549: 1506: 1470: 1458: 1086: 987:, Washington). In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a 918: 907: 602: 463: 371: 339: 192: 118: 114: 101: 56: 2977:"MVDC Railway Traction Power Systems; State-of-the Art, Opportunities, and Challenges" 1979:, transmission and fuel. This is partly offset by the weight of electrical equipment. 1966:, gave London trains and trams a power supply independent from the main power network. 1568:

Railways and electrical utilities use AC as opposed to DC for the same reason: to use

5009: 4942: 4937: 4927: 4888: 4832: 4740: 4735: 4703: 4686: 4553: 4535: 4266: 4229: 4193: 4026: 2773: 2611: 2537: 2523: 2408: 2389: 2353: 2263:

Service to underground stations where diesel trains cannot operate for safety reasons

2254: 2238: 2112: 2063: 2013: 1426: 1141: 938: 487: 328: 289: 274: 243: 235: 161: 2440:

As of 2018, there were 72,110 km (44,810 mi) of railways electrified at 25

2028:') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all 1793: 1354:

uses third and fourth rails beside and between the running rails for electrification

1191:

In the 1960s the Soviets experimented with boosting the overhead voltage from 3 to 6

4872: 4822: 4802: 4762: 4664: 4644: 4629: 4608: 4603: 4593: 4203: 4044: 3886: 3566: 2902: 2349: 2275:

More comfortable ride on multiple units as trains have no underfloor diesel engines

2267: 1955: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1462: 1082: 1012: 216: 1367:, and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at 3210:

Umstellung der Sollfrequenz im zentralen Bahnstromnetz von 16 2/3 Hz auf 16,70 Hz

3075: 1718:

Hz single-phase AC. Parts of the original electrified network still operate at 25

17: 4797: 4757: 4669: 3747: 2571: 2373:

needed for new traffic characteristics, and to protect signalling circuitry and

2140: 1912: 1583: 1569: 1430: 1383: 1285: 1262: 988: 898: 498: 312: 262: 258: 201: 184: 169: 150: 48: 2418:

trains, besides renewing bridges over it, would normally mean need for special

4954: 4920: 4915: 4867: 4792: 4767: 4708: 4674: 4558: 4234: 3514: 3300:

curves on p. 202 and charts of times spent in non-nominal regimes on pp. 10–12

2513: 2404: 1240: 1137: 1047: 1008: 1000: 976: 957: 493: 205: 165: 91: 3805: 3221: 3183: 3109:"MIT School of Engineering | » What's the difference between AC and DC?" 3002: 246:

regularly operating electric double-stack cargo trains under overhead lines.

4693: 4659: 4639: 4588: 4578: 4279: 3858: 3159:"What is Alternating Current (AC)? | Basic AC Theory | Electronics Textbook" 3090: 2827: 2517: 2076: 1916: 1579: 1517:, is effected by one contact shoe each that slide on top of each one of the 1486: 475: 3562: 1346: 4148: 4137: 2725: 2322:

Many electrification systems using overhead lines do not allow sufficient

280:

In 1881, the first permanent railway electrification in the world was the

4730: 4548: 2327: 2016:, or other low-carbon sources, which do not emit pollution or emissions. 1596: 1557: 1490: 1482: 1478: 1196: 996: 902: 437: 428: 342:. Today, many countries have extensive electrified railway networks with 149:. The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches, and 60: 52: 3061:, McGraw Hill, 1978 table 18-21. See also Gomez-Exposito p. 424, Fig. 3 3024:. UIC Workshop on Energy Efficiency. Rotterdam: UIC. 11 September 2019. 2993: 2976: 2307: 2165: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1016: 984: 965: 517: 453: 367: 4495: 2272:

Easily accommodates kinetic energy brake reclaim using supercapacitors

4812: 2025: 363: 320: 316: 285: 270: 266: 204:

which almost completely lacks oil or coal deposits but has plentiful

1860:

kV in relation to the rails, but in opposite phase so they are at 50

1741:

pioneered overhead electrification of its suburban lines in London,

1627: 1390:, whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or a third rail. 3476: 3216:]. Elektrische Bahnen (in German). Oldenbourg-Industrieverlag. 3072:"[MétroPole] De la centrale électrique au rail de traction" 2531: 2694:"A nation of railway enthusiasts: a history of the Swiss railways" 2317: 2297: 1954: 1881: 1621: 1502: 1455: 1451: 1446: 1379: 1345: 1244: 912: 892: 381: 359: 355: 351: 324: 2049:

engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive

1493:' become, in a sense, a third and fourth rail which each provide 991:). In the Netherlands it is used on the main system, alongside 25 449:

Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:

327:

were among the early adopters of railway electrification. In the

3996:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; London: General Electric Company; 3719:"On track to full electrification: Low carbon railways in India" 1133: 160:

running along the track that usually takes one of two forms: an

97: 4499: 4152: 543:

covers both standard voltage and non-standard voltage systems.

3916:"Electrification of Indian Railways to Lower Carbon Footprint" 3835:"Network Rail A Guide to Overhead Electrification Revision 10" 3421:"Cumbernauld may be on track for railway line electrification" 2134: 1279: 445:

kV, as do high power lines in the former Soviet Union as well.

156:

Power is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous

3502:

Railway electrification in the Soviet Union#Energy-Efficiency

2422:

violating standardisation and requiring custom made vehicles.

1835:

Hz network), western Japan, South Korea and Taiwan; and at 50

1485:. Since the tyres do not conduct the return current, the two 1113:(Bardhaman Main Line) in India, before it was converted to 25 933:

overhead lines, in common with many other modern tram systems

212:

in part in reaction to supply issues during both World Wars.

1276:

List of railway electrification systems § DC, four-rail

1231:). The experiments ended in 1995 due to the end of funding. 3814: 2853:"A detour to success: The world's first electric streetcar" 1962:

in a poster from 1910. This private power station, used by

238:

but it is no longer universally true as of 2022, with both

2941:

Railway applications – Supply voltages of traction systems

2356:

20 ft 3 in (6.17 m) including the well car.

2260:

Independence of running costs from fluctuating fuel prices

1692:

used to generate some of this power from the grid supply.

1497:, so at least electrically it is a four-rail system. Each 1473:

in France operate on a four-rail power system. The trains

1249:

A bottom-contact third rail electrification system on the

1215:

system could be achieved with DC voltage between 11 and 16

3312:"Gigaom GE to Crank Up Gas Power Plants Like Jet Engines" 2970: 2968: 2966: 2928:

Railway applications. Supply voltages of traction systems

536:

DC may be used with either third rail or overhead lines.

1207:

carried out calculations for railway electrification at

27:

Conversion of railways to use electricity for propulsion

3059:

Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Edition

2800:"Railway electrification is expected to grow worldwide" 2774:"Aerodynamic Effects Caused by Trains Entering Tunnels" 2037:

electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains.

335:

was one of the first major railways to be electrified.

3702:"Status of Railway Electrification (as on 01.04.2023)" 2473:

Hz and 20,440 km (12,700 mi) electrified at

3184:"[IRFCA] Electric Loco Tap-changer Operation" 1205:

Ural Electromechanical Institute of Railway Engineers

1947:

electrochemical corrosion due to stray DC currents.

1844:

Hz, see above). Most systems like this operate at 25

1831:

Hz in North America (excluding the aforementioned 25

1156:

voltage would make the transmission more efficient.

4963: 4881: 4776: 4622: 4534: 4472: 4344: 4318: 4265: 4217: 4186: 3018:

Future DC railway electrification system Go for 9kV

2452:; 32,940 km (20,470 mi) electrified at 15 2448:Hz; 68,890 km (42,810 mi) electrified at 1578:An early advantage of AC is that the power-wasting 168:

mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding "

3244:Сидоров 1988 pp. 103–104, Сидоров 1980 pp. 122–123 2278:Somewhat higher energy efficiency in part due to 1199:-based converters to lower the supply voltage to 3 1038:trans-Pennine route (now closed); the system used 292:electrification was first applied successfully by 3363:"UK Network Rail electrification strategy report" 2602:List of tram systems by gauge and electrification 1371:, which combine to provide a traction voltage of 1160:conducted a case study for the conversion of the 215:Disadvantages of electric traction include: high 2486:List of countries by rail transport network size 2000:operate at high efficiency, and can be used for 1757:via Balham and West Norwood opened in May 1911. 1429:system. While part of the SkyTrain network, the 1211:, showing that the equivalent loss levels for a 175:In comparison to the principal alternative, the 2388:of a moving train to become entangled with the 1417:use side-contact fourth-rail systems for their 179:, electric railways offer substantially better 2748:"Spotlight on double-stack container movement" 1852:kV sections exist in the United States, and 20 4511: 4164: 4025:(1924). Kaempffert, Waldemar Bernhard (ed.). 3415: 3413: 3333:FlexEfficiency* 50 Combined Cycle Power Plant 2617:Railroad electrification in the United States 1975:Electric trains need not carry the weight of 1726:kV, while others were converted to 12.5 or 25 8: 3993:Men and volts; the story of General Electric 3616:"Body discovery linked to rail cables theft" 3382: 3380: 3378: 2592:Initial Electrification Experiments NY NH HR 2433:List of countries by railway electrification 2249:Reduced power loss at higher altitudes (for 1944:separate generation and distribution network 1799:1. Supply transformer (center-tapped output) 1868:equalize the tension at regular intervals. 1314:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4518: 4504: 4496: 4171: 4157: 4149: 3816:Overhead Line Electrification for Railways 3041:Бюллетень Результатов Научных Исследований 2975:Simiyu, Patrobers; Davidson, I.E. (2021). 1700:New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad 350:of standard lines in the world, including 3372:Table 3.3, p. 31. Retrieved on 4 May 2010 2992: 2833:. International Energy Agency. p. 18 2665:, IPC Transport Press Ltd. 1972, pp. 8-33 2225:Learn how and when to remove this message 1334:Learn how and when to remove this message 1095:Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad 333:New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad 3134:"Alternating current – Energy Education" 2657: 2655: 2653: 2427:Railway electrification around the world 1792: 1739:London, Brighton and South Coast Railway 1176:route-km) and lower the losses (saving 2 560: 4028:A Popular History of American Invention 3888:The Trans-Siberian Railway Encyclopedia 2726:"非人狂想屋 | 你的火车发源地 » HXD1B牵引双层集装箱列车" 2649: 2597:List of railway electrification systems 1195:kV. DC rolling stock was equipped with 541:list of railway electrification systems 3969:(3rd ed.). London: Ian Allan Ltd. 2822: 2820: 1878:Three-phase AC railway electrification 1789:Standard frequency alternating current 1481:made of steel and, in some places, of 1164:(France), currently electrified at 1.5 3589:"Police probe cable theft death link" 1074:Hz, which is the countrywide system. 7: 2663:Future Railways and Guided Transport 2163:adding citations to reliable sources 1797:Schema of 2×25 kV power supply: 1614:Amtrak's 25 Hz traction power system 1312:adding citations to reliable sources 4143:Electrically-powered rail transport 3091:"Truck (bogie) – Visual Dictionary" 1777:. The lines were electrified at 6.7 1618:SEPTA's 25 Hz traction power system 1465:is located between the rubber tyres 520:to allow flexibility in operation. 386:Electrification systems in Europe: 4053:. Vol. 17. London; New York: 3746:. 4 September 2015. Archived from 2587:History of the electric locomotive 2121:Western Dedicated Freight Corridor 1109:AC) in the United States, and the 951:25 kV 50 Hz AC 145:, but most purchase power from an 25: 4031:. Vol. 1. London; New York: 3794:Permanent Way Institution Journal 3792:"On board with electrification". 3777:. Simmons-Boardman Books, Omaha. 3527:"Committee Meeting – Spring 2009" 3427:. 14 January 2009. Archived from 2282:and less power lost when "idling" 1604:Low-frequency alternating current 1188:km, that are in need of renewal. 1011:. In Portugal, it is used in the 304:in the United States in 1895–96. 45:Mantes-la-Jolie–Cherbourg railway 4239: 4136: 3990:Hammond, John Winthrop (2011) . 3074:. 10 August 2004. Archived from 3057:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty 2530: 2516: 2139: 1823:25 kV AC railway electrification 1708:Philadelphia and Reading Railway 1610:15 kV AC railway electrification 1509:. A side sliding (side running) 1284: 1058:AC. It is now only used for the 956:, the Netherlands, New Zealand ( 71: 36: 4480:Railway electrification systems 3965:Moody, G T (1960). "Part One". 3614:Sarah Saunders (28 June 2012). 3388:"Start Slow With Bullet Trains" 3298:Brake specific fuel consumption 3281:Brake specific fuel consumption 2150:needs additional citations for 1872:Three-phase alternating current 1638:Hz AC overhead lines in Austria 1477:which roll on a pair of narrow 1378:. The same system was used for 1015:and in Denmark on the suburban 901:in France is electrified using 516:can switch to different supply 121:. Electric railways use either 3985:(Jane's) Urban Transit Systems 2676:"A train ride through history" 2547:Battery electric multiple unit 2119:Such installations are in the 1722:Hz, with voltage boosted to 12 1489:provided outside the running ' 1382:'s earliest underground line, 1: 3775:Amtrak: Past, Present, Future 3351:Railway Gazette International 1162:Bordeaux-Hendaye railway line 225:electro-diesel multiple units 4485:Tram electrification systems 4300:Electro-diesel multiple unit 3650:(in German). Berlin, Germany 3563:"Network Rail – Cable Theft" 3534:Royal Meteorological Society 3394:. 2 May 2011. Archived from 3310:Wang, Ucilia (25 May 2011). 1749:being opened to traffic on 1 1560:operate in the same manner. 1034:DC was used in 1954 for the 1026:In the United Kingdom, 1,500 4000:; Literary Licensing, LLC. 3536:(rmets.org). Archived from 2798:pamela (19 February 2021). 2107:Double-stack rail transport 2101:Double-stack rail transport 1753:December 1909. Victoria to 1423:linear induction propulsion 1219:kV. In the 1980s and 1990s 232:double-stack rail transport 90:, and is electrified using 55:, and is electrified using 5042: 4726:Transfer table (traverser) 4255:Conduit current collection 3998:J. B. Lippincott & Co. 3900:. London: Atlantic Books. 3896:Wolmar, Christian (2013). 3868:Electric Euston to Glasgow 2557:Conduit current collection 2430: 2104: 1998:fossil fuel power stations 1907:AC versus DC for mainlines 1875: 1820: 1607: 1440: 1273: 1238: 1140:networks, as well as some 936: 282:Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway 234:regarding clearances with 221:Electro-diesel locomotives 4714:ground-level power supply 4295:Electro-diesel locomotive 4275:Railway electric traction 4245:Ground-level power supply 4103:Железнодорожный транспорт 2582:Ground-level power supply 2174:"Railway electrification" 1811:7. Locomotive transformer 566: 563: 504:Ground-level power supply 4105:(magazine), #12, 1974 p. 3163:www.allaboutcircuits.com 2612:Overhead conductor rails 1593:variable frequency drive 1223:was being tested on the 1111:Kolkata suburban railway 589: 584: 581: 576: 571: 84:London metropolitan area 82:in England connects the 5016:Electric rail transport 4699:Railway electrification 4225:Railway electrification 4180:Railway electrification 4055:Charles Scribner's Sons 4033:Charles Scribner's Sons 3939:Siemens Mobility Global 3723:www.rapidtransition.org 3569:(www.networkrail.co.uk) 2828:"Railway Handbook 2015" 2365:have to be altered for 1960:Lots Road Power Station 1124:DC voltages between 600 921:in Angers, France uses 564:Electrification system 191:that turns the train's 131:electric multiple units 125:(hauling passengers or 111:Railway electrification 80:South Eastern Main Line 4326:Traction power network 4290:Electric multiple unit 3935:"Rail Electrification" 3920:www.investindia.gov.in 3773:Wilner, Frank (2012). 3338:24 August 2012 at the 2627:Traction current pylon 2504:Trans-Siberian Railway 2357: 2315: 1967: 1951:Electric versus diesel 1891: 1827:AC power is used at 60 1818: 1775:Sutton railway station 1639: 1466: 1355: 1254: 964:), the United States ( 934: 910: 446: 117:for the propulsion of 4838:Platform screen doors 4336:Traction powerstation 4023:Martin, T. Commerford 3853:. London: Ian Allan. 3455:Bromsgrove Advertiser 2632:Traction powerstation 2321: 2301: 1958: 1885: 1796: 1704:Pennsylvania Railroad 1625: 1521:. This and all other 1461:vehicle. The lateral 1450: 1349: 1248: 1050:, now converted to 25 960:), Singapore (on the 916: 896: 524:Standardised voltages 391: Non-electrified 385: 4788:Anti-trespass panels 4145:at Wikimedia Commons 3368:22 June 2013 at the 2943:, 3rd edition (2007) 2728:(in Chinese (China)) 2698:House of Switzerland 2661:P. M. Kalla-Bishop, 2567:Dual electrification 2280:regenerative braking 2159:improve this article 1990:regenerative braking 1981:Regenerative braking 1864:kV from each other; 1475:move on rubber tyres 1437:Rubber-tyred systems 1308:improve this section 1227:near Leningrad (now 1180:GWh per year per 100 1040:regenerative braking 514:electric locomotives 189:regenerative braking 123:electric locomotives 4635:Classification yard 4331:Traction substation 4285:Electric locomotive 4250:Stud contact system 3977:422–431. (suggests 3866:Nock, O.S. (1974). 3849:Nock, O.S. (1965). 3800:(1). January 2021. 3750:on 4 September 2015 3259:rail.nridigital.com 3208:Linder, C. (2002). 3095:www.infovisual.info 2637:Traction substation 2622:Stud contact system 2607:Multi-system (rail) 2444:kV, either 50 or 60 2304:Royal Border Bridge 1564:Alternating current 1523:rubber-tyred metros 1469:A few lines of the 1425:system used on the 1132:V are used by most 1060:Tyne and Wear Metro 962:North East MRT line 470:Alternating current 302:Baltimore Belt Line 202:Swiss confederation 139:generating stations 129:in separate cars), 47:in France connects 4894:Motive power depot 4848:Signalling control 4310:Rubber-tyred metro 4187:Current collectors 3398:on 28 January 2012 3285:Heat of combustion 3138:energyeducation.ca 3078:on 10 August 2004. 2994:10.3390/en14144156 2987:(14). MDPI: 4156. 2878:"Frank J. Sprague" 2552:Battery locomotive 2482:Swiss rail network 2371:railway signalling 2358: 2316: 2312:protected monument 2113:height restriction 1968: 1964:London Underground 1892: 1819: 1815:9. Autotransformer 1640: 1467: 1443:Rubber-tyred metro 1415:Vancouver SkyTrain 1395:earthed (grounded) 1360:London Underground 1356: 1352:London Underground 1255: 1099:New Jersey Transit 1091:Harlowton, Montana 935: 911: 447: 308:longer distances. 298:Richmond, Virginia 143:transmission lines 5003: 5002: 4721:Railway turntable 4542: 4493: 4492: 4141:Media related to 4123:. 1980 (4th ed.). 4121:978-5-277-00191-2 4094:978-5-277-01046-4 4050:Sidney Howe Short 4007:978-1-258-03284-5 3967:Southern Electric 3826:978-0-903489-15-7 3477:"Rail – Analysis" 2754:. 14 October 2007 2577:Fifth rail system 2562:Current collector 2334:may be 9 ft 2235: 2234: 2227: 2209: 2083:Maintenance costs 2051:dual mode engines 2030:high speed trains 1971:Energy efficiency 1848:kV, although 12.5 1690:rotary converters 1344: 1343: 1336: 1148:Medium-voltage DC 1101:, converted to 25 1062:. In India, 1,500 972:district and the 881: 880: 181:energy efficiency 18:Electric railroad 16:(Redirected from 5033: 4898:Railway workshop 4614:Transition curve 4584:Fastening system 4538: 4520: 4513: 4506: 4497: 4173: 4166: 4159: 4150: 4140: 4108: 4058: 4040: 4037:Internet Archive 4018: 4012:Internet Archive 3980: 3976: 3970: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3930: 3928: 3926: 3911: 3892: 3885:Walker, Robert. 3881: 3862: 3845: 3844:. February 2015. 3839: 3830: 3819:(6th ed.). 3809: 3808:– via PWI. 3788: 3784:978-0911382-59-4 3760: 3759: 3757: 3755: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3706: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3681: 3675:. Archived from 3674: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3640:Nachmann, Lars. 3637: 3631: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3542: 3531: 3523: 3517: 3512: 3506: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3464: 3462: 3457:. 8 January 2008 3447: 3441: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3431:on 19 April 2013 3425:Cumbernauld News 3417: 3408: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3384: 3373: 3360: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3330: 3324: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3307: 3301: 3294: 3288: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3251: 3245: 3242: 3236: 3232: 3226: 3225: 3205: 3199: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3105: 3099: 3098: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3068: 3062: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3032: 3026: 3025: 3023: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2996: 2972: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2944: 2937: 2931: 2924: 2918: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2899: 2893: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2882:Encyclopedia.com 2874: 2868: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2849: 2843: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2832: 2824: 2815: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2795: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2708: 2702: 2701: 2690: 2684: 2683: 2680:SWI swissinfo.ch 2672: 2666: 2659: 2540: 2535: 2534: 2526: 2521: 2520: 2480:As of 2023, the 2476: 2472: 2469: 2468: 2464: 2461: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2398: 2347: 2346: 2342: 2339: 2328:double-stack car 2230: 2223: 2219: 2216: 2210: 2208: 2167: 2143: 2135: 2072:push-pull trains 2056:double-stack car 2010:renewable energy 2006:district cooling 2002:district heating 1941: 1888:Jungfrau Railway 1866:autotransformers 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1817:10. Running rail 1813:8. Overhead line 1803:3. Overhead line 1784: 1780: 1767:Southern Railway 1752: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1687: 1683: 1680: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1666: 1662: 1659: 1658: 1654: 1651: 1645: 1637: 1633: 1552: 1546: 1544: 1543: 1539: 1536: 1528: 1496: 1420: 1377: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1339: 1332: 1328: 1325: 1319: 1288: 1280: 1260: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1202: 1194: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1131: 1127: 1120: 1116: 1108: 1104: 1080: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1057: 1053: 1033: 1029: 1022: 1006: 994: 974:South Shore Line 955: 952: 946: 932: 930: 926: 905: 876: 869: 862: 855: 848: 840: 834: 830: 820: 813: 806: 799: 792: 784: 780: 770: 763: 756: 749: 742: 735: 726: 719: 712: 705: 698: 691: 682: 675: 668: 661: 654: 647: 638: 631: 624: 617: 610: 600: 561: 557: 553: 549: 535: 531: 444: 435: 426: 420: 416: 410: 406: 400: 396: 390: 349: 347: 198:renewable energy 147:electric utility 100: 75: 63: 40: 21: 5041: 5040: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5006: 5005: 5004: 4999: 4959: 4877: 4853:Structure gauge 4808:Defect detector 4780: 4772: 4618: 4574:Clip and scotch 4564:Breather switch 4530: 4524: 4494: 4489: 4468: 4340: 4314: 4261: 4213: 4182: 4177: 4133: 4106: 4065: 4043: 4021: 4008: 3989: 3978: 3974: 3964: 3961: 3956: 3943: 3941: 3933: 3924: 3922: 3914: 3908: 3895: 3884: 3878: 3865: 3848: 3837: 3833: 3827: 3813:Keenor, Garry. 3812: 3791: 3785: 3772: 3769: 3767:Further reading 3764: 3763: 3753: 3751: 3742: 3741: 3737: 3727: 3725: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3704: 3700: 3699: 3695: 3685: 3683: 3679: 3672: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3653: 3651: 3647:Naturschutzbund 3639: 3638: 3634: 3624: 3622: 3613: 3612: 3608: 3598: 3596: 3587: 3586: 3582: 3572: 3570: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3546: 3544: 3543:on 4 March 2016 3540: 3529: 3525: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3509: 3499: 3495: 3485: 3483: 3475: 3474: 3470: 3460: 3458: 3451:"Electric Idea" 3449: 3448: 3444: 3434: 3432: 3419: 3418: 3411: 3401: 3399: 3386: 3385: 3376: 3370:Wayback Machine 3361: 3357: 3349: 3345: 3340:Wayback Machine 3331: 3327: 3317: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3304: 3295: 3291: 3277: 3273: 3263: 3261: 3253: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3233: 3229: 3207: 3206: 3202: 3192: 3190: 3182: 3181: 3177: 3167: 3165: 3157: 3156: 3152: 3142: 3140: 3132: 3131: 3127: 3117: 3115: 3113:Mit Engineering 3107: 3106: 3102: 3089:Dery, Bernard. 3088: 3087: 3083: 3070: 3069: 3065: 3056: 3052: 3034: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3015: 3014: 3010: 2974: 2973: 2964: 2957: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2938: 2934: 2925: 2921: 2911: 2909: 2903:"Frank Sprague" 2901: 2900: 2896: 2886: 2884: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2859: 2851: 2850: 2846: 2836: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2825: 2818: 2808: 2806: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2782: 2780: 2772: 2771: 2767: 2757: 2755: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2731: 2729: 2724: 2723: 2719: 2714:. 12 June 2020. 2710: 2709: 2705: 2692: 2691: 2687: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2660: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2536: 2529: 2522: 2515: 2512: 2497:Israel Railways 2493:Indian Railways 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2459: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2429: 2396: 2344: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2296: 2243:noise pollution 2231: 2220: 2214: 2211: 2168: 2166: 2156: 2144: 2133: 2109: 2103: 2094: 2085: 2046:Network effects 2043: 2022: 1973: 1953: 1929: 1909: 1904: 1880: 1874: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1825: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1805:4. Running rail 1804: 1802: 1801:2. Power supply 1800: 1798: 1791: 1782: 1778: 1750: 1737:In the UK, the 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1643: 1635: 1631: 1620: 1608:Main articles: 1606: 1589:induction motor 1566: 1548: 1541: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1531:4 ft 1530: 1526: 1494: 1445: 1439: 1418: 1411:Millennium Line 1373: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1340: 1329: 1323: 1320: 1305: 1289: 1278: 1272: 1258: 1251:Bucharest Metro 1243: 1237: 1225:October Railway 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1200: 1192: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1150: 1129: 1125: 1118: 1114: 1106: 1102: 1078: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1055: 1051: 1031: 1027: 1020: 1004: 992: 981:Link light rail 950: 948: 944: 941: 928: 924: 922: 903: 891: 886: 874: 867: 860: 853: 846: 838: 836: 832: 828: 818: 811: 804: 797: 790: 782: 778: 768: 761: 754: 747: 740: 733: 724: 717: 710: 703: 696: 689: 680: 673: 666: 659: 652: 645: 636: 629: 622: 615: 608: 598: 591: 586: 578: 573: 555: 551: 547: 533: 529: 526: 484:Contact system 442: 440: 433: 431: 424: 422: 418: 414: 412: 408: 404: 402: 398: 394: 392: 388: 380: 345: 343: 255: 240:Indian Railways 108: 107: 106: 105: 104: 95: 88:Strait of Dover 76: 67: 66: 65: 61: 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5039: 5037: 5029: 5028: 5023: 5021:Rail transport 5018: 5008: 5007: 5001: 5000: 4998: 4997: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4993: 4978: 4973: 4967: 4965: 4961: 4960: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4951: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4918: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4891: 4885: 4883: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4843:Railway signal 4840: 4835: 4830: 4828:Level crossing 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4784: 4782: 4774: 4773: 4771: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4753:Track geometry 4750: 4745: 4744: 4743: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4717: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4704:overhead lines 4696: 4691: 4690: 4689: 4679: 4678: 4677: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4655:Gauntlet track 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4599:Minimum radius 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4545: 4543: 4532: 4531: 4528:infrastructure 4525: 4523: 4522: 4515: 4508: 4500: 4491: 4490: 4488: 4487: 4482: 4476: 4474: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4459:United Kingdom 4456: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4420: 4419: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4348: 4346: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4322: 4320: 4316: 4315: 4313: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4271: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4260: 4259: 4258: 4257: 4252: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4221: 4219: 4218:Power delivery 4215: 4214: 4212: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4190: 4188: 4184: 4183: 4178: 4176: 4175: 4168: 4161: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4132: 4131:External links 4129: 4128: 4127: 4124: 4113: 4110: 4099: 4096: 4086: 4083: 4080: 4077: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4059: 4041: 4019: 4006: 3987: 3982: 3971: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3951: 3950: 3931: 3912: 3907:978-0857890375 3906: 3893: 3882: 3877:978-0711005303 3876: 3863: 3846: 3831: 3825: 3810: 3789: 3783: 3768: 3765: 3762: 3761: 3735: 3710: 3693: 3682:on 6 June 2020 3670:"2019 年铁道统计公报" 3661: 3632: 3606: 3595:. 27 June 2012 3580: 3554: 3518: 3507: 3493: 3468: 3442: 3409: 3374: 3355: 3343: 3325: 3302: 3289: 3271: 3246: 3237: 3227: 3200: 3175: 3150: 3125: 3100: 3081: 3063: 3050: 3043:(in Russian), 3027: 3008: 2962: 2945: 2932: 2919: 2894: 2869: 2857:Siemens Global 2844: 2816: 2790: 2765: 2739: 2717: 2703: 2685: 2667: 2648: 2647: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2543: 2542: 2541: 2527: 2511: 2508: 2428: 2425: 2424: 2423: 2415: 2412: 2401: 2393: 2382: 2378: 2375:track circuits 2354:overall height 2295: 2292: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2283: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2239:multiple units 2233: 2232: 2147: 2145: 2138: 2132: 2129: 2102: 2099: 2093: 2090: 2084: 2081: 2064:multiple units 2042: 2041:Network effect 2039: 2021: 2018: 2004:or to produce 1972: 1969: 1952: 1949: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1900: 1876:Main article: 1873: 1870: 1821:Main article: 1807:5. Feeder line 1790: 1787: 1771:Coulsdon North 1755:Crystal Palace 1630:train using 15 1605: 1602: 1565: 1562: 1550:standard gauge 1507:traction motor 1441:Main article: 1438: 1435: 1369:−210 V DC 1365:+420 V DC 1342: 1341: 1292: 1290: 1283: 1271: 1268: 1239:Main article: 1236: 1233: 1149: 1146: 1087:Milwaukee Road 970:Metra Electric 937:Main article: 919:Angers tramway 908:overhead lines 890: 889:Overhead lines 887: 885: 884:Direct current 882: 879: 878: 871: 864: 857: 850: 843: 841:Hz (IEC 60850) 835:Hz (EN 50163) 823: 822: 815: 808: 801: 794: 787: 773: 772: 765: 758: 751: 744: 737: 729: 728: 721: 714: 707: 700: 693: 685: 684: 677: 670: 663: 656: 649: 641: 640: 633: 626: 619: 612: 605: 594: 593: 588: 583: 580: 575: 569: 568: 565: 525: 522: 509: 508: 507: 506: 501: 496: 491: 488:Overhead lines 482: 481: 480: 479: 478: 467: 464:Direct current 456: 432: 423: 413: 403: 393: 387: 379: 378:Classification 376: 372:United Kingdom 254: 251: 236:overhead lines 193:kinetic energy 135:passenger cars 119:rail transport 115:electric power 113:is the use of 77: 70: 69: 68: 62:25 kV AC 50 Hz 57:overhead lines 42: 35: 34: 33: 32: 31: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5038: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5011: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4987: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4962: 4956: 4953: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4930: 4929: 4926: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4889:Coaling tower 4887: 4886: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4858:Signal bridge 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4833:Loading gauge 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4785: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4742: 4741:refuge siding 4739: 4738: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4688: 4687:tramway track 4685: 4684: 4683: 4680: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4625: 4621: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4521: 4516: 4514: 4509: 4507: 4502: 4501: 4498: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4464:United States 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4321: 4319:Power network 4317: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4267:Rolling stock 4264: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4247: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4230:Overhead line 4228: 4226: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4216: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4194:Bow collector 4192: 4191: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4174: 4169: 4167: 4162: 4160: 4155: 4154: 4151: 4144: 4139: 4135: 4134: 4130: 4125: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4104: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4084: 4081: 4078: 4075: 4074:5-88998-425-X 4071: 4067: 4066: 4062: 4056: 4052: 4051: 4046: 4045:Malone, Dumas 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3994: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3972: 3968: 3963: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3890: 3889: 3883: 3879: 3873: 3870:. Ian Allan. 3869: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3770: 3766: 3749: 3745: 3739: 3736: 3724: 3720: 3714: 3711: 3703: 3697: 3694: 3678: 3671: 3665: 3662: 3649: 3648: 3643: 3636: 3633: 3621: 3617: 3610: 3607: 3594: 3590: 3584: 3581: 3568: 3564: 3558: 3555: 3539: 3535: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3508: 3503: 3497: 3494: 3482: 3478: 3472: 3469: 3456: 3452: 3446: 3443: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3416: 3414: 3410: 3397: 3393: 3392:Miller-McCune 3389: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3364: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3337: 3334: 3329: 3326: 3313: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3293: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3272: 3260: 3256: 3250: 3247: 3241: 3238: 3231: 3228: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3204: 3201: 3189: 3188:www.irfca.org 3185: 3179: 3176: 3164: 3160: 3154: 3151: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3126: 3114: 3110: 3104: 3101: 3096: 3092: 3085: 3082: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3064: 3060: 3054: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3028: 3020: 3019: 3012: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2963: 2949: 2946: 2942: 2936: 2933: 2929: 2923: 2920: 2908: 2904: 2898: 2895: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2870: 2858: 2854: 2848: 2845: 2829: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2805: 2801: 2794: 2791: 2779: 2775: 2769: 2766: 2753: 2752:@businessline 2749: 2743: 2740: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2713: 2707: 2704: 2699: 2695: 2689: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2664: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2650: 2643: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2544: 2539: 2538:Trains portal 2533: 2528: 2525: 2524:Energy portal 2519: 2514: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2500: 2498: 2494: 2489: 2487: 2483: 2478: 2438: 2434: 2426: 2421: 2416: 2413: 2410: 2409:overhead line 2406: 2402: 2394: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2359: 2355: 2352:, making the 2351: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2294:Disadvantages 2293: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2255:Diesel engine 2252: 2248: 2247: 2246: 2244: 2240: 2229: 2226: 2218: 2215:February 2023 2207: 2204: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2179: 2176: – 2175: 2171: 2170:Find sources: 2164: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2148:This section 2146: 2142: 2137: 2136: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2117: 2114: 2108: 2100: 2098: 2092:Sparks effect 2091: 2089: 2082: 2080: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2065: 2059: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2031: 2027: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2014:nuclear power 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1994: 1991: 1985: 1982: 1978: 1970: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1925: 1921: 1918: 1914: 1906: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1889: 1884: 1879: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1824: 1809:6. 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