1850:
universe. Recent astrophysical research indicates that such filaments can transfer electricity both between galaxies and between star clusters. Neutron stars, pulsars, magnetars, quasars and astrophysical jets play an important role in cosmic electric phenomena. It is hypothesized that star formation in clusters is in part powered by those filaments, as the star formation mostly occurs along strings, following the plasma filaments. It is believed that the intergalactic plasma filaments are slowly rotating, because of their electric charge that generates multi-layer, concentric electromagnetic fields. This filament rotation may account for the position and rotation of galaxies. This is a field of ongoing scientific research. The James Webb Space
Telescope yields new insights that enable further astrophysical exploration into this subject.
2206:
2240:
2404:(1947), "The metallic substances differ from all other materials by the fact that the outer shells of their atoms are bound rather loosely, and often let one of their electrons go free. Thus the interior of a metal is filled up with a large number of unattached electrons that travel aimlessly around like a crowd of displaced persons. When a metal wire is subjected to electric force applied on its opposite ends, these free electrons rush in the direction of the force, thus forming what we call an electric current."
42:
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times a second. DC power sources are also trivial to add to circuits, both in theory and in practice. For AC, however, phase must be considered when dealing with multiple power sources; whether the phase is off by 0 or Ï makes a massive difference in the functionality of a circuit. Additionally, circuits with capacitive and inductive elements are very easy to mathematically represent with DC. Charge on a capacitor and resistance on an inductor asymptotically stabilize with time, meaning DC systems reach
1626:), where DC is used. The main issue with using DC in commercial power transmission is changing voltage for consumers, but this is because the voltage is changed multiple times. For safety, voltage is stepped down the closer it gets to consumers to prevent incredibly high voltage lines from running through highly populated residential areas. However, if constant voltage transmission across long distances is needed, DC outperforms AC. DC carries better over distance and experiences less heat loss, as the
4876:
1619:(EMF) of higher or lower voltage in the connected power line. DC, however, generally does not fluctuate much, resulting in an unchanging electric field, which generates no magnetic field, making induction impossible. While there is now technology for DC transformers, they are more complex, massive, and expensive than AC transformers, and when infrastructural power grids were being built in much of the world, such technology either didn't exist or was inefficient to utilize.
1678:
voltage. AC, on the other hand, never reaches steady state. The fluctuating current means there will always be changing capacitive and inductive effects in the circuit, complicating mathematical analysis of the circuit. While the required formulas for these effects are still relatively simple functions of time and voltage, voltage is now a sinusoidal function of time, not to mention the phase delay and forwarding in capacitive and inductive elements.
2561:
216:
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2673:, or by application of a high electric or alternating magnetic field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the electrons in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence carry the bulk of the current. The free ions recombine to create new chemical compounds (for example, breaking atmospheric oxygen into single oxygen , which then recombine creating
2912:, for every energy there is a state with electrons flowing in one direction and another state with the electrons flowing in the other. For a net current to flow, more states for one direction than for the other direction must be occupied. For this to occur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next higher states lie above the band gap. Often this is stated as: full bands do not contribute to the
1225:
3345:
1692:
1241:
1378:, the actual direction of current through a specific circuit element is usually unknown until the analysis is completed. Consequently, the reference directions of currents are often assigned arbitrarily. When the circuit is solved, a negative value for the current implies the actual direction of current through that circuit element is opposite that of the chosen reference direction.
1874:. A pod of these sea mammals can communicate, for example to warn each other of predators. Migratory birds can sense the magnetic field of the Earth, using it to coordinate their flight. Some migratory sea animals, like salmon and sea turtles, also use Earth's magnetic field to navigate during long-distance migration.
1978:
shows that electric energy can be transferred from A to B, without carrying current from A to B. This is achieved by using one or more coils in A. The coils generate an electromagnetic field that carries the electric energy to B. Wireless charging devices could potentially be integrated in furniture,
1897:
Some species of plants can generate electricity at a microscopic level, either through photosynthesis or through electrification of mechanical energy. For instance, the oleander is able to capture mechanical energy from wind stirring its leaves, and transform it into electricity for use in the plant.
2867:
In the classic crystalline semiconductors, electrons can have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of levels of energy). Energetically, these bands are located between the energy of the ground state, the state in which electrons are tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and
2321:
is defined as moving in the same direction as the positive charge flow. So, in metals where the charge carriers (electrons) are negative, conventional current is in the opposite direction to the overall electron movement. In conductors where the charge carriers are positive, conventional current is
1869:
and nerves, responsible for both brain activity and sensory perception. Neurons are found in all animals, even in very small animals like starfish and seahorses. Brain development is more substantial in higher organisms, enabling thought and memory. Consciousness is enabled in the highest organisms,
1307:
A flow of positive charges gives the same electric current, and has the same effect in a circuit, as an equal flow of negative charges in the opposite direction. Since current can be the flow of either positive or negative charges, or both, a convention is needed for the direction of current that is
1849:
and Donald E. Scott, it was discovered that electricity is ubiquitous in the universe. Plasmas account for a large part of matter in the cosmos; plasmas are electrically charged. It is now believed that plasma-filled cosmic filaments are probably responsible for transfer of electricity through the
1614:
Along the power lines connecting power stations to consumers, voltage is stepped up and down to reduce heat loss, often multiple times. While DC inherently experiences less heat loss than AC, it cannot be stepped up or down with transformers. This is due to transformers working on the principle of
1783:
and electricity in the Earth's mantle. Electrostaticity was among the earliest discoveries of inorganic electricity occurring in nature. Already early in history, it was discovered that certain types of stone and resins, like amber, can become electrostatic when friction is applied. Rubbing amber
1672:
In university-level EM classes, whether it be algebra or calculus based, DC is typically used as an introduction to electric current. This is due to DC being mathematically and conceptually simpler than AC. A constant, direct current is, arguably, much more intuitive than one that alternates many
1610:
Besides solar power, most power generation methods produce AC current. In order to distribute electricity in the form of DC, a rectifier must be used to convert from the initial AC to DC. However, rectification is a complex, expensive, and, until recent, fairly lossy conversion, especially on the
1677:
eventually (usually fairly quickly in mathematical practice problems). Such systems are easy to analyze once they reach steady state, and even systems that have not stabilized are not too difficult to analyze, as all the required formulas are relatively simple functions of time and initial/final
1999:
offers direct electric current measurement, it requires breaking the electrical circuit, which can be inconvenient for certain applications. Current can also be measured without breaking the circuit by detecting the magnetic field associated with the current. Devices, at the circuit level, use
1651:, operate on a one-way basis; the diode, for example, only allows current to flow in one, fixed direction. Trying to use AC with such components would immensely complicate circuit design, requiring designs to function symmetrically with respect to current direction. Additionally,
1630:
is only observed in AC systems. Additionally, out-of-phase AC systems can only be connected via DC. For example, the U.S. power grid is split into three asynchronous AC systems. For power to be transferred between any of these systems, DC must be used to mediate the transfer.
2389:
but, on average, there is zero net current within the metal. At room temperature, the average speed of these random motions is 10 metres per second. Given a surface through which a metal wire passes, electrons move in both directions across the surface at an equal rate. As
1308:
independent of the type of charge carriers. Negatively charged carriers, such as the electrons (the charge carriers in metal wires and many other electronic circuit components), therefore flow in the opposite direction of conventional current flow in an electrical circuit.
1788:
occurs when applying mechanical strain to certain crystals, causing them to become electrically polarized. Iron monoxide (FeO), which makes up 9% of the Earth mantle, conducts electricity (especially when molten); this is believed to contribute to Earth's rotation.
2950:, the direction is arbitrary. Conventionally, if the moving charges are positive, then the current density has the same sign as the velocity of the charges. For negative charges, the sign of the current density is opposite to the velocity of the charges. In
1886:
Electroreceptive animals have the ability to perceive natural electrical stimuli. Electrogenic animals, like eels, have organs that are capable of producing electric shocks – as a means of protection or as part of predator behaviour.
1598:
Despite DC being mathematically and conceptually simpler than AC, it is actually less widely used than AC. However, due to the versatility of electric circuits, there are many situations that call for one type of electric current over the other.
1659:
There are, however, devices that are indifferent to current type due to incredibly simple functionality. These devices, such as incandescent lightbulbs or some toaster ovens, operate by running current through high resistance elements, emitting
1655:
update millions of times per second, much faster than the mere 100/120 times per second that AC alternates polarities. This would cause massive inconsistencies in CPU voltage and performance, meaning all devices that use CPUs must also use DC.
4071:
1906:
Man-made occurrences of electric current include the controlled flow of conduction electrons in metal wires, such as overhead power lines for long-distance energy delivery and the smaller wires within electrical and electronic devices.
1898:
Natural photosynthesis in chlorophyll is highly efficient at converting sunlight into electricity, which then drives the chemical formation of glucose. That electricity can also be used artificially in a photo-bioelectrochemical cell.
2329:, a beam of ions or electrons may be formed. In other conductive materials, the electric current is due to the flow of both positively and negatively charged particles at the same time. In still others, the current is entirely due to
2592:(and conditions are right) the sodium ions move towards the negative electrode (cathode), while the chloride ions move towards the positive electrode (anode). Reactions take place at both electrode surfaces, neutralizing each ion.
1814:
that occur in the atmosphere near the North and South Poles. The aurora borealis and aurora australis are generated by flows of charged particles emanating from the Sun, which occur when solar activity is high (temporarily strong
2618:
below the breakdown field, the dominant source of electrical conduction is via relatively few mobile ions produced by radioactive gases, ultraviolet light, or cosmic rays. Since the electrical conductivity is low, gases are
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from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the
Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be understood simply as the idealization of
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3678:
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because the valence band in any given metal is nearly filled with electrons under usual operating conditions, while very few (semiconductor) or virtually none (insulator) of them are available in the
2689:" contains no charged particles, it normally behaves as a perfect insulator. However, metal electrode surfaces can cause a region of the vacuum to become conductive by injecting free electrons or
3110:
and they follow an erratic path, bouncing from atom to atom, but generally drifting in the opposite direction of the electric field. The speed they drift at can be calculated from the equation:
2920:, there is more energy in the semiconductor to spend on lattice vibration and on exciting electrons into the conduction band. The current-carrying electrons in the conduction band are known as
3732:
160:
2317:. In other media, any stream of charged objects (ions, for example) may constitute an electric current. To provide a definition of current independent of the type of charge carriers,
2848:" (the mobile positive charge carriers that are places where the semiconductor crystal is missing a valence electron). This is the case in a p-type semiconductor. A semiconductor has
1929:
are an example of electricity transfer through a sliding contact. The pantograph has enabled large-scale electrification of railways, subway and tram networks, as well as networks of
773:
3149:
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3004:
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Lightning flashes are also one of the earliest discovered natural observable examples of electric current. Electric charge can build up vertically in dense clouds, leading to
1911:
are electric currents that occur in conductors exposed to changing magnetic fields. Similarly, electric currents occur, particularly in the surface, of conductors exposed to
746:
1543:(DC) refers to a system in which the movement of electric charge in only one direction (sometimes called unidirectional flow). Direct current is produced by sources such as
2868:
the free electron energy, the latter describing the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material. The energy bands each correspond to many discrete
192:
3292:
wave that propagates at very high speed outside the surface of the conductor. This speed is usually a significant fraction of the speed of light, as can be deduced from
2908:
requires that the electron be lifted into the higher anti-bonding state of that bond. For delocalized states, for example in one dimension – that is in a
1664:. Both AC and DC is affected by resistance, so the current type used is irrelevant, although both types may need to use different voltages to produce identical results.
758:
3325:
The high speed of electromagnetic waves is roughly analogous to the speed of sound in a gas (sound waves move through air much faster than large-scale motions such as
1639:
Household electronic devices overwhelmingly use DC. This is due to the nature of basic circuit components. Many essential components in electronic devices, such as
4326:
2353:
are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, the electric current is entirely composed of flowing ions.
2647:
that contains enough mobile electrons and positive ions to make it an electrical conductor. In the process, it forms a light emitting conductive path, such as a
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Alternating electric current flows through the solenoid, producing a changing magnetic field. This field causes an electric current to flow in the wire loop by
1372:
1341:
3314:
The magnitudes (not the natures) of these three velocities can be illustrated by an analogy with the three similar velocities associated with gases. (See also
3513:
3459:
4605:
3486:
1530:
signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. An important goal in these applications is recovery of information encoded (or
2418:, the source places an electric field across the conductor. The moment contact is made, the free electrons of the conductor are forced to drift toward the
3090:
causes the current to spread unevenly across the conductor cross-section, with higher density near the surface, thus increasing the apparent resistance.
1009:
778:
4488:
2741:) are formed. These are incandescent regions of the electrode surface that are created by a localized high current. These regions may be initiated by
788:
4225:
4198:
2606:
In certain electrolyte mixtures, brightly coloured ions are the moving electric charges. The slow progress of the colour makes the current visible.
3844:
2221:
when an electric current flows through it. When the current is switched off, the coil loses its magnetism immediately. Electric current produces a
1607:
AC is almost always used for power transmission to consumers. The reason behind this is the sum of multiple historical and technological details.
2499:
3881:
2957:
In linear materials such as metals, and under low frequencies, the current density across the conductor surface is uniform. In such conditions,
2749:
forms. These small electron-emitting regions can form quite rapidly, even explosively, on a metal surface subjected to a high electrical field.
1204:(1820). The notation travelled from France to Great Britain, where it became standard, although at least one journal did not change from using
4098:
3106:.) To create a net flow of charge, the particles must also move together with an average drift rate. Electrons are the charge carriers in most
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2713:, which results in the ejection of free electrons from the metal into the vacuum. Externally heated electrodes are often used to generate an
628:
250:
2225:. The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire that persists as long as there is current.
3311:, and depends on the electromagnetic properties of the conductor and the insulating materials surrounding it, and on their shape and size.
2205:
4963:
2603:") that are mobile. In these materials, electric currents are composed of moving protons, as opposed to the moving electrons in metals.
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scale of power plants. This has made it historically inefficient to convert the AC generated by power plants to DC for distribution.
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of the electrons, and most of the states with low energy (closer to the nucleus) are occupied, up to a particular band called the
2635:
value, free electrons become sufficiently accelerated by the electric field to create additional free electrons by colliding, and
4598:
1870:
including man. Some mammals, like whales and dolphins, are capable of wireless communication, thanks to their brain activity or
3911:
2784:
423:
2422:
terminal under the influence of this field. The free electrons are therefore the charge carrier in a typical solid conductor.
4305:
3976:
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states that the current is directly proportional to the potential difference between two ends (across) of that metal (ideal)
2419:
1717:
1002:
768:
245:
3332:
The random motion of charges is analogous to heat – the thermal velocity of randomly vibrating gas particles.
2381:, carrying a current. Metals are particularly conductive because there are many of these free electrons. With no external
2102:
1393:
1094:
783:
488:
2251:
Magnetic fields can also be used to make electric currents. When a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, an
4931:
4890:
4334:
3113:
648:
638:
623:
388:
255:
3300:, the waves of electromagnetic energy propagate through the space between the wires, moving from a source to a distant
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688:
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of the electrons is on the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near-vacuum inside a
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to represent the current, the direction representing positive current must be specified, usually by an arrow on the
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2400:
2001:
1803:
that discharges in flashes to the ground. The flashes follow a path of lowest electric resistance through the air.
441:
2496:
More generally, electric current can be represented as the rate at which charge flows through a given surface as:
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1706:
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113:
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The ease of exciting electrons in the semiconductor from the valence band to the conduction band depends on the
1773:
Electrostatic materials – piezoelectricity – the geophysical flow of molten iron
3418:
2733:
can also spontaneously produce electron clouds via thermionic emission when small incandescent regions (called
1155:
3098:
The mobile charged particles within a conductor move constantly in random directions, like the particles of a
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4900:
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1980:
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induction: the changing electric field created by AC generates a changing magnetic field, which induces an
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1975:
1806:
In the second half of the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, it was discovered that the
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The ratio of the speed of the electromagnetic wave to the speed of light in free space is called the
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between the bands. The size of this energy band gap serves as an arbitrary dividing line (roughly 4
2365:, some of the outer electrons in each atom are not bound to the individual molecules as they are in
2345:
ions flowing in one direction, and negative sulfate ions flowing in the other. Electric currents in
383:
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3083:
2718:
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2019:
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used. Positive and negative charge carriers may even be present at the same time, as happens in an
1098:
936:
916:
911:
718:
703:
588:
558:
453:
173:
3438:
Our first step in the analysis is the assumption of reference directions for the unknown currents.
2942:
Current density is the rate at which charge passes through a chosen unit area. It is defined as a
1622:
There are certain cases, however, specifically in high-voltage, long-distance power transmission (
4840:
4026:
4016:
3999:
3408:
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is the state of matter where some of the electrons in a gas are stripped or "ionized" from their
2074:
1971:
1834:
1780:
1273:
1163:
811:
551:
353:
313:
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Any accelerating electric charge, and therefore any changing electric current, gives rise to an
2101:
period. By varying the current and the length of the wire he deduced that the heat produced was
4437:
Oswaal NCERT Textbook
Solution Class 7 Science | Mathematics | Set of 2 Books | For Latest Exam
3296:, and is therefore many times faster than the drift velocity of the electrons. For example, in
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in an electrical circuit, flow in the opposite direction of the conventional electric current.
1114:
871:
4511:
4151:
3616:
2954:, current density (symbol: j) is expressed in the SI base units of amperes per square metre.
4281:
Advanced
Materials for Electromagnetic Shielding: Fundamentals, Properties, and Applications
3388:
3368:
3322:
The low drift velocity of charge carriers is analogous to air motion; in other words, winds.
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Solar
Electricity: A Practical Guide to Designing and Installing Small Photovoltaic Systems
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3308:
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are some of the electronic switching and amplifying devices based on vacuum conductivity.
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2366:
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2070:
1871:
1846:
1527:
1523:
1495:
1344:
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are the charge carriers, free to move about in the metal. In other materials, notably the
1249:
1043:
906:
831:
826:
693:
568:
533:
428:
393:
293:
946:
4020:
3993:
3304:, even though the electrons in the wires only move back and forth over a tiny distance.
2369:, or in full bands as they are in insulating materials, but are free to move within the
3373:
3282:
3274:
3248:
3226:
3204:
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2008:
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and in the cosmos. Thanks to the research of pioneering scientists and engineers like
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2048:
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1964:
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Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
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1147:
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1067:
981:
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603:
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occurs when the electric field at the surface of the metal is high enough to cause
2652:
2391:
2255:(EMF) is induced, which starts an electric current, when there is a suitable path.
1996:
1908:
1811:
1674:
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type. Alternating current can also be converted to direct current through use of a
1548:
1404:, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:
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856:
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763:
698:
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463:
338:
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1387:
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71:
17:
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2013:
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733:
563:
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it is sometimes useful to think of the current as due to the flow of positive "
1268:, the moving charged particles that constitute the electric current are called
1224:
3340:
3326:
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whose magnitude is the current per unit cross-sectional area. As discussed in
2780:
2746:
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1930:
1920:
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598:
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With covalent bonds, an electron moves by hopping to a neighboring bond. The
3103:
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2342:
1800:
1564:
1532:
1511:
921:
896:
708:
633:
230:
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are flows of positively and negatively charged ions. In a common lead-acid
3221:
is number of charged particles per unit volume (or charge carrier density)
1979:
walls or road surfaces. Currently research is being done in long-distance
1940:
enable large-scale coast-to-coast electricity transfer between countries.
1752:
The occurrences of electric current can be divided into three main types:
4743:
4100:
2962:
2909:
2890:
2701:. Thermionic emission occurs when the thermal energy exceeds the metal's
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2636:
2589:
2310:
2210:
1948:
1915:. When oscillating electric currents flow at the correct voltages within
1588:
1507:
1503:
1400:
across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the
1281:
1229:
1139:
1059:
1031:
673:
668:
288:
3657:(9th ed.), International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Dec 2022,
1947:, other forms of electric current include the flow of electrons through
1186:, (current intensity). Current intensity is often referred to simply as
4860:
4635:
3273:
wire of cross-section 0.5 mm, carrying a current of 5 A, the
2754:
2486:
2161:
1992:
1866:
1127:
1106:
643:
92:
3281:, the electrons travel in near-straight lines at about a tenth of the
3269:
Typically, electric charges in solids flow slowly. For example, in a
1280:
of the atoms are held in a fixed position, and the negatively charged
46:
A simple electric circuit, where current is represented by the letter
4805:
4778:
4771:
4694:
4684:
4583:
3270:
2879:
2792:
2600:
2585:
2326:
2218:
2165:
2098:
1580:
1560:
1445:
1293:
1102:
728:
235:
97:
2584:). For example, if an electric field is placed across a solution of
1974:
of batteries, for use in phones and electric vehicles for instance.
3515:
Bugs, Drugs and Three-pin Plugs: Everyday
Science, Simply Explained
1200:, after whom the unit of electric current is named, in formulating
1050:, which may be one of several types of particles, depending on the
4718:
4224:
Loznen, Steli; Bolintineanu, Constantin; Swart, Jan (2017-05-31).
3107:
2674:
2559:
2370:
2362:
2238:
2204:
2169:
2090:
1854:
Organic occurrences of electricity â biological use of electricity
1644:
1272:. In metals, which make up the wires and other conductors in most
1239:
1223:
1151:
1105:(sometimes called an "amp", symbol A), which is equivalent to one
2745:, but are then sustained by localized thermionic emission once a
1514:, though certain applications use alternative waveforms, such as
4728:
4669:
3051:
2471:
2177:
2086:
2078:
1502:
most commonly delivered to businesses and residences. The usual
1457:
1063:
4587:
4278:
Jaroszewski, Maciej; Thomas, Sabu; Rane, Ajay V. (2018-11-29).
4103:(3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 10.
3824:'Current intensity' is usually referred to as 'current' itself.
3099:
3079:
2860:. This means a conductivity roughly in the range of 10 to 10
2690:
2615:
2581:
2470:
is the electric charge transferred through the surface over a
1837:
has triggered further research into electric phenomena in the
1685:
1469:
1079:
1035:
2407:
When a metal wire is connected across the two terminals of a
2429:(in amperes) can be calculated with the following equation:
1902:
Technological usage of electric current â wired and wireless
4758:
2951:
2540:{\displaystyle I={\frac {\mathrm {d} Q}{\mathrm {d} t}}\,.}
2425:
For a steady flow of charge through a surface, the current
1476:
in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
3843:(in French). Paris: Chez Crochard Libraire. p. 56.
3785:
Principles of
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
3582:
Walker, Jearl; Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (2014).
2916:. However, as a semiconductor's temperature rises above
1779:
Natural observable examples of electric current include
4410:
NCERT Textbook
Solution Class 7 Science | For 2024 Exam
3488:
George Facer's
Edexcel A Level Chemistry Student Book 1
2878:. Semiconductors and insulators are distinguished from
2291:
and can cause electric currents in distant conductors.
2209:
Magnetic field is produced by an electric current in a
1891:
Photosynthesis and electrification of mechanical energy
1865:
A biological example of current is the flow of ions in
1320:
can flow in either of two directions. When defining a
2309:
In metallic solids, electric charge flows by means of
2097:
rise due to a known current through the wire for a 30
2065:
by which the passage of an electric current through a
3369:
Magnetic current § Magnetic displacement current
3251:
3229:
3207:
3185:
3160:
3116:
3060:
3032:
3012:
2975:
2639:, neutral gas atoms or molecules in a process called
2502:
2435:
2121:
1410:
1360:
1329:
1256:
The conventional direction of current, also known as
176:
116:
4513:
Experimental Electrochemistry: A Laboratory Textbook
4325:
Friedrich, Andreas P.; Lemme, Helmuth (2000-05-01).
4227:
Electrical Product Compliance and Safety Engineering
4177:"The anomalous skin effect in gas discharge plasmas"
2385:
applied, these electrons move about randomly due to
2180:(symbol: W), is equivalent to one joule per second.
2085:
in 1841. Joule immersed a length of wire in a fixed
4883:
4621:
4373:
4371:
4369:
2217:In an electromagnet a coil of wires behaves like a
1498:periodically reverses direction. AC is the form of
1260:, is arbitrarily defined as the direction in which
1046:through a surface. The moving particles are called
1042:or space. It is defined as the net rate of flow of
165:
103:
91:
79:
34:
4798:
4379:
4076:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 13.
4070:Hacker, Viktor; Sumereder, Christof (2020-03-23).
4004:ohm's law current proportional voltage resistance.
3257:
3235:
3213:
3191:
3166:
3143:
3066:
3038:
3018:
2998:
2771:Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero
2539:
2458:
2146:
1432:
1366:
1335:
186:
154:
3992:Consoliver, Earl L.; Mitchell, Grover I. (1920).
2341:cell, electric currents are composed of positive
1444:is the current through the conductor in units of
4175:Kolobov, V I; Economou, D J (16 December 1996).
4097:Andrew J. Robinson; Lynn Snyder-Mackler (2007).
3458:McMonagle, Derek; Anning, Pauline (2016-03-31).
2595:Water-ice and certain solid electrolytes called
1472:. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the
2886:, the band immediately above the valence band.
4353:
4351:
4306:"What is a Current Sensor and How is it Used?"
4049:. Vol. 1. Macmillan and Co. p. 283.
3710:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 214.
2322:in the same direction as the charge carriers.
1768:Inorganic occurrences of electricity in nature
4599:
4358:Jaffe, Robert L.; Taylor, Washington (2018).
3808:Kumar, K. S. Suresh (2013). "Section 1.2.3".
2580:are flows of electrically charged particles (
1970:A newly developed use of electric current is
1003:
8:
4378:Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004).
3243:is the cross-sectional area of the conductor
2852:intermediate in magnitude between that of a
1859:Nerve system and electromagnetic sensitivity
1784:will cause it to become negatively charged.
1181:
3943:. Pearson Education India. pp. 26â28.
3838:"Recueil d'Observations Ălectro-dynamiques"
3737:. Dorling Kindersley Limited. p. 272.
2176:. The commonly known SI unit of power, the
1720:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
155:{\displaystyle I={V \over R},I={Q \over t}}
4626:
4606:
4592:
4584:
4544:. Arc Suppression Technologies. April 2011
4125:"The War of the Currents: AC vs. DC Power"
3783:Berlin, Howard M.; Getz, Frank C. (1988).
1571:such as a wire, but can also flow through
1180:, which originates from the French phrase
1010:
996:
214:
198:
40:
4031:Ohm's law current directly proportional.
3905:
3903:
3875:
3873:
3250:
3228:
3206:
3184:
3159:
3123:
3115:
3059:
3031:
3011:
2992:
2982:
2974:
2669:or atoms. A plasma can be formed by high
2533:
2522:
2512:
2509:
2501:
2452:
2442:
2434:
2132:
2120:
1740:Learn how and when to remove this message
1417:
1409:
1359:
1328:
1125:and is measured using a device called an
1121:(ISQ). Electric current is also known as
178:
177:
175:
142:
123:
115:
3962:
3960:
3866:. Vol. 6. 1894. pp. 411, 1894.
3577:
3575:
3573:
3571:
2947:
2333:. For example, the electric currents in
1138:, which are used in motors, generators,
50:. The relationship between the voltage (
4654:
4540:Environmental Impact of Arc Suppression
4489:"The Mechanism Of Conduction In Metals"
3886:. Thomas Nelson and Sons. p. 221.
3450:
3431:
2807:phenomenon. It is characterized by the
1174:The conventional symbol for current is
1097:(SI), electric current is expressed in
759:Electromagnetism and special relativity
206:
4434:Board, Oswaal Editorial (2024-03-08).
4407:Board, Oswaal Editorial (2024-02-15).
4025:. American Technical Society. p.
2924:, though they are often simply called
2295:Conduction mechanisms in various media
2287:can be generated. These travel at the
2081:. The phenomenon was first studied by
1288:, the charge carriers can be positive
179:
31:
4516:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 44.
4386:(6th ed.). Thomson Brooks/Cole.
4284:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 42.
4184:Plasma Sources Science and Technology
4146:
4144:
3910:McComb, Gordon; Boysen, Earl (2005).
3586:(10th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
3026:is the current, measured in amperes;
1452:is the potential difference measured
1146:. In ordinary conductors, they cause
779:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
7:
4467:. S. Chand Publishing. p. 170.
4382:Physics for Scientists and Engineers
4073:Electrical Engineering: Fundamentals
3644:
3642:
3640:
3638:
3086:, especially at higher frequencies,
2779:occurring in certain materials when
2275:When an electric current flows in a
1718:adding citations to reliable sources
3707:Science Laws and Their Applications
1879:Electroreception and electrogenesis
4896:International System of Quantities
4152:"Connecting the Country with HVDC"
3758:Lowe, T. L.; Rounce, John (2002).
3677:Blackwell, Glenn R. (2017-12-19).
3615:Anthony C. Fischer-Cripps (2004).
3394:International System of Quantities
3144:{\displaystyle v={\frac {I}{nAQ}}}
2523:
2513:
1119:International System of Quantities
1090:gas, they are ions and electrons.
25:
3680:The Electronic Packaging Handbook
3651:The International System of Units
3384:History of electrical engineering
2599:contain positive hydrogen ions ("
2109:of the current multiplied by the
1991:Current can be measured using an
1433:{\displaystyle I={\frac {V}{R}},}
4920:
4919:
4874:
3940:Electric Circuits & Networks
3850:from the original on 2011-07-24.
3760:Calculations for A-level Physics
3343:
2999:{\displaystyle I={V \over R}\,,}
2643:. The breakdown process forms a
2459:{\displaystyle I={Q \over t}\,,}
2147:{\displaystyle P\propto I^{2}R.}
1690:
4203:. Nelson Thornes. p. 256.
3787:. Merrill Pub. Co. p. 37.
3265:is the charge on each particle.
2022:(however DC cannot be measured)
1567:. Direct current may flow in a
1559:-type electric machines of the
1480:Alternating and direct current
4567:. Cambridge University Press.
4464:New Inquisitive Science Book 7
4327:"The Universal Current Sensor"
4257:. Prentice Hall. p. 351.
2156:This relationship is known as
1494:(AC) systems, the movement of
1058:the charge carriers are often
1:
4362:. Cambridge University Press.
4230:. Artech House. p. 343.
3971:(5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
3762:. Nelson Thornes. p. 2.
3704:Singh, Kulwant (2023-08-30).
3512:Morris, Andrew (2022-10-19).
2932:Current density and Ohm's law
2928:if that is clear in context.
2897:) between semiconductors and
2073:of the conductor, converting
2053:Joule heating, also known as
1468:of the conductor in units of
1376:analyzing electrical circuits
1158:. Time-varying currents emit
1109:per second. The ampere is an
1095:International System of Units
784:Relativistic electromagnetism
187:{\displaystyle {\mathsf {I}}}
4891:History of the metric system
4440:. Oswaal Books. p. 50.
4413:. Oswaal Books. p. 50.
3969:Engineering Electromagnetics
3937:Kumar, K. S. Suresh (2008).
3485:Facer, George (2015-05-15).
3461:Integrated Science for CSECÂź
2627:. However, once the applied
1955:, the flow of ions inside a
3995:Automotive ignition systems
3812:. Pearson Education India.
3464:. OUP Oxford. p. 206.
3404:Single-phase electric power
2811:, the complete ejection of
2556:Conductivity (electrolytic)
2305:Charge transport mechanisms
2168:was subsequently named the
1951:or through the vacuum in a
1292:negative, depending on the
4980:
4964:Electromagnetic quantities
3552:Cambridge University Press
3414:Three-phase electric power
2935:
2833:
2764:
2614:In air and other ordinary
2553:
2489:and seconds respectively,
2401:One, Two, Three...Infinity
2298:
2268:
2262:
2232:
2198:
2187:
2046:
2016:current sensor transducers
1483:
1456:the conductor in units of
1385:
1166:to broadcast information.
1113:and electric current is a
509:LiĂ©nardâWiechert potential
4914:
4872:
4789:thermodynamic temperature
4634:
4629:
4563:Zangwill, Andrew (2013).
4043:Oliver Heaviside (1894).
4019:and E. S. Bishop (1917).
3810:Electric Circuit Analysis
3621:. CRC Press. p. 13.
3618:The electronics companion
3399:SI electromagnetism units
2906:Pauli exclusion principle
2803:, superconductivity is a
2791:on April 8, 1911 in
2277:suitably shaped conductor
2245:electromagnetic induction
2235:Electromagnetic induction
2229:Electromagnetic induction
1781:static electric discharge
1276:, the positively charged
1134:Electric currents create
1070:they can be electrons or
774:Mathematical descriptions
484:Electromagnetic radiation
474:Electromagnetic induction
414:Magnetic vector potential
409:Magnetic scalar potential
39:
3419:Two-phase electric power
1156:incandescent light bulbs
1078:the charge carriers are
4251:Roberts, Simon (1991).
4197:Johnson, Keith (2001).
4022:Elements of Electricity
3998:. McGraw-Hill. p.
3913:Electronics For Dummies
3734:The Visual Encyclopedia
3584:Fundamentals of physics
3379:Electrical measurements
3199:is the electric current
3102:. (More accurately, a
2914:electrical conductivity
2864:per centimeter (Sâ
cm).
2850:electrical conductivity
2787:. It was discovered by
2783:below a characteristic
2743:field electron emission
2707:field electron emission
2695:field electron emission
2313:, from lower to higher
2301:Electrical conductivity
2271:Radio-frequency current
1591:for direct current was
1316:A current in a wire or
324:Electrostatic induction
319:Electrostatic discharge
27:Flow of electric charge
4906:Systems of measurement
4565:Modern Electrodynamics
4510:Holze, Rudolf (2009).
3967:Hayt, William (1989).
3548:The art of electronics
3259:
3237:
3215:
3193:
3168:
3145:
3068:
3040:
3020:
3000:
2789:Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
2573:
2541:
2460:
2248:
2214:
2148:
1793:Atmospheric occurrence
1536:) onto the AC signal.
1434:
1368:
1350:. This is called the
1337:
1253:
1237:
1182:
754:Electromagnetic tensor
188:
156:
4360:The physics of energy
3916:. Wiley. p. 12.
3880:Avison, John (2014).
3260:
3238:
3216:
3194:
3169:
3146:
3069:
3041:
3021:
3001:
2801:atomic spectral lines
2773:electrical resistance
2576:Electric currents in
2563:
2542:
2461:
2269:Further information:
2242:
2208:
2172:and given the symbol
2149:
2111:electrical resistance
1913:electromagnetic waves
1810:is the source of the
1585:electron or ion beams
1435:
1369:
1338:
1243:
1227:
1160:electromagnetic waves
747:Covariant formulation
539:Synchrotron radiation
479:Electromagnetic pulse
469:Electromagnetic field
189:
157:
4461:Kumar, Kiran Ashok.
3883:The World of Physics
3836:AmpĂšre, A-M (1822).
3491:. Hodder Education.
3365:Displacement current
3249:
3227:
3205:
3183:
3158:
3114:
3084:alternating currents
3058:
3048:potential difference
3030:
3010:
2973:
2819:perfect conductivity
2813:magnetic field lines
2785:critical temperature
2500:
2433:
2375:conduction electrons
2331:positive charge flow
2319:conventional current
2315:electrical potential
2119:
2083:James Prescott Joule
2061:, is the process of
2004:to measure current:
1714:improve this section
1579:, or even through a
1408:
1398:potential difference
1358:
1327:
1302:electrochemical cell
1258:conventional current
1183:intensité du courant
1162:, which are used in
1040:electrical conductor
1038:, moving through an
789:Stressâenergy tensor
714:Reluctance (complex)
459:Displacement current
174:
114:
4816:amount of substance
3294:Maxwell's equations
2948:Reference direction
2931:
2699:thermionic emission
2641:avalanche breakdown
2253:electromotive force
1617:electromotive force
1492:alternating current
1486:War of the currents
1381:
1352:reference direction
1312:Reference direction
1274:electrical circuits
1266:conductive material
1264:charges flow. In a
1248:for a battery in a
1196:symbol was used by
704:Magnetomotive force
589:Electromotive force
559:Alternating current
494:Jefimenko equations
454:Cyclotron radiation
70:; this is known as
4959:SI base quantities
4841:luminous intensity
4615:SI base quantities
4331:Fierce Electronics
4017:Robert A. Millikan
3409:Static electricity
3351:Electronics portal
3255:
3233:
3211:
3189:
3164:
3141:
3064:
3036:
3016:
2996:
2805:quantum mechanical
2574:
2537:
2456:
2249:
2215:
2144:
2075:thermodynamic work
1976:Poynting's theorem
1963:within metals and
1959:, and the flow of
1835:Kristian Birkeland
1831:Birkeland currents
1823:Cosmic occurrences
1635:Electronic devices
1603:Power transmission
1430:
1364:
1333:
1254:
1238:
1202:AmpĂšre's force law
1198:André-Marie AmpÚre
1164:telecommunications
552:Electrical network
389:Gauss magnetic law
354:Static electricity
314:Electric potential
184:
152:
18:Electrical current
4941:
4940:
4869:
4868:
4574:978-0-521-89697-9
4474:978-93-85676-60-4
4447:978-93-5728-587-2
4420:978-93-5958-334-1
4291:978-1-119-12861-8
4264:978-0-13-826314-0
4237:978-1-63081-456-4
4210:978-0-7487-6236-1
4110:978-0-7817-4484-3
4083:978-3-11-052111-5
4056:978-0-8218-2840-3
4046:Electrical papers
3744:978-0-241-50166-5
3731:DK (2020-10-01).
3717:978-1-5275-2911-3
3690:978-1-351-83554-1
3664:978-92-822-2272-0
3628:978-0-7503-1012-3
3561:978-0-521-80926-9
3525:978-1-000-72984-9
3498:978-1-4718-3282-6
3471:978-0-19-839562-1
3316:hydraulic analogy
3258:{\displaystyle Q}
3236:{\displaystyle A}
3214:{\displaystyle n}
3192:{\displaystyle I}
3167:{\displaystyle v}
3139:
3067:{\displaystyle R}
3039:{\displaystyle V}
3019:{\displaystyle I}
2990:
2824:classical physics
2775:and expulsion of
2767:Superconductivity
2761:Superconductivity
2610:Gases and plasmas
2597:proton conductors
2531:
2450:
2281:radio frequencies
2093:and measured the
2063:power dissipation
2059:resistive heating
2043:Resistive heating
1981:wireless charging
1972:wireless charging
1829:The discovery of
1750:
1749:
1742:
1425:
1367:{\displaystyle I}
1348:schematic diagram
1336:{\displaystyle I}
1062:moving through a
1056:electric circuits
1028:charged particles
1020:
1019:
719:Reluctance (real)
689:Gyratorâcapacitor
634:Resonant cavities
524:Maxwell equations
197:
196:
150:
131:
16:(Redirected from
4971:
4954:Electric current
4923:
4922:
4878:
4877:
4852:
4822:
4800:
4795:
4773:
4768:
4764:
4762:
4754:electric current
4735:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4676:
4627:
4608:
4601:
4594:
4585:
4579:
4578:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4549:
4534:
4528:
4527:
4507:
4501:
4500:
4495:. Archived from
4485:
4479:
4478:
4458:
4452:
4451:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4404:
4398:
4397:
4385:
4375:
4364:
4363:
4355:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4342:
4333:. Archived from
4322:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4302:
4296:
4295:
4275:
4269:
4268:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4221:
4215:
4214:
4194:
4188:
4187:
4181:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4162:
4148:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4135:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4094:
4088:
4087:
4067:
4061:
4060:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4013:
4007:
4006:
3989:
3983:
3982:
3964:
3955:
3954:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3907:
3898:
3897:
3877:
3868:
3867:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3842:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3805:
3799:
3798:
3780:
3774:
3773:
3755:
3749:
3748:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3656:
3646:
3633:
3632:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3579:
3566:
3565:
3550:(3rd ed.).
3536:
3530:
3529:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3455:
3439:
3436:
3389:Polarity symbols
3353:
3348:
3347:
3279:cathode-ray tube
3264:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3212:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3173:
3171:
3170:
3165:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3124:
3073:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3037:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2991:
2983:
2566:proton conductor
2546:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2516:
2510:
2485:are measured in
2465:
2463:
2462:
2457:
2451:
2443:
2367:molecular solids
2190:Electromagnetism
2184:Electromagnetism
2153:
2151:
2150:
2145:
2137:
2136:
2026:Magnetoresistive
1786:Piezoelectricity
1745:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1725:
1694:
1686:
1593:galvanic current
1439:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1418:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1334:
1215:
1209:
1195:
1185:
1179:
1150:, which creates
1024:electric current
1012:
1005:
998:
679:Electric machine
662:Magnetic circuit
624:Parallel circuit
614:Network analysis
579:Electric current
514:London equations
359:Triboelectricity
349:Potential energy
218:
208:Electromagnetism
199:
193:
191:
190:
185:
183:
182:
161:
159:
158:
153:
151:
143:
132:
124:
107:other quantities
105:Derivations from
58:), and current (
44:
35:Electric current
32:
21:
4979:
4978:
4974:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4969:
4968:
4944:
4943:
4942:
4937:
4910:
4879:
4875:
4870:
4851:
4845:
4820:
4793:
4772: I
4766:
4760:
4733:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4674:
4663:
4658:
4650:
4622:Base quantities
4617:
4612:
4582:
4575:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4547:
4545:
4538:"Lab Note #106
4536:
4535:
4531:
4524:
4509:
4508:
4504:
4487:
4486:
4482:
4475:
4460:
4459:
4455:
4448:
4433:
4432:
4428:
4421:
4406:
4405:
4401:
4394:
4377:
4376:
4367:
4357:
4356:
4349:
4340:
4338:
4324:
4323:
4319:
4310:
4308:
4304:
4303:
4299:
4292:
4277:
4276:
4272:
4265:
4250:
4249:
4245:
4238:
4223:
4222:
4218:
4211:
4200:Physics for You
4196:
4195:
4191:
4179:
4174:
4173:
4169:
4160:
4158:
4150:
4149:
4142:
4133:
4131:
4123:
4122:
4118:
4111:
4096:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4069:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4015:
4014:
4010:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3979:
3966:
3965:
3958:
3951:
3936:
3935:
3931:
3924:
3909:
3908:
3901:
3894:
3879:
3878:
3871:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3847:
3840:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3820:
3807:
3806:
3802:
3795:
3782:
3781:
3777:
3770:
3757:
3756:
3752:
3745:
3730:
3729:
3725:
3718:
3703:
3702:
3698:
3691:
3676:
3675:
3671:
3665:
3654:
3648:
3647:
3636:
3629:
3614:
3613:
3609:
3594:
3581:
3580:
3569:
3562:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3526:
3511:
3510:
3506:
3499:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3472:
3457:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3367:(electric) and
3360:Current density
3349:
3342:
3339:
3309:velocity factor
3290:electromagnetic
3247:
3246:
3225:
3224:
3203:
3202:
3181:
3180:
3156:
3155:
3128:
3112:
3111:
3096:
3056:
3055:
3028:
3027:
3008:
3007:
2971:
2970:
2940:
2938:Current density
2934:
2884:conduction band
2838:
2832:
2809:Meissner effect
2777:magnetic fields
2769:
2763:
2731:Cold electrodes
2693:through either
2683:
2631:approaches the
2612:
2558:
2552:
2521:
2511:
2498:
2497:
2493:is in amperes.
2431:
2430:
2396:popular science
2379:charge carriers
2359:
2339:electrochemical
2307:
2299:Main articles:
2297:
2273:
2267:
2261:
2237:
2231:
2203:
2197:
2192:
2186:
2128:
2117:
2116:
2071:internal energy
2051:
2045:
2009:Shunt resistors
1989:
1938:interconnectors
1923:are generated.
1904:
1872:quantum effects
1856:
1847:Irving Langmuir
1770:
1746:
1735:
1729:
1726:
1711:
1695:
1684:
1670:
1637:
1605:
1496:electric charge
1488:
1482:
1406:
1405:
1390:
1384:
1356:
1355:
1354:of the current
1325:
1324:
1318:circuit element
1314:
1270:charge carriers
1250:circuit diagram
1234:charge carriers
1222:
1211:
1205:
1191:
1175:
1172:
1136:magnetic forces
1048:charge carriers
1044:electric charge
1016:
987:
986:
802:
794:
793:
749:
739:
738:
694:Induction motor
664:
654:
653:
569:Current density
554:
544:
543:
534:Poynting vector
444:
442:Electrodynamics
434:
433:
429:Right-hand rule
394:Magnetic dipole
384:BiotâSavart law
374:
364:
363:
299:Electric dipole
294:Electric charge
269:
172:
171:
112:
111:
108:
106:
82:
75:
54:), resistance (
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4977:
4975:
4967:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4946:
4945:
4939:
4938:
4936:
4935:
4928:
4915:
4912:
4911:
4909:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4887:
4885:
4881:
4880:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4866:
4863:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4849:
4843:
4837:
4836:
4833:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4818:
4812:
4811:
4808:
4803:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4785:
4784:
4781:
4776:
4774:
4769:
4756:
4750:
4749:
4746:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4731:
4725:
4724:
4721:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4687:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4672:
4670:time, duration
4666:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4653:
4646:
4643:
4639:
4638:
4633:
4631:
4625:
4623:
4619:
4618:
4613:
4611:
4610:
4603:
4596:
4588:
4581:
4580:
4573:
4555:
4529:
4523:978-3527310982
4522:
4502:
4499:on 2012-10-25.
4480:
4473:
4453:
4446:
4426:
4419:
4399:
4392:
4365:
4347:
4317:
4297:
4290:
4270:
4263:
4243:
4236:
4216:
4209:
4189:
4167:
4140:
4116:
4109:
4089:
4082:
4062:
4055:
4035:
4008:
3984:
3977:
3956:
3950:978-8131713907
3949:
3929:
3922:
3899:
3892:
3869:
3863:Electric Power
3853:
3828:
3819:978-9332514102
3818:
3800:
3793:
3775:
3768:
3750:
3743:
3723:
3716:
3696:
3689:
3669:
3663:
3634:
3627:
3607:
3593:978-1118230732
3592:
3567:
3560:
3544:Hill, Winfield
3540:Horowitz, Paul
3531:
3524:
3504:
3497:
3477:
3470:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3430:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3374:Electric shock
3371:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3338:
3335:
3334:
3333:
3330:
3323:
3298:AC power lines
3283:speed of light
3275:drift velocity
3267:
3266:
3254:
3244:
3232:
3222:
3210:
3200:
3188:
3178:
3176:drift velocity
3163:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3119:
3095:
3092:
3078:, measured in
3063:
3050:, measured in
3035:
3015:
2995:
2989:
2986:
2981:
2978:
2936:Main article:
2933:
2930:
2922:free electrons
2870:quantum states
2834:Main article:
2831:
2828:
2797:ferromagnetism
2765:Main article:
2762:
2759:
2723:heated cathode
2721:or indirectly
2715:electron cloud
2687:perfect vacuum
2682:
2679:
2629:electric field
2611:
2608:
2570:electric field
2554:Main article:
2551:
2548:
2536:
2529:
2525:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2505:
2455:
2449:
2446:
2441:
2438:
2412:voltage source
2387:thermal energy
2383:electric field
2358:
2355:
2296:
2293:
2289:speed of light
2263:Main article:
2260:
2257:
2233:Main article:
2230:
2227:
2223:magnetic field
2199:Main article:
2196:
2193:
2188:Main article:
2185:
2182:
2143:
2140:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2069:increases the
2047:Main article:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2037:Current clamps
2034:
2032:Rogowski coils
2029:
2023:
2017:
2011:
1988:
1985:
1965:semiconductors
1917:radio antennas
1903:
1900:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1855:
1852:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1747:
1698:
1696:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1669:
1666:
1636:
1633:
1604:
1601:
1573:semiconductors
1541:direct current
1500:electric power
1481:
1478:
1429:
1424:
1421:
1416:
1413:
1386:Main article:
1383:
1380:
1363:
1332:
1313:
1310:
1286:semiconductors
1263:
1221:
1218:
1171:
1168:
1068:semiconductors
1018:
1017:
1015:
1014:
1007:
1000:
992:
989:
988:
985:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
834:
829:
824:
819:
814:
809:
803:
800:
799:
796:
795:
792:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
769:Four-potential
766:
761:
756:
750:
745:
744:
741:
740:
737:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
684:Electric motor
681:
676:
671:
665:
660:
659:
656:
655:
652:
651:
646:
641:
639:Series circuit
636:
631:
626:
621:
616:
611:
609:Kirchhoff laws
606:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
574:Direct current
571:
566:
561:
555:
550:
549:
546:
545:
542:
541:
536:
531:
529:Maxwell tensor
526:
521:
516:
511:
506:
501:
499:Larmor formula
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
449:Bremsstrahlung
445:
440:
439:
436:
435:
432:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
399:Magnetic field
396:
391:
386:
381:
375:
372:Magnetostatics
370:
369:
366:
365:
362:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
304:Electric field
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
274:Charge density
270:
267:Electrostatics
265:
264:
261:
260:
259:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
228:
220:
219:
211:
210:
204:
203:
202:Articles about
195:
194:
181:
169:
163:
162:
149:
146:
141:
138:
135:
130:
127:
122:
119:
109:
104:
101:
100:
95:
89:
88:
83:
81:Common symbols
80:
77:
76:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4976:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4951:
4949:
4934:
4933:
4929:
4927:
4926:
4917:
4916:
4913:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4901:2019 revision
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4888:
4886:
4882:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4848:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4786:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4770:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4726:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4667:
4661:
4656:
4652:
4647:
4644:
4641:
4640:
4637:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4609:
4604:
4602:
4597:
4595:
4590:
4589:
4586:
4576:
4570:
4566:
4559:
4556:
4543:
4541:
4533:
4530:
4525:
4519:
4515:
4514:
4506:
4503:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4484:
4481:
4476:
4470:
4466:
4465:
4457:
4454:
4449:
4443:
4439:
4438:
4430:
4427:
4422:
4416:
4412:
4411:
4403:
4400:
4395:
4393:0-534-40842-7
4389:
4384:
4383:
4374:
4372:
4370:
4366:
4361:
4354:
4352:
4348:
4337:on 2016-03-04
4336:
4332:
4328:
4321:
4318:
4307:
4301:
4298:
4293:
4287:
4283:
4282:
4274:
4271:
4266:
4260:
4256:
4255:
4247:
4244:
4239:
4233:
4229:
4228:
4220:
4217:
4212:
4206:
4202:
4201:
4193:
4190:
4185:
4178:
4171:
4168:
4157:
4153:
4147:
4145:
4141:
4130:
4126:
4120:
4117:
4112:
4106:
4102:
4101:
4093:
4090:
4085:
4079:
4075:
4074:
4066:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4048:
4047:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4023:
4018:
4012:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3996:
3988:
3985:
3980:
3974:
3970:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3952:
3946:
3942:
3941:
3933:
3930:
3925:
3923:9780764597190
3919:
3915:
3914:
3906:
3904:
3900:
3895:
3893:9780174387336
3889:
3885:
3884:
3876:
3874:
3870:
3865:
3864:
3857:
3854:
3846:
3839:
3832:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3811:
3804:
3801:
3796:
3790:
3786:
3779:
3776:
3771:
3765:
3761:
3754:
3751:
3746:
3740:
3736:
3735:
3727:
3724:
3719:
3713:
3709:
3708:
3700:
3697:
3692:
3686:
3683:. CRC Press.
3682:
3681:
3673:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3653:
3652:
3645:
3643:
3641:
3639:
3635:
3630:
3624:
3620:
3619:
3611:
3608:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3589:
3585:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3568:
3563:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3535:
3532:
3527:
3521:
3518:. CRC Press.
3517:
3516:
3508:
3505:
3500:
3494:
3490:
3489:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3467:
3463:
3462:
3454:
3451:
3445:
3435:
3432:
3425:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3312:
3310:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3252:
3245:
3230:
3223:
3208:
3201:
3186:
3179:
3177:
3161:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3120:
3117:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3093:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3033:
3013:
2993:
2987:
2984:
2979:
2976:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2939:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2918:absolute zero
2915:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2842:semiconductor
2837:
2836:Semiconductor
2830:Semiconductor
2829:
2827:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2768:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2735:cathode spots
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2703:work function
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2617:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2549:
2547:
2534:
2527:
2517:
2506:
2503:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2439:
2436:
2428:
2423:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2410:
2405:
2403:
2402:
2397:
2394:wrote in his
2393:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2377:can serve as
2376:
2372:
2371:metal lattice
2368:
2364:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2302:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2201:Electromagnet
2195:Electromagnet
2194:
2191:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2141:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2122:
2114:
2113:of the wire.
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2055:ohmic heating
2050:
2049:Joule heating
2042:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:field sensors
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1909:Eddy currents
1901:
1899:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1888:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1868:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1843:Hannes Alfvén
1840:
1839:magnetosphere
1836:
1832:
1825:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1813:
1812:polar auroras
1809:
1804:
1802:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1782:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1765:
1762:technological
1761:
1757:
1753:
1744:
1741:
1733:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1699:This section
1697:
1693:
1688:
1687:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1618:
1612:
1608:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1549:thermocouples
1546:
1542:
1539:In contrast,
1537:
1535:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1510:circuit is a
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1487:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1427:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1379:
1377:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1346:
1330:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1278:atomic nuclei
1275:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1178:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1148:Joule heating
1145:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1115:base quantity
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1026:is a flow of
1025:
1013:
1008:
1006:
1001:
999:
994:
993:
991:
990:
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
804:
798:
797:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
751:
748:
743:
742:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
666:
663:
658:
657:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
604:Joule heating
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
556:
553:
548:
547:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
519:Lorentz force
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
446:
443:
438:
437:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
419:Magnetization
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
404:Magnetic flux
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
376:
373:
368:
367:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
309:Electric flux
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
271:
268:
263:
262:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
246:Computational
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
227:
224:
223:
222:
221:
217:
213:
212:
209:
205:
201:
200:
170:
168:
164:
147:
144:
139:
136:
133:
128:
125:
120:
117:
110:
102:
99:
96:
94:
90:
87:
84:
78:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
4930:
4918:
4846:
4753:
4564:
4558:
4546:. Retrieved
4539:
4532:
4512:
4505:
4497:the original
4492:
4483:
4463:
4456:
4436:
4429:
4409:
4402:
4381:
4359:
4339:. Retrieved
4335:the original
4330:
4320:
4309:. Retrieved
4300:
4280:
4273:
4253:
4246:
4226:
4219:
4199:
4192:
4183:
4170:
4159:. Retrieved
4155:
4132:. Retrieved
4128:
4119:
4099:
4092:
4072:
4065:
4045:
4038:
4030:
4021:
4011:
4003:
3994:
3987:
3968:
3939:
3932:
3912:
3882:
3862:
3856:
3831:
3823:
3809:
3803:
3784:
3778:
3759:
3753:
3733:
3726:
3706:
3699:
3679:
3672:
3650:
3617:
3610:
3583:
3547:
3534:
3514:
3507:
3487:
3480:
3460:
3453:
3434:
3313:
3306:
3287:
3268:
3097:
2967:ohmic device
2956:
2941:
2925:
2921:
2903:
2888:
2883:
2875:valence band
2873:
2866:
2839:
2817:
2770:
2751:Vacuum tubes
2738:
2734:
2727:vacuum tubes
2684:
2661:
2613:
2605:
2594:
2578:electrolytes
2575:
2568:in a static
2550:Electrolytes
2495:
2490:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2467:
2426:
2424:
2406:
2399:
2392:George Gamow
2360:
2335:electrolytes
2324:
2318:
2308:
2274:
2250:
2216:
2173:
2155:
2115:
2103:proportional
2058:
2054:
2052:
2020:Transformers
1997:galvanometer
1990:
1969:
1942:
1935:
1931:trolleybuses
1925:
1905:
1896:
1885:
1864:
1828:
1817:solar flares
1805:
1798:
1778:
1751:
1736:
1727:
1712:Please help
1700:
1675:steady state
1671:
1662:EM radiation
1658:
1638:
1621:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1597:
1592:
1538:
1531:
1520:square waves
1489:
1473:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1441:
1394:proportional
1391:
1351:
1315:
1306:
1289:
1257:
1255:
1220:Conventions
1216:until 1896.
1212:
1206:
1192:
1187:
1176:
1173:
1144:transformers
1133:
1126:
1122:
1111:SI base unit
1092:
1023:
1021:
764:Four-current
699:Linear motor
584:Electrolysis
578:
464:Eddy current
424:Permeability
344:Polarization
339:Permittivity
93:SI unit
85:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
29:
4493:Think Quest
3094:Drift speed
3088:skin effect
2739:anode spots
2671:temperature
2621:dielectrics
2285:radio waves
2265:Radio waves
2259:Radio waves
2158:Joule's Law
2095:temperature
2014:Hall effect
1987:Measurement
1953:vacuum tube
1945:electronics
1927:Pantographs
1921:radio waves
1682:Occurrences
1649:logic gates
1641:transistors
1628:skin effect
1553:solar cells
1298:electrolyte
1082:, while in
1076:electrolyte
734:Transformer
564:Capacitance
489:Faraday law
284:Coulomb law
226:Electricity
4948:Categories
4341:2011-12-22
4311:2011-12-22
4161:2024-07-20
4156:Energy.gov
4134:2024-07-17
4129:Energy.gov
3978:0070274061
3794:0675204496
3769:0748767487
3446:References
3327:convection
3076:resistance
2965:(or other
2899:insulators
2747:vacuum arc
2717:as in the
2625:insulators
2414:such as a
2002:techniques
1995:. While a
1808:solar wind
1758:biological
1577:insulators
1557:commutator
1516:triangular
1484:See also:
1466:resistance
1402:resistance
1030:, such as
801:Scientists
649:Waveguides
629:Resistance
599:Inductance
379:AmpĂšre law
4649:Dimension
4630:Quantity
4548:March 15,
3602:950235056
3104:Fermi gas
2959:Ohm's law
2926:electrons
2858:insulator
2854:conductor
2755:sprytrons
2711:tunneling
2685:Since a "
2667:molecules
2657:lightning
2633:breakdown
2343:hydronium
2311:electrons
2126:∝
2067:conductor
1949:resistors
1801:lightning
1754:inorganic
1730:July 2024
1701:does not
1668:Education
1569:conductor
1565:rectifier
1545:batteries
1533:modulated
1512:sine wave
1388:Ohm's law
1382:Ohm's law
1282:electrons
1230:electrons
1140:inductors
1060:electrons
1052:conductor
1032:electrons
957:Steinmetz
887:Kirchhoff
872:Jefimenko
867:Hopkinson
852:Helmholtz
847:Heaviside
709:Permeance
594:Impedance
334:Insulator
329:Gauss law
279:Conductor
256:Phenomena
251:Textbooks
231:Magnetism
167:Dimension
72:Ohm's law
4925:Category
4884:See also
4744:kilogram
3845:Archived
3546:(2015).
3337:See also
2963:resistor
2952:SI units
2910:nanowire
2891:band gap
2719:filament
2705:, while
2637:ionizing
2487:coulombs
2420:positive
2373:. These
2211:solenoid
2000:various
1589:old name
1508:AC power
1504:waveform
1374:. When
1322:variable
1262:positive
1123:amperage
1074:. In an
982:Wiechert
937:Poynting
827:Einstein
674:DC motor
669:AC motor
504:Lenz law
289:Electret
4932:Outline
4861:candela
4763:
4759:
4710:, etc.
4664:symbol
4645:Symbol
4636:SI unit
3174:is the
3074:is the
3046:is the
2862:siemens
2856:and an
2795:. Like
2601:protons
2416:battery
2162:SI unit
2105:to the
1993:ammeter
1957:battery
1936:Subsea
1867:neurons
1722:removed
1707:sources
1464:is the
1460:, and
1446:amperes
1396:to the
1345:circuit
1190:. The
1188:current
1128:ammeter
1117:in the
1107:coulomb
1093:In the
1088:ionized
967:Thomson
942:Ritchie
932:Poisson
917:Neumann
912:Maxwell
907:Lorentz
902:Liénard
832:Faraday
817:Coulomb
644:Voltage
619:Ohm law
241:History
4806:kelvin
4799:Θ
4779:ampere
4695:length
4685:second
4651:symbol
4571:
4520:
4471:
4444:
4417:
4390:
4288:
4261:
4234:
4207:
4107:
4080:
4053:
3975:
3947:
3920:
3890:
3816:
3791:
3766:
3741:
3714:
3687:
3661:
3625:
3600:
3590:
3558:
3522:
3495:
3468:
3271:copper
3151:where
3108:metals
3082:. For
3054:; and
3006:where
2944:vector
2880:metals
2793:Leiden
2781:cooled
2681:Vacuum
2663:Plasma
2645:plasma
2477:. If
2466:where
2398:book,
2357:Metals
2351:plasma
2347:sparks
2327:vacuum
2219:magnet
2166:energy
2160:. The
2107:square
2099:minute
1647:, and
1645:diodes
1583:as in
1581:vacuum
1561:dynamo
1555:, and
1506:of an
1454:across
1440:where
1300:in an
1294:dopant
1246:symbol
1232:, the
1170:Symbol
1142:, and
1103:ampere
1084:plasma
1054:. In
952:Singer
947:Savart
927:Ărsted
892:Larmor
882:Kelvin
837:Fizeau
807:AmpĂšre
729:Stator
236:Optics
98:ampere
4719:metre
4659:name
4642:Name
4180:(PDF)
3848:(PDF)
3841:(PDF)
3655:(PDF)
3426:Notes
3052:volts
2846:holes
2840:In a
2675:ozone
2649:spark
2616:gases
2363:metal
2361:In a
2325:In a
2170:joule
2091:water
2077:into
1961:holes
1587:. An
1528:radio
1524:Audio
1458:volts
1152:light
1099:units
1086:, an
1072:holes
1066:. In
977:Weber
972:Volta
962:Tesla
877:Joule
862:Hertz
857:Henry
842:Gauss
724:Rotor
66:) is
4835:mol
4831:mole
4729:mass
4662:Unit
4657:Unit
4569:ISBN
4550:2012
4518:ISBN
4469:ISBN
4442:ISBN
4415:ISBN
4388:ISBN
4286:ISBN
4259:ISBN
4232:ISBN
4205:ISBN
4186:: 1.
4105:ISBN
4078:ISBN
4051:ISBN
3973:ISBN
3945:ISBN
3918:ISBN
3888:ISBN
3814:ISBN
3789:ISBN
3764:ISBN
3739:ISBN
3712:ISBN
3685:ISBN
3659:ISBN
3623:ISBN
3598:OCLC
3588:ISBN
3556:ISBN
3520:ISBN
3493:ISBN
3466:ISBN
3302:load
3080:ohms
2799:and
2753:and
2691:ions
2588:and
2582:ions
2481:and
2472:time
2303:and
2178:watt
2087:mass
2079:heat
2057:and
1760:and
1705:any
1703:cite
1653:CPUs
1624:HVDC
1526:and
1470:ohms
1244:The
1228:The
1080:ions
1064:wire
1036:ions
897:Lenz
822:Davy
812:Biot
68:V=IR
4865:cd
4748:kg
3318:.)
3100:gas
2969:):
2822:in
2737:or
2725:of
2697:or
2677:).
2655:or
2653:arc
2623:or
2349:or
2279:at
2164:of
2089:of
1943:In
1833:by
1819:).
1716:by
1518:or
1490:In
1210:to
1154:in
1101:of
1034:or
1022:An
922:Ohm
62:or
4950::
4855:J
4825:N
4810:K
4783:A
4765:,
4738:M
4723:m
4713:L
4706:,
4702:,
4689:s
4679:T
4491:.
4368:^
4350:^
4329:.
4182:.
4154:.
4143:^
4127:.
4029:.
4027:54
4002:.
3959:^
3902:^
3872:^
3822:.
3637:^
3596:.
3570:^
3554:.
3542:;
3285:.
2901:.
2895:eV
2826:.
2729:.
2659:.
2651:,
2590:Cl
2586:Na
2564:A
2409:DC
2283:,
1983:.
1967:.
1933:.
1919:,
1845:,
1764:.
1756:,
1643:,
1595:.
1575:,
1551:,
1547:,
1522:.
1448:,
1304:.
1290:or
1131:.
4850:v
4847:I
4821:n
4794:T
4767:i
4761:I
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