1221:, with the provisional administration of Beijing and departed the city on 4 August. However, due to a storm, he arrived at Xuanfu seven days later. The emperor was accompanied by 20 experienced generals, most of whom held noble titles, and an equal number of high-ranking officials. They were also accompanied by hundreds of lower-ranking dignitaries. While the number of mobilized soldiers is unknown, it is often estimated to be around half a million. However, this number is likely an exaggeration from a single contemporary source, as the actual number was likely much lower. Even under optimal conditions, it would have been difficult to supply such a large army. However, the troops were hastily assembled, poorly prepared, and incompetently led. Despite pleas from many members of his entourage to turn back, Wang Zhen advised the emperor to continue on. The army reached Datong on 18 August, with more soldiers dying from starvation during the journey than from skirmishes with Mongol troops. Two days later, Yingzong finally issued the order to return. Upon reaching Xuanfu on 30 August, the emperor learned that the rearguard had been defeated by the Mongols and that the auxiliary detachment of 40,000 men had been completely destroyed. The next evening, the army camped at the
757:
1183:
private buildings. At this time, the Great Wall had not yet been built, and the border was only guarded by patrol battalions. These battalions were expected to hold off the enemy until the main forces arrived, according to the plans. The main forces were located in three fortified cities—Xuanfu, Datong, and
Beijing—each housing several tens of thousands of soldiers. The largest force, consisting of 160,000 men, was stationed in Beijing. The reserves were scattered throughout northeastern China, in North Zhili, Shandong, and Henan. However, since Xuanfu was less than 200 km from Beijing, the defense system lacked depth and relied on a quick and decisive response to any potential attack.
1114:), opposed the exploitation of tenants. The tenants themselves demanded that landlords cancel payments beyond the scope of their leases. In March 1448, the Deng brothers rebelled and began to conquer one county after another. The government attempted to calm the situation by forgiving unpaid taxes and granting a three-year exemption from compulsory labor for the population in the region. However, the more radical faction of the rebels, numbering several hundred thousand men, refused to back down. The local militia was unable to handle the situation, prompting the government to send an army of 50,000 to the southeast in September 1448.
1229:
dukes, two marquises, five counts, several generals, and hundreds of officials. The emperor was captured and on 3 September was sent to Esen's main camp near Xuanfu. After reclaiming the area, the Ming troops recovered tens of thousands of firearms, armor, and other equipment. Despite their initial success, the
Mongols failed in their attempts to occupy Xuanfu and Datong by using the captured Emperor Yingzong. They were also unsuccessful in their pursuit of Beijing and eventually retreated back to the steppe in November 1449. The Ming government restored the border but did not take any further offensive action.
1390:
680:, was one of the emperor's concubines. On 20 February 1428, he was created crown prince, and in March of the same year, Xuande promoted Lady Sun to empress. The father was overjoyed by his son's birth and showed him love and affection. He also ensured that Zhu Qizhen received proper military training. In 1433, the Ministry of War assembled a detachment of 7,112 physically fit 11–12-year-old youths, as ordered by the emperor, and the prince was appointed as their commander. He also began his education in reading and writing, with his first teacher likely being the eunuch and former pedagogue,
741:, just like Lady Zhang, and was significantly younger than the other members of the Imperial Council, being in his thirties. It quickly became evident that the emperor placed complete trust in him, leading to an increase in his power and the secretaries having to take his opinions into account. Lady Zhang, however, viewed Wang Zhen's influence on the emperor as dangerous and attempted to restrict him, even going so far as to order him to commit suicide in 1437. Despite this, the emperor, with the support of some officials, managed to prevent the order from being carried out.
1381:
785:) of the young emperor, later also appointed as Minister of War. Wang Zhen also had control over the Imperial Guard, which he did not hesitate to use against his opponents, and he also had influence among the ministers. With these advantages, Wang Zhen easily gained the upper hand in politics. While he had held back during Lady Zhang's lifetime, after her death, he began to push the Grand Secretaries, who were now in their seventies, out of active politics. Yang Shiqi died in 1444, and two years later, Yang Pu also died. After their deaths, only Cao Nai (
718:, enshrined a system of government in which a strong and decisive monarch was expected to make decisions independently, with the advice of ministers. This system did not account for the scenario of a child ruler, leaving no provisions or precedents for how to handle the situation. At court, the most respected and highest-ranking individual was the Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who effectively, though not formally, became the regent. Empress Dowager Sun was also occasionally consulted, but she held a lower status than her mother-in-law.
734:, were in charge of the Directorate of Ceremonial, the most powerful office in the Imperial Palace. They had all held their positions under the previous emperor. The empress dowager acted as a mediator between the grand secretaries and the head eunuchs. The emperor's exclusion from decision-making was considered illegal, but it allowed for the successful rule of experienced statesmen, particularly the Three Yangs. This period of political stability was later seen as a golden age by future generations.
1270:
followers of Wang Zhen, whom they believed were responsible for the disaster. When Zhu Qiyu refused, the officials became angry and killed two of Wang's allies. At the insistence of Yu Qian, Zhu Qiyu eventually agreed to confiscate Wang Zhen's fortune and execute his relatives. Yu Qian was then appointed as
Minister of War and successfully stabilized the situation by organizing the defense of Beijing with a new army. On 17 September, Zhu Qiyu ascended the throne as the
1290:
to the
Southern Palace in the southeast of the Forbidden City, where he spent the next six and a half years as a virtual prisoner. His wives also lived with him there, and during this time, he fathered three sons (fifth to seventh). However, the living conditions were poor and the supply of resources was limited. Despite this, officials still requested permission to congratulate Yingzong on his birthday every year, but the government consistently refused.
812:), who manage the "three provincial offices" (civil, military, and surveillance), has taken a definitive form in the provinces. They operate in all provinces except Fujian and in six of the nine border garrisons on the northern border. The immediate consequence of the introduction of grand coordinators was the transfer of command over the troops in the provinces to civilian hands, likely due to the decline in the quality of hereditary officers.
1351:
was the death of the head of
Imperial Guard who was investigating Cao's illegal business dealings with the Mongols. The rebel troops, led by Cao, set fire to both the west and east gates of the imperial city, but the flames were quickly extinguished by rain once the fighting began. They also killed several ministers before eventually surrendering to government troops. After the rebellion was defeated, Cao Qin committed suicide.
1310:). The initial invasion of the Southern Palace was carried out by 400 men, primarily consisting of Mongols. Later, an additional 2,800 men joined, with half of them escorting the emperor and the other half occupying strategic locations in Beijing. The conspirators had contacted Yingzong two days prior to the coup, although there is another version that suggests it was a surprise for him. This event became known as the
46:
705:, the official history of the Ming dynasty completed in 1739, portrayed Empress Dowager Zhang as a supporter of Zhu Qizhen's rights. According to their version, she summoned all three Grand Secretaries—Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu—to her and emphasized that her grandson Zhu Qizhen was now emperor. Thereupon, the Grand Secretaries expressed their allegiance to the young prince, followed by the entire court.
990:
emperor's approval, which was published in the official gazette, such exceptions could be seen by other authorities as a precedent for establishing a new procedure and could be further expanded based on analogy. In this case, a request for permission to use copper coins as currency in one prefecture led to the legalization of not only copper coins, but also silver, throughout the country.
653:. He also restricted Yingzong's contact with the outside world. Essentially, Yingzong was placed under house arrest. In early 1457, the Jingtai Emperor fell ill and, since his only son had died in 1453, there was no heir to the throne. Taking advantage of this opportunity, Yingzong organized a palace coup and regained power in February 1457. The era name of his second reign, "
1359:
from 1449 to 1457, many southerners were able to advance in their careers. However, after the restoration, the influence of southerners decreased. In fact, the
Jingtai Emperor relied heavily on the advice of Li Xian, a prominent Grand Secretary from Henan who was known for his support of the northern party and tendency to favor northerners in appointments.
884:, accompanied by sporadic floods and droughts that resulted in crop failures, leading to famines and epidemics. China was also struck by a series of natural disasters in the late 1430s and 1440s, with floods, droughts, epidemics, and famines occurring in succession. In 1448, the Yellow River breached its dams, causing the waters to flow into northern
908:
foreign trade. These austerity measures were easier for them to accept because they directly affected the economic power of the eunuchs in the imperial palace, who were competing with other groups for power. The eunuchs were the ones involved in maritime expeditions and had a vested interest in silver mining, which was also limited in the mid-1430s.
1073:, the military commander of Yunnan, was ordered to attack Möng Mao with an army of conscripts from Guizhou and Huguang. Initially, the Ming army was successful in defeating the enemy, but they soon encountered supply problems and struggled to adapt to the subtropical climate. As a result, the weakened Ming army suffered a heavy defeat in 1440.
1198:
reached
Beijing that the Mongols had launched a large-scale invasion and had already attacked Datong. Without consulting the government, Yingzong ordered the Beijing garrison to be mobilized on 1 August and decided to personally lead the campaign against the Mongols. This decision was met with protest from Minister of War, Kuang Ye (
962:, this was a concession to southern landowners and a reversal from Hongwu's policy of suppressing the influence of wealthy landowners. Another historian, Richard Von Glahn, believes that it was an attempt to get the rich people's silver out of their coffers. Additionally, the government reduced silver mining to a minimum.
1327:
executed for treason in August 1461. However, the new regime wasted no time in purging the
Jingtai Emperor's followers, many of whom were innocent, such as Yu Qian. Even the deposed Jingtai Emperor was likely strangled and his reputation tarnished. In contrast, Wang Zhen was given an official burial, a statue in the
1086:
and the territory of
Luchuan was divided among other Shan states. As a reward for his success, Wang Ji was promoted to the rank of Count of Jingyuan, and his deputy Xu Xi took over as Minister of War. Any criticism that resources were being drained from the North to fund the war in the South was suppressed.
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largely due to the compulsory work system, which placed an unbearable burden on the people in some regions. As a result, artisans evaded state demands and peasants abandoned their land, leading to a significant decrease in population in certain areas. On the other hand, bandits and vagabonds multiplied.
1354:
After the suppression of Cao's rebellion, the government returned to a state of calm. Li Xian took charge of the
Secretariat with support from Peng Shi, while Wang Ao, Minister of Personnel, oversaw the outer court and ensured the quality of officials. The government remained stable in the subsequent
1182:
After the death of the Yongle Emperor, the state of defense along the northern borders began to deteriorate gradually. The quality of training, as well as the weapons and equipment, were declining. In fact, soldiers from the Beijing garrison were even being used for the construction of government and
1161:
The Mongols were primarily interested in free trade with China, specifically exchanging horses for luxury goods such as tea and silk. Some Mongols who resided along the border relied on agriculture for their livelihood and sought support from the Ming authorities. However, the Ming government focused
1085:
from 1441 to 1449. This was the first time in the history of the Ming dynasty that a civil official was given supreme command of the troops. Under Wang Ji's leadership, a Ming army of 50,000 soldiers successfully defeated the Shans. Si Renfa was captured by the Burmese state and the Ming ally of Ava,
1076:
Wang Zhen believed that Grand Empress Dowager Zhang's tax policy was too lenient and saw the war as an opportunity to increase state revenue. As a result, he pushed for a new campaign to be launched. Reinforcements were sent from Sichuan, Guizhou, and Huguang to Yunnan, and in early 1441, Minister of
895:
The government attempted to assist the victims by remitting taxes in large quantities, particularly during the regency of Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who consistently showed concern for the impoverished. However, despite these efforts, dissatisfaction among the population continued to grow. This was
1362:
During his second reign, Emperor Yingzong was actively involved in managing the government, starting his day early and attending to state affairs and correspondence daily. He was known for his compassion and, as a result, he abolished the practice of concubines committing suicide after the deaths of
1350:
In early 1460, mutual accusations and arrests led to the death of Shi Heng. Fearing a similar fate, Cao Jixiang and his adopted son Cao Qin planned a rebellion. In August 1461, General Cao Qin, along with the Mongol troops under his command, rose up in rebellion. The immediate cause of this uprising
1289:
On 19 September, Yingzong arrived in Beijing. Officials were forbidden to greet him, and only two or three people were sent to meet him with a sedan chair and two horses. The Jingtai Emperor met him at the side door of the palace, and Yingzong renounced all claims to the throne. He was then assigned
969:
The government's decision to allow payment in silver resulted in the rapid decline of banknotes, much to the dismay of the statesmen. By the 1430s, banknotes had practically disappeared from use, with the state only using them to pay employees to a limited extent and withdrawing them as a compulsory
721:
Lady Zhang was the leader of the council, which consisted of three Grand Secretaries and three eunuchs. The Gand Secretaries, known as the "Three Yangs"—Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu—had been in their positions for many years, with Yang Pu serving as Grand Secretary since 1424 and the other two
1358:
Despite this, there were frequent conflicts between natives from the northern and southern regions of China. Until 1449, northerners were given preferential treatment, which was criticized by some as being influenced by Wang Zhen's pro-northern bias. However, during the reign of the Jingtai Emperor
1228:
On the morning of 1 September, 20,000 Mongols launched a surprise attack on the Ming army, resulting in their defeat. Due to hunger and thirst, the Ming soldiers were unable to put up much resistance and only a few high-ranking officials were able to escape. Among the casualties were Wang Zhen, two
927:
banknotes were predominantly used until 1425. However, there were instances where the price was set in grain from 1396 to 1436, and during the Xuande era (1426–1435), cloth was the preferred currency for price determination. Eventually, silver emerged as the clear winner, as all land contracts from
899:
The economic decline in China from the early 1440s to the mid-1460s resulted in a decrease in porcelain production, particularly for export. Even the emperor's ban on the private sale of blue-and-white porcelain in 1439, which aimed to protect the state monopoly, did not contribute to the growth of
1366:
Emperor Yingzong died on 23 February 1464 after a brief illness. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Zhu Jianshen, who became the Chenghua Emperor. The relationship between Yingzong and Zhu Jianshen was strained, as the father had doubts about his son's ability to rule. It was only after the Grand
1093:
These wars ultimately solidified Ming power in Yunnan, but at a high cost. Local rulers acknowledged Ming sovereignty and paid tribute to Beijing until the 16th century. Domestically, these wars were a success for Wang Zhen, increasing his prestige and reputation as a statesman. However, they also
1041:
Private mints in Ming China also had an impact on foreign trade, as their coins were accepted as currency in other countries, despite the Chinese government's refusal to recognize them. The closure of these mints had far-reaching consequences, causing problems in places like Japan and Java. Japan,
996:
With the closure of the mints, the shortage of coins worsened over time. Entrepreneurs responded to the demand for coins by producing them privately, which was illegal. Despite the efforts of disgruntled officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress this private production. However, they also
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In 1436, the Minister of Revenue proposed to buy out old banknotes and replace them with new ones covered in silver, but this proposal was ultimately unsuccessful. Around the same time (in the mid-1430s), the government began to tolerate the use of coins in commerce, although their prohibition was
907:
The "Three Yangs" responded to the economic problems mentioned above by cutting state spending. This was made worse by the struggles in the southwest during the 1430s and 1440s, which led to a decline in mining in the region. As a result, they cancelled overseas expeditions and restricted official
1285:
The new Jingtai regime aimed to discredit the previous ruler, who had been deemed a failure. Border commanders were instructed not to communicate with him. Esen attempted to secure the release of the former ruler and sent two delegations to China to negotiate his return. However, it was not until
1042:
which had not minted coins since the 10th century, relied heavily on imports from China. The disruption of this supply in the early 15th century had a significant impact on the Japanese economy and even led to political turmoil, resulting in the division of Japan into competing domains during the
965:
After Wang Zhen gained influence in the government, the eunuchs pushed for the reopening of the silver mines under their supervision. However, due to the low productivity of mining and the high demands of the eunuchs, there were a series of mining uprisings in Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi. After
687:
The Xuande Emperor died on 31 January 1435 after a brief illness, less than two months. At the time of his father's death, Zhu Qizhen was only seven years old, prompting a proposal to place his uncle, Zhu Zhanshan, Prince of Xiang and Xuande's younger brother, on the throne. According to the 17th
1326:
The emperor initially honored and promoted the organizers of the coup, but once he solidified his position as the leader of the government, he gradually removed them one by one. Xu Youzhen was dismissed in August 1457, Shi Heng died in prison in February 1460, and Cao Jixiang and his family were
1293:
On the night of 11 February 1457, the quiet atmosphere of the Southern Palace was abruptly shattered by a group of soldiers who forcefully entered the building, announcing to the former emperor that he had been reinstated and bringing him to the throne room. This coup was orchestrated by a small
1117:
In late 1448, the rebel miners were defeated by troops on the border between Fujian and Jiangsu. The Deng brothers were captured in February 1449, and their successors were defeated in May of the same year. According to Japanese historian Tanaka Masayoshi, the Deng brothers' revolt was the first
1197:
In the summer of 1449, unrest was spreading on the northern border. On 20 July, news arrived of a Mongol raid led by Esen. In response, the emperor ordered four generals and 45,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison to advance to Datong and Xuanfu to guard the border. However, on 30 July, news
1089:
In 1443–1444 and 1445, the war continued with Ming troops unsuccessfully fighting against Ava. Another campaign took place in 1448–1449, during which the Chinese and Ava successfully defeated Si Renfa's son, Si Jifa, who resided in Mong Yang west of the Irrawaddy River. In March 1449, Yingzong
1005:
cities as the cause of the state banknotes' failure. Despite efforts by his successor to lift the ban, the Ministry of Revenue continued to prohibit coinage until 1453. By the mid-1450s, private coins from Jiangnan had become more prevalent in the markets of Beijing, replacing Yongle's coins.
989:
The lifting of the ban on the use of silver and copper coins in trade is a good example of the functioning of Ming legislation. Changes to laws were typically made based on petitions from mid-level officials (such as prefects) who requested exceptions for their areas of jurisdiction. After the
1173:
As Essen's power grew, his need for goods also increased, leading to protests from the Chinese against the influx of Mongols. By the late 1440s, up to two thousand Mongols were arriving in Datong, the main trading center, every year. The presence of such large groups of armed horsemen posed a
1269:
After news of the emperor's capture reached Beijing, Empress Dowager Sun, Yingzong's mother, proclaimed the emperor's two-year-old son, Zhu Jianshen, as crown prince. She also appointed the emperor's brother, Zhu Qiyu, to administer the country. However, officials demanded punishment for the
1000:
In the northern cities, particularly Beijing, coins were the primary form of currency during the 15th century. This led officials to criticize them as the reason for the failure of state banknotes. In 1447, the Governor of North Zhili called for a renewed campaign against coinage, citing its
1102:
In response to the increased demand for silver due to the implementation of silver-based taxes in 1436, the government took action by shutting down silver mines and prohibiting small-scale silver mining along the border of Zhejiang and Fujian two years later. However, in an area with a high
772:
Wang Zhen had finally gained his freedom. He possessed great talent, was direct, attentive, and charismatic, but over time, he became conceited. His power primarily stemmed from his personal influence over the emperor, who held his teacher in the highest regard. Wang Zhen was also a skilled
1343:) to the Grand Secretariat. In late June 1457, Shi Heng and Cao Jixiang decided that they no longer needed the cooperation of Xu Youzhen, who headed the secretariat, and had him arrested and banished to Yunnan. This move prompted the resignation of Xue Xuan and Minister of Justice Xuan Ni (
1174:
security threat. This caused the Ming authorities to become increasingly hostile and fearful. In 1449, the Mongols were only given a fifth of the required goods, which led them to resort to force. The immediate cause of the war was Esen's request for an imperial princess for his son.
1006:
Suggestions to combat private coinage by opening state mints were rejected, leading to the proliferation of illegal mints. These private coins were of lower quality, often containing tin or iron, but due to the scarcity of old coins, merchants had no choice but to use them, even at a
1210:), also joined in the protest on behalf of a number of concerned officials. They believed that the emperor's participation in the expedition was an unacceptably risky adventure. However, Yingzong defended his decision by citing precedents—all previous Ming emperors, except for the
610:
of his first reign, means "right governance". During his first reign, the empire was at its height of prosperity and power. As the first child emperor of the Ming dynasty, Emperor Yingzong's rule was heavily influenced by high dignitaries at court. Initially, his grandmother,
696:, who was both his and Xuande's mother. However, Empress Dowager Sun quickly intervened and prevented Zhu Zhanshan's ascension, resulting in Zhu Qizhen being crowned as the new emperor. Despite this, Lady Zhang still held significant influence in the government.
900:
production. In fact, in January 1448, the ban was reinforced and extended to forbid the production of porcelain in any colors other than blue and white (such as yellow, purple, red, green, dark blue, and light blue) for private sale in Zhaozhou, where
970:
payment for trade fees. However, these small transactions were relatively isolated from the country's economy. While silver was used for large payments and taxes, copper coins remained the dominant currency for small transactions in cities.
1170:(258 tons) of tea for 14 thousand horses every three years. The Ming authorities tightly regulated and restricted trade with the Mongols, with Wang Zhen overseeing the profitable trade through a network of eunuch-trustees in border towns.
966:
Emperor Yingzong was captured in a war with the Mongols in 1449, the new government restricted mining once again. However, when Yingzong returned to power in 1457, the restrictions were lifted. Despite this, mining yields remained low.
1408:
who became his empress when they married in 1442. After Yingzong's death, Lady Qian became the empress dowager and died in 1468. However, Empress Qian was unable to bear children, so upon Yingzong's death, his son Zhu Jianshen, born to
713:
Emperor Yingzong's ascension to the throne was in accordance with the rules, as he was the eldest son of the deceased emperor and the officially created crown prince. However, the laws established by the founder of the dynasty, the
1103:
population and limited job opportunities, illegal silver mining persisted. In 1447, the leader of a group of silver miners in the mountains between Zhejiang and Fujian openly rebelled, gathering followers and forming an army.
1259:
the event was a landmark in the Ming period. The era of Chinese military supremacy had ended, and henceforth the empire was on defensive on the northern frontier, a defensive which increasingly failed to withstand the nomad
946:), introduced the payment of land tax in silver instead of rice in the most tax-burdened prefectures. From 1436, the officers of the Beijing garrison were paid in silver. In the same year, the land tax in Nanzhili,
1154:, an important city on the route from China to Central Asia near the Chinese border. In 1448, he successfully conquered it. He also attempted to gain the support of the Mongol divisions in the Ming army in western
1146:, was defeated in battle by the Oirats. This gave the Oirats control over Mongolia, and their chief Toghon solidified their power by arranging for his daughter to marry the young Khan of the Eastern Mongols,
4573:
815:
The court did not forget about culture either. During Emperor Yingzong's reign, the re-publishing of sets of Buddhist and Taoist classics was completed. Specifically, in 1440, the Buddhist collection
744:
The political landscape underwent significant changes in the early 1440s. In 1440, Yang Rong, a prominent figure at the age of sixty-nine, died. On 8 June 1442, the emperor entered into marriage with
1118:
Chinese peasant uprising aimed at challenging class relations within the village. The miners' revolt was ultimately suppressed by August 1449, and the remaining Fujian rebels were dispersed by 1452.
1363:
the emperors. In 1457, he also granted freedom to Zhu Wengui, the son of the Jianwen Emperor (who reigned from 1398 to 1402) who had been imprisoned in Nanjing since his father's overthrow in 1402.
1232:
Historians at the time, in an effort to avoid what is an obvious taboo of the country's head of state becoming a prisoner of war, referred to this chapter of Yingzong's life as the "Northern Hunt" (
1069:, called Luchuan by the Ming, grew in strength under the rule of the ambitious Si Renfa, who ruled from 1413. By 1436, Si Renfa had begun to pose a threat to Ming positions in the area. In 1438,
1413:, one of his concubines, ascended to the throne. Lady Zhou was given the title of empress dowager after her son's ascension, but she still harbored jealousy towards Lady Qian. She died in 1504.
1081:
was placed in overall command. Wang Ji was an experienced civil official who had held the position of Minister of War since 1435. He had also commanded the second to fourth campaigns in the
642:, the Ming army was defeated and the emperor was captured. This event shocked the government and the country, leading the court to elevate Yingzong's brother, Zhu Qiyu, to the throne as the
863:) in 3 volumes. This work included text and illustrations engraved in stone and a bronze sculpture with 360 acupuncture points. The original illustrations and statue, created during the
2511:
Zhu Jianshen remained crown prince even after the Jingtai Emperor ascended to the throne. The Jingtai Emperor's son was not named crown prince in place of Zhu Jianshen until June 1452.
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1286:
September 1450 that Yingzong was successfully returned. During his twelve and a half months in captivity, he was treated fairly by the Oirats and returned to China as their friend.
904:, known for its porcelain, is located. These prohibitions may have been one of the reasons for the scarcity of porcelain from the Zhengtong, Jingtai and Tianshun eras (1436–1464).
1010:. Some merchants refused to accept Ming coins altogether, while others only accepted silver. The shortage of currency resulted in a return to barter in certain regions, including
892:, eventually reaching the sea in southern Jiangsu. Flooding persisted into the 1450s, and the changing course of the Yellow River posed a threat to the water supply of Beijing.
1121:
The emperor's successes in the southeast and southwest may have led him to overestimate the strength of the Ming troops and his own willingness to personally lead the army.
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from 1368 to 1644 demonstrate the complex search for the most suitable currency during the early Ming period. Initially, prices were set in silver until 1375, after which
1158:. In the east, his influence extended all the way to the borders of Korea. In Beijing, the unification of Mongolia was perceived as a threat by Wang Zhen's opponents.
2502:
Yingzong made efforts to suppress the influence of Mongolian culture by prohibiting the wearing of Mongolian attire and the use of the Mongolian language in Beijing.
4537:
1150:. After Toghon's death in 1440, his son Esen took over as ruler of Mongolia. Esen was more ambitious than his father, and in 1443 and 1445, he launched attacks on
748:, and on 18 November 1442, just a few days before his fifteenth birthday, he assumed control of the government. Two days later, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang died.
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Twitchett, Denis C; Grimm, Tilemann (1988). "The Cheng-t'ung, Ching-t'ai, and T'ien-shun reigns, 1436—1464". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.).
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The Care-taker Emperor : Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü
827:, 'Great Storage of Scriptures') consisting of 6361 volumes in 636 books was published, with a preface written by the emperor. In 1445, the Taoist collection
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777:), who was later promoted to Minister of War, as well as Imperial Guard commander Ma Shun and his deputy and nephew Wang Shan, and Left Vice Minister of War
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not consistently enforced even before this time. While the use of coins was officially not allowed until 1436, in response to a petition from a prefect of
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1335:). These purges only served to make Yingzong's regime unpopular. In an attempt to improve his image, the emperor appointed respected scholars Xue Xuan (
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After Emperor Yingzong returned to his homeland, his brother felt threatened and ordered him to stay in the Southern Palace within the
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Filipiak, Kai (2006). "Der Bauernaufstand des Deng Maoqi 1448/1449 als Ausdruck einer Zäsur in der Geschichte der Ming-Dynastie".
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Chan, Hok-lam (1988). "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.).
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Mote, Frederick W. (1988). "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465—1505". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.).
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The eunuch Wang Zhen served as the teacher, tutor, and confidant of the emperor. He was from the northern Chinese province of
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4301:
1380:
851:) with 62 volumes was published. The emperor also wrote a preface to the new edition of the Song work on acupuncture
2398:
1252:
1065:
In the first quarter of the 15th century, on the southwestern borders of the Ming dynasty, one of the Shan states,
888:. The following year, another dam broke, diverting part of the Yellow River's flow into the Guo River and then the
2005:
4048:
Nimick, Thomas G (2005). "The Selection of Local Officials through Recommendations in Fifteenth-Century China".
3875:
3470:
Fighting Techniques of the Oriental World AD 1200–1860: Equipment, Combat Skills And Tactics, Christer Jørgensen
4501:
4126:
646:. During his captivity, Yingzong had established good relations with Esen and was eventually released in 1450.
3543:[The History of Ming Yingzong Emperor's "Northern Hunt": Debate over Mongolian Cultures and Customs].
660:
Yingzong ruled for another seven years before his death in 1464 at the age of thirty-six. His eldest son, the
4493:
1495:
654:
624:
397:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4545:
4541:
4533:
4497:
4294:
2090:
693:
620:
612:
127:
55:
627:), held the highest positions of power. However, in 1442, the emperor began to listen more to the eunuch
4529:
4505:
4489:
2406:
1367:
Secretaries, led by Li Xian, convinced him to preserve the succession of his eldest son that he agreed.
20:
3920:
Huang, Ray (1998). "The Ming fiscal administration". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.).
731:
723:
4597:
4592:
2456:
839:) was published in 481 books of 5305 volumes. Additionally, in 1443, a work on the moral patterns of
3939:
Fernquest, Jon (2006). "Crucible of War: Burma and the Ming in the Tai Frontier Zone (1382-1454)".
1002:
958:
was also converted to silver; this transition was accompanied by a tax cut. According to historian
881:
3876:"Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the "Great Depression" of the Mid-Fifteenth Century"
681:
628:
793:) only handled routine work, and the new Grand Secretaries appointed in the late 1440s (Gao Gu (
634:
In 1449, at Wang Zhen's suggestion, Yingzong personally led the army against the Mongol army of
616:
4414:
4053:
4036:
4005:
3969:
3948:
3925:
3906:
3887:
3860:
3839:
3820:
3801:
3780:
3761:
3473:
2417:
761:
727:
334:
3538:
4404:
4394:
4374:
4273:
4231:
4219:
4186:
4160:
1468:
1233:
661:
607:
504:
350:
218:
168:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4363:
4338:
4208:
4198:
4080:
1271:
1218:
1211:
701:
643:
603:
409:
388:
107:
1094:
revealed a lack of financial reserves and experienced generals on the northern frontier.
1243:
In Chinese historiography, the consequences of the Tumu crisis are often referred to as
4409:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4333:
4258:
4175:
4140:
3900:
3854:
3795:
2031:
1973:
1947:
1435:
1410:
1314:—"forcing the palace gate", but later this name was considered too vulgar and the term
1166:, rather than on the border with the Mongols. This trade involved exchanging a million
1043:
920:
715:
673:
650:
599:
482:
317:
208:
175:
97:
51:
1251:
means "to turn" and is used to denote important turning points in Chinese history. As
983:, the government had actually stopped the production of coins in either 1433 or 1436.
4586:
4471:
4444:
4431:
4399:
1355:
years, with ministers and grand secretaries serving until their death or retirement.
1328:
3985:"Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461"
4325:
4277:
4104:
2490:
2461:
2428:
1423:
1405:
934:
By the end of the Xuande era, the government had recognized the failure to enforce
864:
745:
556:
472:
460:
292:
3968:] (in Czech). Translated by Liščák, Vladimír (1st ed.). Praha: Vyšehrad.
1138:
in the southeast, the Eastern Mongols (also known as Tatars) in the east, and the
938:
banknotes as the main currency and began tolerating silver. In 1433, Governor of
4466:
4439:
2451:
2413:
2409:
he is the emperor of the playable Ming dynasty at the game's start date of 1444.
2255:
1575:
1192:
1147:
1066:
677:
639:
635:
492:
435:
355:
45:
4286:
722:
since 1402. They were highly skilled, influential, and respected. The eunuchs,
657:", means "obedience to Heaven". The following month, the Jingtai Emperor died.
4450:
1007:
901:
889:
689:
270:
4057:
4040:
3952:
3891:
3596:. The Cresset Historical Series. London: The Cresset Press. pp. 469–470.
789:) remained a strong figure among the Grand Secretaries. His colleague Ma Yu (
672:
Zhu Qizhen was born on 29 November 1427, as the elder of the two sons of the
4477:
4461:
4455:
4002:
The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
3836:
The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
3777:
The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
1135:
959:
1143:
1070:
947:
939:
138:
3922:
The Cambridge History of China 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368 — 1644, Part II
1222:
1203:
1163:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
980:
955:
951:
885:
467:
455:
274:
1139:
1035:
1011:
738:
542:
512:
63:
59:
2857:
2855:
3902:
Fountain of Fortune: money and monetary policy in China, 1000–1700
1155:
755:
190:
3368:
3366:
3329:
3327:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3246:
3244:
3156:
3154:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3107:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2393:
1151:
765:
4290:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2640:
2638:
2636:
1162:
on trading tea for horses in Gansu, with tribes in present-day
3609:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3439:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3425:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2623:
2621:
2619:
419:
Fatian Lidao Renming Chengjing Zhaowen Xianwu Zhide Guangxiao
2949:
2947:
2934:
2932:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2533:
997:
did not take action to restore the state's coin production.
3962:Čtvero ročních období dynastie Ming: Čína v období 1368–1644
1570:; d. 1513) in 1472, and had issue (four sons, two daughters)
853:
Illustrated Manual of Acupuncture Points on a Bronze Figure
3094:
3092:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3049:
3047:
3010:
3008:
2995:
2993:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2480:
The state production of coins was not resumed until 1503.
1142:
in the west. In 1434, the leader of the Eastern Mongols,
3905:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
2782:
2780:
1709:; 6 November 1455 – 18 December 1480), seventh daughter
1217:
On 3 August, the emperor entrusted his younger brother,
880:
In the mid-1430s, a sixty-year cold period began in the
3207:
3205:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2828:
3800:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
3650:
3648:
3646:
521:; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), personal name
3412:
3410:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3314:
3312:
3299:
3297:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3259:
2755:
2753:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2564:
1134:
The Mongols were divided into three main groups: the
1106:
In the interior of Fujian, two brothers, Deng Maoqi (
4430:
4324:
4073:"Zhu Qizhen - Emperor Yingzong of the Ming Dynasty"
1544:) in 1466, and had issue (four sons, two daughters)
488:
478:
466:
454:
434:
408:
382:
368:
333:
281:
264:
244:
228:
224:
214:
204:
196:
189:
181:
174:
164:
156:
148:
113:
103:
93:
85:
77:
70:
30:
19:"Zhu Qizhen" redirects here. For the diplomat, see
1718:; 1458–1533) in 1473, and had issue (one daughter)
805:)) did not have a significant impact on politics.
1477:; 9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), first son
919:The surviving land sales contracts concluded in
3756:Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976).
1404:Emperor Yingzong had multiple wives, including
1318:—"restoration of the throne"—began to be used.
1257:
781:, who previously organized the "youth-guards" (
3625:
3579:
3524:
3512:
3384:
3372:
3357:
3345:
3333:
3288:
3250:
3223:
3160:
3121:
2894:
2882:
2861:
2744:
2698:
2665:
2644:
1799:Consort Zhaosujingduanxian, of the Wang clan (
1725:Consort Gongduanzhuanghuide, of the Wei clan (
1681:Consort Zhuangjinganrongshu, of the Gao clan (
1398:Portraits of Emperor Yingzong and Empress Qian
1294:group, led by the eunuch-general Cao Jixiang (
4623:Heads of government who were later imprisoned
4302:
3564:
3545:
3497:
1911:
1902:
1890:
1881:
1872:
1863:
1854:
1845:
1844:Consort Zhenshunyigongjing, of the Liu clan (
1836:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1791:
1775:
1764:
1744:
1735:
1726:
1713:
1704:
1700:; 12 March 1452 – 13 October 1472), fifth son
1695:
1682:
1669:
1660:
1651:
1650:Consort Zhuangxiduansu'an, of the Yang clan (
1640:
1625:
1616:
1607:
1596:
1588:; 11 July 1456 – 16 August 1527), seventh son
1583:
1565:
1556:
1550:
1539:
1530:
1521:
1512:
1499:
1485:
1472:
1457:
1448:
1439:
1427:
867:, had eroded and faded, so both were remade.
34:
8:
3738:
3714:
3637:
3613:
3443:
2819:
2807:
2627:
2543:
1645:; 6 April 1450 – 3 January 1453), fourth son
1526:; 2 August 1449 – 30 August 1451), third son
1517:; 7 May 1448 – 7 September 1517), second son
773:politician. He formed alliances with Xu Xi (
1774:Consort Gongheanjingshun, of the Fan clan (
1606:Consort Duanjinganhehui, of the Wang clan (
1601:; 18 March 1458 – 2 April 1472), eighth son
598:He was the eldest son and successor of the
4309:
4295:
4287:
4095:
1929:
1835:Consort Gongjingzhuang, of the Zhao clan (
1206:. Later, Minister of Personnel, Wang Zhi (
1001:exclusive use in trade in Beijing and the
985:
915:
808:So far, the system of grand coordinators (
307: 1442–1464)
44:
27:
4004:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3924:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3838:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3779:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3145:
3133:
3098:
3083:
3071:
3059:
3014:
2999:
2984:
2965:
2953:
2938:
1790:Consort Anherongjingli, of the Liu clan (
1769:; 2 March 1462 – 13 June 1505), ninth son
1490:; 2 May 1455 – 27 August 1505), sixth son
1214:, had personally led armies into battle.
3690:
3678:
3666:
1871:Consort Gongxicheng, of the Zhang clan (
1826:Consort Rongjingzhen, of the Wang clan (
1808:Consort Duanzhuangzhao, of the Wu clan (
1630:) in 1466, and had issue (two daughters)
664:, then ascended to the imperial throne.
3859:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
3760:. New York: Columbia University Press.
3758:Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644
2529:
2473:
1853:Consort Zhaojinggong, of the Liu clan (
1331:, and the posthumous name "Jingzhong" (
768:in 1441 (6th year of the Zhengtong era)
125:
2923:
2911:
2846:
2786:
2272:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2048:
1938:
1934:
1555:; 1454–1484), personal name Yanxiang (
760:Stele commemorating rebuilding of the
709:Regency of Grand Empress Dowager Zhang
365:
4052:. 91 (Second Series) (1/3): 125–182.
3856:Early Ming China: A Political History
3235:
3211:
3196:
3184:
3172:
3038:
3026:
2493:, therefore he could not become Khan.
2342:
2332:
2328:
2316:
2313:
2303:
2290:
2280:
2276:
2260:
2254:
2244:
2231:
2221:
2217:
2205:
2202:
2192:
2179:
2169:
2165:
2144:
2134:
2121:
2111:
2107:
2095:
2089:
2079:
2066:
2056:
2052:
2036:
2030:
2020:
2004:
1994:
1990:
1978:
1972:
1962:
1946:
1942:
1817:Consort Gong'anhe, of the Gong clan (
1274:and declared the captured brother as
595:) from 1457 until his death in 1464.
404:): 15 February 1457 – 26 January 1465
254:Tianshun 8, 17th day of the 1st month
7:
3726:
3702:
3654:
3455:
3416:
3401:
3318:
3303:
3269:
2771:
2759:
2725:
2677:
2590:
2578:
2555:
2431:in the 2019 television series《大明风华)
2145:Emperor Yingzong of Ming (1427–1464)
1862:Consort Zhaoyixian, of the Li clan (
692:, Zhu Zhanshan was supported by the
395:): 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450
234:Xuande 2, 11th day of the 11th month
185:22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457
176:Emperor Emeritus of the Ming dynasty
2447:Chinese emperors family tree (late)
1889:Consort Huiheli, of the Chen clan (
1880:Consort Xikechong, of the Yu clan (
152:11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464
81:7 February 1435 – 22 September 1449
16:6th and 8th emperor of Ming dynasty
4618:Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime
3989:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
2392:Portrayed by Kwon Bin in the 2016
1674:) in 1466, and had issue (one son)
1656:; 18 July 1414 – 2 November 1487)
1462:) in 1461, and had issue (one son)
1265:Captivity, return and house arrest
14:
4147:Crown Prince of the Ming dynasty
1298:), along with generals Shi Heng (
1388:
1379:
928:1456 to 1644 were priced in it.
699:In contrast, the editors of the
615:, along with the "Three Yangs" (
577:) from 1435 to 1449, and as the
191:Crown Prince of the Ming dynasty
4252:Emperor Shenzong of Western Xia
3941:SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research
3594:China: A Short Cultural History
2489:Toghon was not a descendant of
912:Money—the recognition of silver
304:
3565:
3546:
3498:
1344:
1340:
1307:
1306:), and strategist Xu Youzhen (
1303:
1199:
1111:
1107:
856:
844:
832:
820:
798:
794:
790:
782:
591:
586:
582:
573:
568:
564:
547:
538:
530:
517:
424:
401:
375:
356:Zhu Jianjun, Prince Jian of Ji
257:
1:
4603:15th-century Chinese monarchs
4538:5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms
1535:; 1453-1536), third daughter
1453:; 1446–1499), first daughter
1225:, without a source of water.
861:Tóngrén Shùxué Zhēnjiǔ Tújīng
4613:Emperors of the Ming dynasty
4318:Emperors of the Ming dynasty
3880:The Journal of Asian Studies
3626:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3580:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3525:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3513:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3385:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3373:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3358:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3346:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3334:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3289:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3251:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3224:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3161:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3122:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2895:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2883:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2862:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2745:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2699:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2666:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2645:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
1665:; d. 1489), fourth daughter
1621:; d. 1499), second daughter
551:), was the sixth and eighth
4216:Emperor of the Ming dynasty
4183:Emperor of the Ming dynasty
3899:Von Glahn, Richard (1996).
3472:. Amber Books. p. 12.
3468:Haskew, Michael E. (2008).
1907:; d. 1483), eight daughter
1740:; d. 1514), sixth daughter
694:Grand Empress Dowager Zhang
613:Grand Empress Dowager Zhang
585:; traditional Chinese:
567:; traditional Chinese:
340:
128:Grand Empress Dowager Zhang
72:Emperor of the Ming dynasty
4644:
3983:Robinson, David M (1999).
3966:The Confusions of Pleasure
3874:Atwell, William S (2002).
3794:Mote, Frederick W (2003).
3739:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
3715:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
3638:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
3614:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
3494:Wen chao yue kan, Volume 5
3444:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2820:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2808:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2628:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2544:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2416:in 2016 television series
2266:
2159:
2042:
1936:
1496:Consort Jingzhuanganmuchen
1253:Charles Patrick Fitzgerald
1190:
1130:Relations with the Mongols
1098:Rebellion in the Southeast
1083:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
1061:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
1058:
829:Zhengtong-era Daoist Canon
688:century Chinese historian
325:(before 1464)
18:
4487:
4421:
4265:
4259:Emperor Emeritus of China
4256:
4243:
4238:
4228:
4213:
4205:
4195:
4180:
4172:
4167:
4161:Crown Prince Zhu Jianshen
4152:
4145:
4132:
4125:
4100:Emperor Yingzong of Ming
4098:
3853:Dreyer, Edward L (1982).
3592:Fitzgerald, C.P. (1935).
3551:(in Simplified Chinese).
2330:
2322:
2297:
2278:
2274:
2238:
2219:
2211:
2186:
2167:
2163:
2128:
2109:
2101:
2073:
2054:
2050:
2014:
1992:
1984:
1956:
1940:
1912:
1903:
1891:
1882:
1873:
1864:
1855:
1846:
1837:
1828:
1819:
1810:
1801:
1792:
1776:
1765:
1745:
1736:
1727:
1714:
1705:
1696:
1683:
1670:
1661:
1652:
1641:
1626:
1617:
1608:
1597:
1584:
1566:
1557:
1551:
1540:
1531:
1522:
1513:
1500:
1486:
1473:
1458:
1449:
1440:
1428:
1336:
1332:
1299:
1295:
1279:
1237:
1207:
1090:celebrated the victory.
943:
841:On the Five Relationships
802:
786:
774:
751:
581:(simplified Chinese:
563:(simplified Chinese:
508:
443:
441:
415:
392:
387:
373:
364:
237:
219:Crown Prince Zhu Jianshen
43:
35:
31:Emperor Yingzong of Ming
4608:Child monarchs from Asia
3539:
1178:Defense of the Northeast
638:. Unfortunately, at the
501:Emperor Yingzong of Ming
4141:Crown Prince Zhu Zhanji
3960:Brook, Timothy (2003).
3797:Imperial China 900-1800
3693:, pp. 79, 103–108.
1282:, 'Emperor Emeritus').
668:Childhood and accession
640:Battle of Tumu Fortress
209:Crown Prince Zhu Zhanji
4628:Ming dynasty Buddhists
1262:
974:Closure of state mints
817:Chinese Buddhist Canon
769:
132:Yang Shiqi (1435–1442)
56:National Palace Museum
3815:Heer, Ph. de (1986).
2407:Europa Universalis IV
2405:In the computer game
2256:Empress Xiaogongzhang
2203:Sun Zhong (1368–1452)
2091:Empress Chengxiaozhao
1424:Empress Xiaozhuangrui
1191:Further information:
1059:Further information:
1050:Fighting in the South
759:
752:Wang Zhen's dominance
493:Empress Xiaogongzhang
293:Empress Xiaozhuangrui
134:Yang Rong (1435–1438)
50:Palace portrait on a
21:Zhu Qizhen (diplomat)
3502:. 2005. p. 128.
2457:Rebellion of Cao Qin
1910:Married Huang Yong (
1761:Prince Zhuang of Hui
1482:Prince Jian of Chong
1447:Princess Chongqing (
1438:, of the Zhou clan (
1426:, of the Qian clan (
1125:Trouble in the North
1055:War in the Southwest
3640:, pp. 292–293.
3527:, pp. 327–328.
2864:, pp. 310–311.
1901:Princess Jiaxiang (
1703:Princess Longqing (
1624:Married Wang Zeng (
1509:Prince Zhuang of De
1498:, of the Wan clan (
1456:Married Zhou Jing (
1418:Consorts and Issue:
1202:), and his deputy,
882:Northern Hemisphere
871:Economy and finance
801:), and Miao Zhong (
535:traditional Chinese
136:Yang Pu (1435–1442)
4270:Title next held by
4248:Title last held by
4157:Title next held by
4137:Title last held by
4083:on 28 October 2013
4077:cultural-china.com
3540:明英宗“北狩”史料之蒙古风俗文化刍议
2006:Empress Renxiaowen
1916:; d. 1510) in 1477
1743:Married Ma Cheng (
1692:Prince Huai of Xiu
1668:Married Yang Wei (
1659:Princess Chongde (
1615:Princess Jiashan (
1561:), fifth daughter
1549:Princess Guangde (
1538:Married Cai Zhen (
1529:Princess Chun'an (
1467:Zhu Jianshen, the
1110:) and Deng Maoba (
770:
559:. He ruled as the
527:simplified Chinese
269:Yuling Mausoleum,
4580:
4579:
4285:
4284:
4229:Succeeded by
4196:Succeeded by
3819:. Leiden: Brill.
3669:, pp. 84–85.
3086:, pp. 83–84.
2956:, pp. 75–76.
2941:, pp. 78–79.
2422:Imperial Doctress
2383:
2382:
1734:Princess Yixing (
1712:Married You Tai (
1580:Prince Jian of Ji
1564:Married Fan Kai (
1223:Tumu post station
994:
993:
932:
931:
876:Economic downturn
837:Zhèngtǒng dàocáng
762:Temple of Yan Hui
561:Zhengtong Emperor
498:
497:
450:
449:
4635:
4456:Prince of Lu (魯)
4445:Prince of Lu (潞)
4425:
4311:
4304:
4297:
4288:
4274:Qianlong Emperor
4239:Honorary titles
4232:Chenghua Emperor
4220:Emperor of China
4206:Preceded by
4187:Emperor of China
4173:Preceded by
4121:
4120:23 February 1464
4114:
4113:29 November 1427
4096:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4079:. Archived from
4061:
4044:
4029:Monumenta Serica
4015:
3996:
3979:
3956:
3935:
3916:
3895:
3870:
3849:
3830:
3811:
3790:
3771:
3742:
3736:
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3724:
3718:
3712:
3706:
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3694:
3688:
3682:
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3658:
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3641:
3635:
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3623:
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3611:
3598:
3597:
3589:
3583:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3568:
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3559:
3549:
3548:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3500:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3465:
3459:
3453:
3447:
3441:
3420:
3414:
3405:
3399:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3370:
3361:
3355:
3349:
3343:
3337:
3331:
3322:
3316:
3307:
3301:
3292:
3286:
3273:
3267:
3254:
3248:
3239:
3233:
3227:
3221:
3215:
3209:
3200:
3194:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3149:
3146:Fernquest (2006)
3143:
3137:
3134:Fernquest (2006)
3131:
3125:
3119:
3102:
3099:Von Glahn (1996)
3096:
3087:
3084:Von Glahn (1996)
3081:
3075:
3072:Von Glahn (1996)
3069:
3063:
3060:Von Glahn (1996)
3057:
3042:
3036:
3030:
3024:
3018:
3015:Von Glahn (1996)
3012:
3003:
3000:Von Glahn (1996)
2997:
2988:
2985:Von Glahn (1996)
2982:
2969:
2966:Von Glahn (1996)
2963:
2957:
2954:Von Glahn (1996)
2951:
2942:
2939:Von Glahn (1996)
2936:
2927:
2921:
2915:
2909:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2880:
2865:
2859:
2850:
2844:
2823:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2790:
2784:
2775:
2769:
2763:
2757:
2748:
2742:
2729:
2723:
2702:
2696:
2681:
2680:, p. 10–11.
2675:
2669:
2663:
2648:
2642:
2631:
2625:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2576:
2559:
2553:
2547:
2541:
2512:
2509:
2503:
2500:
2494:
2487:
2481:
2478:
1930:
1915:
1914:
1906:
1905:
1894:
1893:
1885:
1884:
1876:
1875:
1867:
1866:
1858:
1857:
1849:
1848:
1840:
1839:
1831:
1830:
1822:
1821:
1813:
1812:
1804:
1803:
1795:
1794:
1779:
1778:
1768:
1767:
1748:
1747:
1739:
1738:
1730:
1729:
1717:
1716:
1708:
1707:
1699:
1698:
1686:
1685:
1673:
1672:
1664:
1663:
1655:
1654:
1644:
1643:
1637:Prince Dao of Xu
1629:
1628:
1620:
1619:
1611:
1610:
1600:
1599:
1593:Prince Mu of Xin
1587:
1586:
1569:
1568:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1543:
1542:
1534:
1533:
1525:
1524:
1516:
1515:
1503:
1502:
1489:
1488:
1476:
1475:
1469:Chenghua Emperor
1461:
1460:
1452:
1451:
1443:
1442:
1431:
1430:
1392:
1383:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1281:
1276:Tàishàng Huángdi
1239:
1209:
1201:
1113:
1109:
986:
945:
916:
858:
846:
834:
822:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
776:
662:Chenghua Emperor
593:
588:
584:
579:Tianshun Emperor
575:
570:
566:
549:
540:
532:
519:
510:
445:
429:
425:法天立道仁明誠敬昭文憲武至德廣孝
403:
394:
377:
366:
351:Chenghua Emperor
344:
326:
308:
306:
259:
251:
248:23 February 1464
239:
232:29 November 1427
169:Chenghua Emperor
48:
39:
38:
37:
28:
4643:
4642:
4638:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4583:
4582:
4581:
4576:
4483:
4426:
4423:
4419:
4320:
4315:
4271:
4262:
4249:
4234:
4225:
4223:(Second reign)
4222:
4218:
4211:
4209:Jingtai Emperor
4201:
4199:Jingtai Emperor
4192:
4189:
4185:
4178:
4158:
4149:
4138:
4127:Chinese royalty
4115:
4109:
4108:
4101:
4086:
4084:
4071:
4068:
4047:
4026:
4023:
4021:Further reading
4018:
4012:
3999:
3982:
3976:
3959:
3938:
3932:
3919:
3913:
3898:
3873:
3867:
3852:
3846:
3833:
3827:
3814:
3808:
3793:
3787:
3774:
3768:
3755:
3751:
3746:
3745:
3737:
3733:
3725:
3721:
3713:
3709:
3701:
3697:
3691:Robinson (1999)
3689:
3685:
3679:Robinson (1999)
3677:
3673:
3667:Robinson (1999)
3665:
3661:
3653:
3644:
3636:
3632:
3624:
3620:
3612:
3601:
3591:
3590:
3586:
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3466:
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3454:
3450:
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3408:
3400:
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3379:
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3302:
3295:
3287:
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3268:
3257:
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3230:
3222:
3218:
3210:
3203:
3195:
3191:
3183:
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3159:
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3105:
3097:
3090:
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3078:
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3045:
3037:
3033:
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2998:
2991:
2983:
2972:
2964:
2960:
2952:
2945:
2937:
2930:
2922:
2918:
2910:
2901:
2893:
2889:
2881:
2868:
2860:
2853:
2845:
2826:
2818:
2814:
2806:
2793:
2785:
2778:
2770:
2766:
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2751:
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2732:
2724:
2705:
2697:
2684:
2676:
2672:
2664:
2651:
2643:
2634:
2626:
2597:
2589:
2585:
2577:
2562:
2554:
2550:
2542:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2488:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2470:
2443:
2389:
2387:Popular culture
2384:
1927:
1415:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1385:
1384:
1373:
1339:) and Li Xian (
1324:
1272:Jingtai Emperor
1267:
1212:Jianwen Emperor
1195:
1189:
1180:
1132:
1127:
1100:
1063:
1057:
1052:
976:
914:
878:
873:
754:
711:
702:History of Ming
670:
644:Jingtai Emperor
410:Posthumous name
396:
360:
338:
337:
329:
328:
324:
320:
310:
302:
298:
295:
277:
255:
253:
249:
235:
233:
160:Jingtai Emperor
144:
137:
135:
133:
131:
124:
123:
108:Jingtai Emperor
89:7 February 1435
66:
33:
32:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4641:
4639:
4631:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4585:
4584:
4578:
4577:
4488:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4481:
4475:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4453:
4448:
4442:
4436:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4330:
4328:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4314:
4313:
4306:
4299:
4291:
4283:
4282:
4269:
4264:
4255:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4236:
4235:
4230:
4227:
4212:
4207:
4203:
4202:
4197:
4194:
4190:(First reign)
4179:
4176:Xuande Emperor
4174:
4170:
4169:
4168:Regnal titles
4165:
4164:
4156:
4151:
4144:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4102:
4099:
4094:
4093:
4067:
4066:External links
4064:
4063:
4062:
4045:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4016:
4010:
3997:
3980:
3974:
3957:
3936:
3930:
3917:
3911:
3896:
3871:
3865:
3850:
3844:
3831:
3825:
3812:
3806:
3791:
3785:
3772:
3766:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3741:, p. 298.
3731:
3729:, p. 346.
3719:
3717:, p. 300.
3707:
3705:, p. 145.
3695:
3683:
3671:
3659:
3657:, p. 120.
3642:
3630:
3628:, p. 339.
3618:
3616:, p. 292.
3599:
3584:
3582:, p. 330.
3572:
3566:明人讳称此事为英宗"北狩"。
3537:Han, Weiling.
3529:
3517:
3515:, p. 325.
3505:
3485:
3479:978-1905704965
3478:
3460:
3448:
3446:, p. 291.
3421:
3406:
3389:
3387:, p. 322.
3377:
3375:, p. 321.
3362:
3360:, p. 320.
3350:
3348:, p. 319.
3338:
3336:, p. 318.
3323:
3308:
3293:
3291:, p. 317.
3274:
3255:
3253:, p. 314.
3240:
3238:, p. 108.
3228:
3226:, p. 313.
3216:
3214:, p. 107.
3201:
3199:, p. 106.
3189:
3187:, p. 105.
3177:
3175:, p. 104.
3165:
3163:, p. 316.
3150:
3138:
3126:
3124:, p. 315.
3103:
3088:
3076:
3064:
3043:
3041:, p. 115.
3031:
3029:, p. 114.
3019:
3004:
2989:
2970:
2958:
2943:
2928:
2916:
2899:
2897:, p. 309.
2887:
2885:, p. 312.
2866:
2851:
2824:
2822:, p. 294.
2812:
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2791:
2789:, p. 231.
2776:
2774:, p. 292.
2764:
2749:
2747:, p. 308.
2730:
2703:
2701:, p. 307.
2682:
2670:
2668:, p. 306.
2649:
2647:, p. 305.
2632:
2630:, p. 290.
2595:
2583:
2581:, p. 626.
2560:
2558:, p. 303.
2548:
2546:, p. 289.
2528:
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2437:
2425:
2410:
2403:
2399:Jang Yeong-sil
2388:
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2381:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2370:
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2110:
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2055:
2053:
2051:
2049:
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2044:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2032:Xuande Emperor
2029:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1974:Hongxi Emperor
1971:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1948:Yongle Emperor
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1896:
1887:
1878:
1869:
1860:
1851:
1842:
1833:
1824:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1788:
1787:
1786:
1784:Tenth daughter
1772:
1771:
1770:
1757:
1755:Ninth daughter
1752:
1751:
1750:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1719:
1701:
1679:
1678:
1677:
1676:
1675:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1635:Zhu Jianchun,
1633:
1632:
1631:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1589:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1527:
1518:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1478:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1436:Empress Xiaosu
1433:
1397:
1396:
1387:
1386:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1347:) in protest.
1323:
1320:
1302:), Zhang Yue (
1266:
1263:
1188:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1099:
1096:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1044:Sengoku period
992:
991:
975:
972:
930:
929:
913:
910:
877:
874:
872:
869:
753:
750:
716:Hongwu Emperor
710:
707:
676:. His mother,
674:Xuande Emperor
669:
666:
651:Forbidden City
600:Xuande Emperor
589:; pinyin:
571:; pinyin:
496:
495:
490:
486:
485:
483:Xuande Emperor
480:
476:
475:
470:
464:
463:
458:
452:
451:
448:
447:
439:
438:
432:
431:
413:
412:
406:
405:
385:
384:
380:
379:
371:
370:
362:
361:
359:
358:
353:
347:
345:
331:
330:
322:
318:Empress Xiaosu
316:
315:
314:
313:
300:
296:
291:
290:
289:
288:
285:
283:
279:
278:
268:
266:
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261:
252:(aged 36)
246:
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119:
118:
117:
115:
111:
110:
105:
101:
100:
98:Xuande Emperor
95:
91:
90:
87:
83:
82:
79:
75:
74:
68:
67:
54:, kept in the
52:hanging scroll
49:
41:
40:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4640:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4590:
4588:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4486:
4479:
4476:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4437:
4435:
4433:
4432:Southern Ming
4429:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:(Restoration)
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4312:
4307:
4305:
4300:
4298:
4293:
4292:
4289:
4281:
4279:
4275:
4268:
4261:
4260:
4254:
4253:
4246:
4242:
4237:
4233:
4224:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4204:
4200:
4191:
4188:
4184:
4177:
4171:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4155:
4148:
4143:
4142:
4135:
4131:
4128:
4124:
4119:
4112:
4107:
4106:
4097:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4069:
4065:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4031:(in German).
4030:
4025:
4024:
4020:
4013:
4007:
4003:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3975:80-7021-583-6
3971:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3937:
3933:
3927:
3923:
3918:
3914:
3912:0-520-20408-5
3908:
3904:
3903:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3872:
3868:
3866:0-8047-1105-4
3862:
3858:
3857:
3851:
3847:
3841:
3837:
3832:
3828:
3822:
3818:
3813:
3809:
3807:0-674-01212-7
3803:
3799:
3798:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3767:0-231-03801-1
3763:
3759:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3740:
3735:
3732:
3728:
3723:
3720:
3716:
3711:
3708:
3704:
3699:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3684:
3681:, p. 97.
3680:
3675:
3672:
3668:
3663:
3660:
3656:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3622:
3619:
3615:
3610:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3588:
3585:
3581:
3576:
3573:
3569:
3554:
3550:
3542:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3518:
3514:
3509:
3506:
3499:全国图书馆文献缩微复制中心
3495:
3489:
3486:
3481:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3461:
3458:, p. 19.
3457:
3452:
3449:
3445:
3440:
3438:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3426:
3422:
3419:, p. 17.
3418:
3413:
3411:
3407:
3404:, p. 16.
3403:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3381:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3354:
3351:
3347:
3342:
3339:
3335:
3330:
3328:
3324:
3321:, p. 14.
3320:
3315:
3313:
3309:
3306:, p. 13.
3305:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3272:, p. 15.
3271:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3232:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3178:
3174:
3169:
3166:
3162:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3148:, p. 61.
3147:
3142:
3139:
3136:, p. 57.
3135:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3101:, p. 89.
3100:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3080:
3077:
3074:, p. 85.
3073:
3068:
3065:
3062:, p. 84.
3061:
3056:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3035:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3020:
3017:, p. 88.
3016:
3011:
3009:
3005:
3002:, p. 76.
3001:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2987:, p. 83.
2986:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2968:, p. 75.
2967:
2962:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2935:
2933:
2929:
2926:, p. 91.
2925:
2924:Atwell (2002)
2920:
2917:
2914:, p. 90.
2913:
2912:Atwell (2002)
2908:
2906:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2888:
2884:
2879:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2849:, p. 97.
2848:
2847:Atwell (2002)
2843:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2816:
2813:
2809:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2787:Dreyer (1982)
2783:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2765:
2762:, p. 11.
2761:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2731:
2728:, p. 12.
2727:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2593:, p. 10.
2592:
2587:
2584:
2580:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2552:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2518:
2508:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2483:
2477:
2474:
2467:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2427:Portrayed by
2426:
2424:
2423:
2420:
2415:
2412:Portrayed by
2411:
2408:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2326:
2325:
2320:
2319:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2263:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2235:
2229:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2200:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2189:
2184:
2183:
2177:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2155:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2105:
2104:
2099:
2098:
2092:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2011:
2007:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1975:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1932:
1931:
1924:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1888:
1879:
1870:
1861:
1852:
1843:
1834:
1825:
1816:
1807:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1782:
1781:
1780:; 1414–1470)
1773:
1762:
1759:Zhu Jianpei,
1758:
1756:
1753:
1742:
1741:
1733:
1732:
1731:; 1426–1469)
1724:
1711:
1710:
1702:
1693:
1690:Zhu Jianshu,
1689:
1688:
1687:; 1429–1511)
1680:
1667:
1666:
1658:
1657:
1649:
1638:
1634:
1623:
1622:
1614:
1613:
1612:; 1429–1485)
1605:
1594:
1591:Zhu Jianzhi,
1590:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1563:
1562:
1548:
1537:
1536:
1528:
1520:Zhu Jianshi (
1519:
1510:
1507:Zhu Jianlin,
1506:
1505:
1504:; 1432–1468)
1497:
1494:
1483:
1479:
1470:
1466:
1455:
1454:
1446:
1445:
1444:; 1430–1504)
1437:
1434:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1407:
1391:
1382:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1330:
1329:Zhihua Temple
1321:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1273:
1264:
1261:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1245:Tumu zhi bian
1241:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1213:
1205:
1194:
1186:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1148:Toghtoa Bukha
1145:
1141:
1137:
1129:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1104:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1008:nominal value
1004:
998:
988:
987:
984:
982:
973:
971:
967:
963:
961:
957:
953:
949:
942:, Zhou Chen (
941:
937:
926:
922:
918:
917:
911:
909:
905:
903:
897:
893:
891:
887:
883:
875:
870:
868:
866:
862:
854:
850:
842:
838:
830:
826:
818:
813:
811:
806:
797:), Chen Xun (
780:
767:
763:
758:
749:
747:
742:
740:
735:
733:
729:
725:
719:
717:
708:
706:
704:
703:
697:
695:
691:
685:
683:
679:
675:
667:
665:
663:
658:
656:
652:
647:
645:
641:
637:
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
609:
605:
601:
596:
594:
580:
576:
562:
558:
554:
550:
544:
536:
528:
524:
520:
518:Míng Yīngzōng
514:
506:
502:
494:
491:
487:
484:
481:
477:
474:
471:
469:
465:
462:
459:
457:
453:
440:
437:
433:
428:
422:
418:
414:
411:
407:
399:
390:
386:
381:
372:
367:
363:
357:
354:
352:
349:
348:
346:
343:
342:
336:
332:
319:
312:
311:
294:
287:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
267:
263:
247:
243:
231:
227:
223:
220:
217:
213:
210:
207:
203:
199:
195:
192:
188:
184:
180:
177:
173:
170:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
140:
129:
126:
122:
116:
112:
109:
106:
102:
99:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
47:
42:
29:
26:
22:
4526:N. Dynasties
4522:S. Dynasties
4368:
4358:
4278:Qing dynasty
4272:
4266:
4257:
4250:
4244:
4214:
4181:
4159:
4153:
4146:
4139:
4133:
4117:
4110:
4105:House of Zhu
4103:
4087:29 September
4085:. Retrieved
4081:the original
4076:
4049:
4032:
4028:
4001:
3995:(1): 79–123.
3992:
3988:
3965:
3961:
3947:(2): 27–81.
3944:
3940:
3921:
3901:
3883:
3879:
3855:
3835:
3816:
3796:
3776:
3757:
3734:
3722:
3710:
3698:
3686:
3674:
3662:
3633:
3621:
3593:
3587:
3575:
3563:
3556:. Retrieved
3552:
3544:
3532:
3520:
3508:
3493:
3488:
3469:
3463:
3451:
3380:
3353:
3341:
3236:Brook (2003)
3231:
3219:
3212:Brook (2003)
3197:Brook (2003)
3192:
3185:Brook (2003)
3180:
3173:Brook (2003)
3168:
3141:
3129:
3079:
3067:
3039:Huang (1998)
3034:
3027:Huang (1998)
3022:
2961:
2919:
2890:
2815:
2767:
2673:
2586:
2551:
2507:
2498:
2491:Genghis Khan
2485:
2476:
2462:Ming dynasty
2434:Ming Dynasty
2432:
2429:Zhang Yixing
2421:
2418:
2397:
2291:Dong Yangong
1841:; 1446–1514)
1832:; 1427–1507)
1823:; 1430–1467)
1814:; 1431–1467)
1805:; 1430–1474)
1796:; 1426–1512)
1783:
1754:
1480:Zhu Jianze,
1432:; 1426–1468)
1417:
1416:
1403:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1325:
1322:Second reign
1315:
1311:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1275:
1268:
1258:
1248:
1244:
1242:
1231:
1227:
1216:
1196:
1181:
1172:
1167:
1160:
1133:
1120:
1116:
1105:
1101:
1092:
1088:
1075:
1064:
1040:
999:
995:
977:
968:
964:
935:
933:
924:
906:
898:
894:
879:
865:Song dynasty
860:
852:
848:
840:
836:
828:
824:
816:
814:
809:
807:
771:
743:
736:
720:
712:
700:
698:
686:
671:
659:
648:
633:
597:
590:
578:
574:Zhèngtǒng Dì
572:
560:
557:Ming dynasty
546:
522:
516:
500:
499:
426:
420:
416:
374:Zhu Qizhen (
339:
250:(1464-02-23)
149:Second reign
120:
86:Enthronement
25:
4598:1464 deaths
4593:1427 births
4518:16 Kingdoms
4035:: 119–148.
3749:Works cited
3727:Mote (1988)
3703:Heer (1986)
3655:Heer (1986)
3558:19 November
3496:. Beijing:
3456:Heer (1986)
3417:Heer (1986)
3402:Heer (1986)
3319:Heer (1986)
3304:Heer (1986)
3270:Heer (1986)
2772:Chan (1988)
2760:Heer (1986)
2726:Heer (1986)
2678:Heer (1986)
2591:Heer (1986)
2579:Mote (2003)
2556:Chan (1988)
2452:Tumu Crisis
2414:Wallace Huo
2258:(1399–1462)
2180:Sun Shiying
2093:(1379–1442)
2034:(1399–1435)
2008:(1362–1407)
1976:(1378–1425)
1950:(1360–1424)
1576:Zhu Jianjun
1260:onslaughts.
1247:. The term
1193:Tumu Crisis
1187:Tumu Crisis
1003:Grand Canal
636:Esen Taishi
592:Tiānshùn Dì
436:Temple name
205:Predecessor
157:Predecessor
141:(1435–1442)
130:(1435–1442)
94:Predecessor
78:First reign
4587:Categories
4510:3 Kingdoms
4480:(doubtful)
4263:1449–1457
4226:1457–1464
4193:1435–1449
4150:1428–1435
4050:T'oung Pao
4011:0521243327
3931:0521243335
3845:0521243327
3826:9004078983
3786:0521243327
2519:References
2396:TV series
1895:; d. 1500)
1886:; d. 1503)
1877:; d. 1504)
1859:; d. 1500)
1850:; d. 1463)
902:Jingdezhen
890:Huai River
825:Dàzàngjīng
690:Mao Qiling
617:Yang Shiqi
548:Zhū Qízhèn
523:Zhu Qizhen
442:Yingzong (
271:Ming tombs
238:宣德二年十一月十一日
4440:Hongguang
4415:Chongzhen
4058:0082-5433
4041:0254-9948
3953:1479-8484
3892:0021-9118
2524:Citations
2314:Lady Dong
2232:Lady Ding
2122:Lady Tong
1847:貞順懿恭敬妃 劉氏
1802:昭肅靖端賢妃 王氏
1793:安和榮靖麗妃 劉氏
1777:恭和安靜順妃 樊氏
1749:) in 1473
1728:恭端莊惠德妃 魏氏
1684:莊靜安榮淑妃 高氏
1653:莊僖端肅安妃 楊氏
1609:端靖安和惠妃 王氏
1501:靖莊安穆宸妃 萬氏
1411:Lady Zhou
1406:Lady Qian
1136:Uriankhai
960:Ray Huang
746:Lady Qian
682:Wang Zhen
629:Wang Zhen
621:Yang Rong
604:Zhengtong
389:Zhengtong
383:Era dates
258:天順八年正月十七日
215:Successor
200:1428–1435
165:Successor
104:Successor
4474:(regent)
4458:(regent)
4447:(regent)
4405:Taichang
4395:Longqing
4375:Chenghua
4369:Yingzong
4359:Yingzong
3547:中国边疆民族研究
2441:See also
2067:Zhang Qi
1925:Ancestry
1898:Unknown
1429:孝莊睿皇后 錢氏
1255:writes:
1219:Zhu Qiyu
1144:Arughtai
1071:Mu Sheng
1067:Möng Mao
948:Zhejiang
940:Nanzhili
857:铜人腧穴针灸图经
849:Wǔlúnshū
732:Jin Ying
728:Fan Hong
724:Wang Jin
678:Lady Sun
655:Tianshun
608:era name
398:Tianshun
282:Consorts
139:Zhang Fu
121:See list
4390:Jiajing
4385:Zhengde
4380:Hongzhi
4364:Jingtai
4339:Jianwen
2343:Lady Qi
1892:惠和麗妃 陳氏
1883:僖恪充妃 余氏
1874:恭僖成妃 張氏
1865:昭懿賢妃 李氏
1856:昭靜恭妃 劉氏
1838:恭靖莊妃 趙氏
1829:榮靖貞妃 王氏
1820:恭安和妃 宮氏
1811:端莊昭妃 武氏
1766:徽莊王 朱見沛
1697:秀懷王 朱見澍
1642:許悼王 朱見淳
1598:忻穆王 朱見治
1585:吉簡王 朱見浚
1514:德莊王 朱見潾
1487:崇簡王 朱見澤
1441:孝肅皇后 周氏
1234:Chinese
1204:Yu Qian
1164:Qinghai
1079:Wang Ji
1032:Shaanxi
1028:Huguang
1024:Jiangxi
1020:Sichuan
1016:Guizhou
981:Guangxi
956:Huguang
952:Jiangxi
936:baochao
925:baochao
921:Huizhou
886:Jiangsu
779:Wang Ji
625:Yang Pu
606:", the
555:of the
553:emperor
505:Chinese
468:Dynasty
417:Emperor
327:
323:
309:
301:
297:
275:Beijing
114:Regents
4550:W. Xia
4478:Dingwu
4472:Dongwu
4467:Yongli
4462:Shaowu
4451:Longwu
4410:Tianqi
4354:Xuande
4349:Hongxi
4344:Yongle
4334:Hongwu
4267:Vacant
4245:Vacant
4154:Vacant
4134:Vacant
4116:
4056:
4039:
4008:
3972:
3951:
3928:
3909:
3890:
3863:
3842:
3823:
3804:
3783:
3764:
3476:
1474:憲宗 朱見深
1371:Family
1312:duomen
1236::
1140:Oirats
1036:Shanxi
1034:, and
1012:Yunnan
954:, and
739:Shanxi
730:, and
623:, and
545::
543:pinyin
537::
529::
515::
513:pinyin
507::
489:Mother
479:Father
341:Detail
265:Burial
197:Tenure
182:Tenure
64:Taiwan
60:Taipei
4494:Shang
4400:Wanli
4118:Died:
4111:Born:
3964:[
3886:(1).
2468:Notes
1156:Gansu
810:xunfu
456:House
369:Names
335:Issue
321:
303:(
299:
4566:Qing
4562:Ming
4558:Yuan
4546:Song
4542:Liao
4534:Tang
4498:Zhou
4326:Ming
4089:2013
4054:ISSN
4037:ISSN
4006:ISBN
3970:ISBN
3949:ISSN
3926:ISBN
3907:ISBN
3888:ISSN
3861:ISBN
3840:ISBN
3821:ISBN
3802:ISBN
3781:ISBN
3762:ISBN
3560:2018
3553:2017
3474:ISBN
2394:KBS1
1904:嘉祥公主
1737:宜興公主
1706:隆慶公主
1662:崇德公主
1618:嘉善公主
1552:廣德公主
1532:淳安公主
1450:重慶公主
1316:fubi
1280:太上皇帝
1249:bian
1152:Hami
1077:War
833:正統道藏
766:Qufu
473:Ming
245:Died
229:Born
4574:PRC
4570:ROC
4554:Jīn
4530:Sui
4514:Jìn
4506:Han
4502:Qin
4490:Xia
2419:The
1523:朱見湜
1308:徐有貞
1296:曹吉祥
1240:).
1168:jin
1112:鄧茂八
1108:鄧茂七
845:五倫書
821:大藏經
764:in
602:. "
587:天順帝
583:天顺帝
569:正統帝
565:正统帝
539:朱祁鎮
531:朱祁镇
509:明英宗
461:Zhu
427:睿皇帝
421:Rui
376:朱祁鎮
36:明英宗
4589::
4572:/
4568:→
4564:→
4560:→
4556:→
4552:/
4548:/
4544:/
4540:→
4536:→
4532:→
4528:→
4524:/
4520:→
4516:/
4512:→
4508:→
4504:→
4500:→
4496:→
4492:→
4280:)
4075:.
4033:54
3993:59
3991:.
3987:.
3943:.
3884:61
3882:.
3878:.
3645:^
3602:^
3562:.
3424:^
3409:^
3392:^
3365:^
3326:^
3311:^
3296:^
3277:^
3258:^
3243:^
3204:^
3153:^
3106:^
3091:^
3046:^
3007:^
2992:^
2973:^
2946:^
2931:^
2902:^
2869:^
2854:^
2827:^
2794:^
2779:^
2752:^
2733:^
2706:^
2685:^
2652:^
2635:^
2598:^
2563:^
2532:^
1913:黃鏞
1746:馬誠
1715:遊泰
1671:楊偉
1627:王增
1578:,
1567:樊凱
1558:延祥
1541:蔡震
1459:周景
1345:軒輗
1341:李賢
1337:薛瑄
1333:旌忠
1304:張軏
1300:石亨
1238:北狩
1208:王直
1200:鄺埜
1046:.
1038:.
1030:,
1026:,
1022:,
1018:,
1014:,
950:,
944:周忱
859:,
847:,
835:,
823:,
803:苗衷
799:陳循
795:高穀
791:馬愉
787:曹鼐
783:幼軍
775:徐晞
726:,
684:.
631:.
619:,
541:;
533:;
511:;
444:英宗
402:天順
393:正統
305:m.
273:,
62:,
58:,
4424:明
4310:e
4303:t
4296:v
4276:(
4091:.
4060:.
4043:.
4014:.
3978:.
3955:.
3945:4
3934:.
3915:.
3894:.
3869:.
3848:.
3829:.
3810:.
3789:.
3770:.
3482:.
2402:.
1868:)
1763:(
1694:(
1639:(
1595:(
1582:(
1511:(
1484:(
1471:(
1278:(
855:(
843:(
831:(
819:(
525:(
503:(
446:)
430:)
423:(
400:(
391:(
378:)
260:)
256:(
240:)
236:(
23:.
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