Xuande Emperor - Knowledge (XXG)

1520: 1148:

circulation. In addition, Minister of Revennue Xia Yuanji suggested a solution to combat the decline in the value of government banknotes by increasing business taxes and only accepting payment in government banknotes. However, this approach did not yield the desired results. The government then shifted to a more cautious strategy, selling licenses to trade salt for state coins. Unfortunately, this measure also failed to increase the value of state stamps. The government also introduced new trade fees and customs duties on the Grand Canal, which could only be paid in shillings. However, these fees had a negative impact on trade. As a result, there was strong opposition to these fees and they were eventually abolished after a few years. Despite the government's efforts, these measures did not effectively support the state's economy. The value of paper money continued to decline. By the 1430s, state banknotes were no longer in use and were only used to pay employees to a limited extent. They were also withdrawn as a mandatory form of payment for trade fees. Ultimately, these measures had little impact on the country's economy.

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successors. He saw himself as a warrior and, like the Yongle Emperor, personally led military campaigns. However, his actions were relatively small (such as suppressing his uncle's rebellion) or insignificant (such as clashes with the Mongols on the northern border). The Xuande Emperor was the last Ming emperor to actively participate in governing the state and remained impartial towards the various groups that made up the ruling elite. He relied on civil officials, but also frequently utilized eunuchs and military commanders. In contrast, later Ming emperors abandoned their role as stabilizing figures and instead indulged in palace pleasures, leaving the reins of government in the hands of officials who were often divided into rival factions or, more commonly, palace eunuchs. As a result, it is not surprising that subsequent generations of officials viewed the Xuande era as a golden age of ideal governance, in contrast to the factional conflicts and institutional decay of their own time.

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control over them. The Xuande Emperor, on the other hand, provided them with education and utilized them more in confidential correspondence. Despite opposition from officials, the eunuchs' business continued to thrive, benefiting the emperor's personal projects such as logging and shipbuilding. In situations where the emperor did not agree with the ideas of Grand Secretaries, he would use eunuchs to convey his orders to lower branches of the state administration. As the ministers did not question the emperor's orders, the eunuchs were able to give orders to the ministers on behalf of the sovereign without his knowledge. This abuse of power was a major concern for the Hongwu Emperor. The Xuande Emperor, however, maintained control over the eunuchs and was not afraid to execute them if they overstepped their boundaries. In the long run, this approach left room for eunuchs to exploit their power if a less assertive emperor was in power.

1282: 1689: 882:. Believing that he was the rightful heir to the throne in 1424, instead of his ailing older brother, he began plotting a coup after his brother's death. Shortly after the Xuande Emperor's ascension to the throne on 2 September 1425, he attempted to follow in the footsteps of the Yongle Emperor by rebelling against the emperor. He accused Xuande of abusing his power by appointing individuals with noble titles to civil offices and appointing unworthy individuals. Underestimating his young nephew as a formidable opponent, he also failed to recognize the strength of the government, which had functioned effectively during the Yongle Emperor's extended absences on campaigns in Mongolia. Furthermore, he did not consider the significant decrease in the princes' influence that the Yongle Emperor had achieved. As a result, he was in a much weaker position than Yongle had been in 1399. 1670: 988:

drafting replies. However, during the reign of the Hongxi Emperor, they gained more influence and were now granted real executive power. This was formalized by granting ministerial titles to Yang Shiqi (Minister of War), Huang Huai (Minister of Revenue), and Jin Youzi (Minister of Rites). Due to their long service to the state, they were highly respected and trusted by the emperor. Other close advisers to the emperor included Jian Yi (Minister of Personnel from 1402–1422 and 1423–1435) and Xia Yuanji (Minister of Revenue from 1402–1421 and 1424–1430). Even after the Xuande Emperor's death, the composition of the most influential officials and the grand secretaries remained unchanged. As a result, the top government was dominated by the same group of people from 1424 until the early 1440s.

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the Ming after their defeat in battle, solidifying Lê Lợi's prestige. Lê Lợi informed the negotiators that Trần Cảo had died, another member of the Trần family was no longer alive, and they should recognize him as the king. He also refused to repatriate Chinese prisoners and officials. The Xuande Emperor, however, refused to recognize Lê Lợi as the ruler of Vietnam and demanded the return of the Trần dynasty. It wasn't until 1431, when Lê Lợi sent a humble letter, that the Xuande Emperor appointed him as "administrator of the affairs of the state of Annam" (Annam being the Chinese name for Vietnam). Lê Lợi's son was officially recognized and given a royal title by the Beijing government in November 1436, after the Xuande Emperor's death.

1050:). These officials were responsible for coordinating the work of the three provincial offices—civil, military, and surveillance. This practice of having coordinators in the regional administration was not new, as previous emperors had also employed them. For instance, the Hongwu Emperor had sent his crown prince, Zhu Biao, to "tour and pacify", while the Yongle Emperor had sent both the Hongxi and Xuande emperors to the provinces. In 1421, the Yongle Emperor even sent 26 high-ranking government officials to the provinces. However, the Xuande Emperor took this practice a step further by sending these officials on long-term assignments, rather than just once like his predecessors. For example, in September 1425, he sent two commissioners to 1308:, a descendant of the Trần dynasty. This proposal was made under the condition that Trần Cảo would rule under Chinese suzerainty. However, Lê Lợi had ulterior motives and immediately lured Liu Sheng's army into a trap, resulting in a crushing defeat. The Chinese army suffered heavy losses, with approximately 70,000 men killed. In the aftermath of this disaster, Wang Tong, without the emperor's knowledge, accepted Lê Lợi's proposal and began withdrawing troops from Vietnam on 12 November. Meanwhile, Mu Sheng had reached the upper reaches of the Red River and began constructing ships to advance downstream. However, upon learning of Wang Tong's withdrawal, Mu Sheng retreated back to China. 1498:. After 1433, Japanese delegations arriving in China were primarily composed of agents of daimyos, monasteries, and temples who were eager to access the Chinese market. Along with luxury goods, they were particularly interested in Chinese copper coins. This trade proved to be highly profitable for the Japanese, leading to a lasting relationship between the two countries until 1529. However, there were frequent disputes over the valuation of Japanese goods and the Ming government often complained about the Japanese government's inability to control piracy. Despite this, the shoguns were unable to effectively intervene against the pirates due to a lack of resources. 840: 830: 1116: 1814: 1039:). Within a few months, Gu Zuo dismissed 43 censors from the Beijing and Nanjing offices, and Liu Quan himself was punished for numerous abuses of power. The Censorate underwent a reorganization, with changes made to procedures and an increase in the powers of the censors. Additionally, commissioners were appointed to oversee military farms, large construction projects, and military training camps near Beijing, as well as to manage taxes in Nanzhili. These taxes were collected in the form of products, mainly rice, which was crucial for the nutrition of the people of Beijing. 1798:

officials, under the leadership of the "Three Yangs" (Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu), governed the country with a level of continuity and reliability unique to the Ming era, in accordance with the Confucian ideals of wise ministerial rule led by a capable ruler. The government also made efforts to improve the lives of its people, gave up expansion in Vietnam, and implemented administrative reforms. While the emperor may have been harsh towards officials and lenient towards high-ranking officers, this did not significantly impact the overall character of the government.

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of military farms was also a major issue, as it often dropped and made it difficult to properly equip the army. Additionally, capable officers had limited opportunities for advancement during times of peace, resulting in the army being led by individuals who inherited their positions without merit. These commanders, who had not experienced war themselves, often neglected to properly train their soldiers and instead used them for their own personal needs. This led to a decline in discipline, an increase in desertion, and a decrease in the overall strength of the army.

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authorities, but this did not have much impact either. In 1429, the emperor attempted to boost morale by holding a large military parade with regiments from the Beijing garrison and three training camps located around Beijing. However, this did not have a significant impact on the morale of the army. The years of peace had led to a decline in the quality of training, and the emperor's leniency towards guilty officers only worsened the situation. The consequences of this decline in the army's strength were not fully realized until 1449, at the

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this wasn't enough, natural disasters struck towards the end of Yongle's reign, causing even more peasants to abandon their land. By 1422–28, the amount of tax arrears had reached several million tons of rice annually. This posed a serious threat to the supply of Beijing, which relied on tax rice shipped from Jiangnan via the Grand Canal. In an effort to maintain a steady supply of rice, the government decided to reduce taxes and forgive a portion of the arrears. In August 1426, imperial commissioner Zhou Gan (

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was open to advice. As an emperor, he was conscientious and sought to balance the influence of various factions within the Ming elite–including civil officials, eunuchs, and generals. While he was capable of making strong decisions when necessary, he typically relied on the proposals of the Grand Secretaries and ministers when issuing imperial decrees. However, in contrast to his predecessors, he lived a life of luxury and debauchery, and upon his death, thousands of women were released from the palace.

1020: 874:. However, unlike the Yongle Emperor's usurpation, he was unsuccessful in his attempt. Zhu Gaoxu was favored by Yongle due to his military prowess. He proved to be a capable and energetic commander during the civil war of 1399–1402, but his arrogance and contempt towards his older brother, the Hongxi Emperor, who was Xuande's father, caused tension. Zhu Gaoxu became bitter when he was not named as a successor in 1404. His disobedience eventually led to his banishment to the backwater city of Le'an in 1807:

imperial family, Confucian officials, and eunuchs, saw the first two groups lose their influence on the governance of the country. During the Xuande era, Confucian officials gained supremacy over the other groups and maintained it until the end of the Ming dynasty, marking the end of the early Ming period in the 1430s. Despite the significant increase in population and economy, the Ming military and political institutions remained relatively unchanged until the end of the dynasty.

996: 1184:, contributed a significant portion of the empire's land tax, accounting for a quarter of the total amount (despite the Ming dynasty having almost 160 prefectures). In Suzhou Prefecture alone, even after a reduction in the tax rate in 1393, the land tax still made up almost a tenth of the empire's total tax quota, equivalent to 2.81 million tons of rice (with 1 ton being equal to 107.4 liters). Additionally, Songjiang Prefecture contributed 4.14% of the total tax quota. 890:; 1358–1430), laid siege to Le'an on 21 September. Despite the defenders' refusal to surrender, the imperial army successfully captured the city the following day. Zhu Gaoxu was subsequently brought to Beijing, demoted to a common subject, and ultimately tortured to death. In addition, over 600 of his followers were executed, while another 2,200 were deported to the border. An investigation revealed that other relatives of the emperor, including the rebel's brother 1192:) was tasked with investigating the situation on the ground. He proposed a plan to reduce taxes, eliminate corruption in tax collection, and improve local administration with the help of experts sent from headquarters, led by a special commissioner. While the reduction of taxes was supported by the great secretaries, the Ministry of Revenue was able to delay its implementation for four years. Finally, in May 1430, the relevant imperial decree was issued. 1519: 992:

and send to the relevant ministries for implementation. Significant government decisions were made during meetings between the emperor and the grand secretaries, during which the emperor would discuss and sign the drafts of his decrees. The ministers were responsible for carrying out these decrees. This system allowed for faster and more flexible decision-making, as the secretaries no longer needed to consult with the ministers beforehand.

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burden on the economy of wealthy regions in China, resulting in a decline in government revenue. For instance, Suzhou, the economic hub of China, was three years behind in paying its taxes by the late 1420s. Moreover, the profitability of silver and copper mines declined in the early 1430s. To address these difficulties, the government attempted to promote the use of paper money, reduce and reform taxes, and limit government spending.

1205:), the prefect of Suzhou since June 1430, they played a significant role in implementing tax reforms in Jiangnan. During their visit, they witnessed the aftermath of a large-scale migration from the region, with some areas losing up to ninety percent of their peasant population. As a result, the remaining households were burdened with the same total amount of taxes. To address this issue, Zhou Chen introduced five major measures: 1704: 785:

love for hunting and riding. Yongle allowed him to accompany him on hunting trips and military inspections. In 1414, the Yongle Emperor even took the young prince with him on a campaign against the Mongols. Later, as emperor, Zhu Zhanji personally participated in skirmishes with the Mongols on the northern border. During one of these battles, he demonstrated his skill with a bow by shooting several Mongol warriors.

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held the rank of (co-)superintendent of military affairs. This gave them the authority to oversee civil, military, and surveillance offices. The immediate result of implementing grand coordinators was the transfer of command over troops in the provinces to civilian hands. The system of grand coordinators reached its final form during the Zhengtong era (1436–1449), when they were assigned to all provinces except

1730: 1467:) south of Kaiping (formerly the Yuan capital of Shangdu and the last Ming garrison in the steppe) and then withdrew from it. This shortened the border, providing relief to exhausted troops, but was later criticized by historians. This shift in the border to the south and the loss of a base in the steppe made it much more challenging for the Chinese to conduct raids against the Mongols. 1487:(reigned 1429–1441) was very interested in trade with China. In 1432, using the mediation of the king of the Ryukyu Islands, Ming envoys arrived at the shogun's court. The first Japanese delegation arrived in China in June 1433, bringing with them horses, armor, swords, and other goods. They also brought 2.6 tons of copper. The Ming government paid for these goods with state banknotes ( 48: 1297:) was tasked with leading a second army from Guangxi. To oversee the civil administration of the province, the experienced Huang Fu was appointed (Huang Fu had previously administered Jiaozhi from 1407–1424). Meanwhile, Lê Lợi continued to expand his operations into the Red River Valley, posing a threat to Đông Quan, the capital of the province (present-day 1156:

circulation of coins produced by private entrepreneurs. However, they also did not make the decision to resume state production of coins. Towards the end of the Xuande era, the government began to tolerate the use of silver. In 1433, Governor of Nanzhili Zhou Chen began to collect land taxes in silver in the most heavily burdened prefectures of Jiangnan.

1031:, local administration, and the army. His main goal was to bring discipline and order to the state administration. He also took a keen interest in prominent criminal cases and often ordered judgments to be reviewed, resulting in justice for thousands of innocent people. In August 1428, he replaced the long-standing head of the Censorate, Liu Quan ( 1433:

After the death of the Xuande Emperor, the Ming did not undertake any further long-distance expeditions. These expeditions were only supported by the palace eunuchs, as the Confucian officials were strongly opposed to them. With the opening of the Grand Canal, the need to transport rice by sea to the

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Government officials strongly opposed long-distance voyages and influenced the emperor to cancel a shipbuilding program in 1429, led by the emperor's eunuchs. However, a few months later, after the death of a leading opponent of the voyages, Xia Yuanji, the emperor changed his mind. The last of Zheng

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The widespread distrust of paper currency and the scarcity of coins resulted in a growing trade in silver. Despite the government's opposition to replacing copper coins and paper currency with silver, attempts to prohibit the use of silver in commercial transactions were unsuccessful. However, silver

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At the same time, the influence of the eunuchs serving in the imperial palace and completely dependent on the emperor grew. During the reign of the Hongwu Emperor, the first Ming emperor, eunuchs were prohibited from communicating with government authorities. Even the Yongle Emperor maintained strict

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In August 1424, the Yongle Emperor died due to a stroke while returning from the fifth Mongol campaign in the Mongolian steppe. His son, the Hongxi Emperor, succeeded him as the new emperor of the Ming dynasty at the start of September. On 1 November 1424, the Hongxi Emperor named Zhu Zhanji as crown

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As a child, Zhu Zhanji was trained in both military skills and Confucian literature by Hanlin academics. He was a talented man of letters, but his physical prowess, in contrast to his father's frail health, made him excel in military disciplines. This impressed Yongle Emperor, who shared Zhu Zhanji's

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Zhu Zhanji was the son of Zhu Gaochi, who would later become the Hongxi Emperor. He had a passion for poetry and literature, and was also known for his skill in painting and warfare. In 1425, following his father's brief reign, he ascended to the throne as the emperor of the Ming dynasty. Upon taking

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The Ming's withdrawal from Vietnam was a blow to their pride and prestige, but it also provided much-needed financial relief. For the Vietnamese, it was a significant victory that left a lasting impact on their culture and state. The two decades of Ming rule and education had a transformative effect

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On 16 November 1427, the Xuande Emperor was informed of Lê Lợi's offer. Despite divided opinions from his advisers, the emperor quickly made the decision to accept the proposal on 20 November. A delegation was immediately sent to Vietnam to negotiate the details. This move was seen as a surrender by

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During the Yongle Emperor's reign, the country saw a ten percent increase in land tax revenue, which was likely distributed evenly throughout the country. However, this increase in taxes proved to be too much for the peasants in Suzhou and Songjiang, leading to a growing number of tax arrears. As if

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banknotes, as the primary form of currency. For smaller transactions, copper coins were also used, which were circulated alongside state notes during the Yongle era. However, both the coins and the copper used to make them were in short supply. In contrast, the government printed large quantities of

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Considerable problems persisted in the army during this time period. Corrupt officers were known to bring in poor conscripts for campaigns, while allowing the wealthy to avoid service for a fee. These officers also embezzled the salaries of the soldiers and used them as personal servants. The supply

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The role of grand coordinators was not an independent function, but rather a mandate imposed on high-ranking officials of the central authorities. Typically, these officials held the rank of deputy minister, particularly in the military, and later also held high positions in the Censorate. They also

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After the purge of 1428, the censors became more efficient and open. This was evident in their thorough checks of all branches of the state administration, including both civil and military sectors. In fact, over 240 officials were dismissed between 1424 and 1434, which was three times the number of

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were generally peaceful, with regular delegations traveling between the two capitals. According to Chinese records, the emperor often requested horses from the Koreans, while also asking them not to send gold, silver, or other unusual gifts that were not produced in their country. Additionally, the

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The emperor established a process for routine and important decrees, in which proposals from various offices were reviewed and evaluated by the Grand Secretaries. These secretaries would then attach their recommendations for solving issues to the documents, which the emperor would typically approve

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Upon his accession, the new emperor's officials received him calmly, as he shared his father's idealistic conservative policies. He was not only a man of letters, but also a patron of the arts, and his reign was marked by significant cultural and political achievements. Despite his short temper, he

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in Beijing, instead donating a collection of Confucian classics and historical literature to Korea as a replacement. While the official Chinese description of the relationship emphasizes mutual respect, Korean records highlight the emperor's personal motives for his requests—including a desire for

1240:

In comparison to previous reigns, land tax revenue during the Xuande era decreased to 30 million tons of rice, which was 8% less than under Hongxi and 5% less than under Yongle. The trend continued in the Zhengtong era (1436–1449) with a further reduction of 10–15%. By the end of the Ming dynasty,

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In the late 1420s, the Xuande Emperor's government faced significant financial challenges. The ongoing war in Vietnam drained a significant amount of resources, and the subsequent loss of mineral wealth further exacerbated the situation. The imposition of high taxes and levies placed an unbearable

1236:

During natural disasters and epidemics, the Xuande government was known for its swift and effective response in aiding the population. Specially appointed commissioners oversaw the distribution of grain from government stocks, as well as implementing a 20–40% reduction in land taxes and forgiving

816:, who were the younger sons of the Yongle Emperor. This earned him their resentment. They were also concerned about his decisiveness, popularity with Yongle, and close cooperation with the Grand Secretaries. They feared that their own positions would be threatened if Zhu Zhanji were to take over. 1462:

In October 1428, the Uriankhaians were known to occasionally raid the borderlands. However, during an inspection in which the emperor was accompanied by 3,000 soldiers, they were successfully driven away. By May 1430, the Chinese had fortified cities along the border between China and the steppe

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Despite this, he successfully resolved major issues during the first two years of his reign, including his uncle's rebellion and the war in Vietnam. Under his rule, the northern border remained relatively stable and peaceful relations were maintained with neighboring states in Central, East, and

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On 27 June 1425, Zhu Zhanji officially ascended the imperial throne in Beijing, becoming the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty. It is believed that he chose to cancel the move of the capital to Nanjing due to his familiarity with Beijing, where he grew up, and his shared concern with the Yongle

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were constant arguments used by officials against military adventures, which could potentially return power to the hands of the generals and disrupt the establishment of the Ming dynasty's dominance in government. The Ming dynasty's originally diverse elites, including generals, members of the

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The Xuande Emperor's reign is widely regarded by historians as the high point of the Ming era, characterized by stability and peace. This was a stark contrast to the harsh administrative purges of the Hongwu era and the civil war of the Jianwen era. Capable and often long-serving ministers and

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In the winter of 1426, the Ming army suffered heavy losses of 20,000–30,000 men due to Vietnamese attacks. To counter this threat, the emperor issued orders in January 1427 for Mu Sheng, the commander of Yunnan province troops, to gather an army in Yunnan and bring it to Jiaozhi. Additionally,

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In 1433, the Xuande government closed the mints, causing disruptions throughout the region from Japan to Java. This halt in coin production led to a surge in counterfeit coins and hoarding of precious metals. Despite the dissatisfaction of officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress the

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The Xuande Emperor retained his father's advisers and ministers, but some offices underwent changes in their functions. The most significant reforms were made to the Grand Secretaries, who, during the Yongle Emperor's reign, only had an advisory role of reading the emperor's correspondence and

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The Ming government had hoped that the Eastern Mongols would be able to defeat the Oirats, but unfortunately, the Oirats proved to be stronger and launched repeated attacks against the Eastern Mongols. In September 1434, the Oirats were successful in defeating and killing Arughtai, and Toghon

723:

In the early Xuande Emperor's reign, a prolonged war in Vietnam ended with Ming defeat and Vietnam's independence. Relations with Southeast Asian nations stayed peaceful. Communication continued with Korea, and ties were established with Japan in 1432. The northern region faced minimal Mongol

1793:

The Xuande Emperor was a capable, active, and skilled emperor. Some civil officials criticized his indulgence in frequently sending eunuchs to the southern provinces seeking entertainers and virgins for his harem, and his entrusting greater authority to eunuchs— which caused problems for his

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The Xuande Emperor was an ideal combination of the virtues of a Chinese warrior and scholar. He was a talented artist and poet, and often found more enjoyment in art and leisure than in his duties as ruler. He was known for his skill in calligraphy, poetry, writing, and painting. He painted

1147:

The Xuande Emperor and his advisers implemented various measures in an attempt to support the state's economy. One such measure was the pressure placed on the use of copper coins, which were seen as competition for paper money. As a result, copper coins were almost completely phased out of

1093:

In an attempt to address these issues, inspection officials were appointed in 1427 to verify the condition and numbers of the army detachments and restore discipline. However, their efforts were largely ineffective. The local military headquarters also came under the supervision of control

740:

The Xuande Emperor's government attempted to promote the use of paper money and discourage the use of coins and precious metals. However, this effort was ultimately unsuccessful and paper money fell out of circulation. In the past, high taxes in heavily taxed prefectures, particularly in

1232:

The emperor generally agreed with the proposals of Zhou Chen and Kuang Zhong, but the Ministry of Revenue blocked them. For example, it wasn't until 1433 that he received approval to reduce taxes in Suzhou by a quarter. However, other reforms in the same direction continued after 1436.

1765:, did not anticipate the accession of a child emperor, making it impossible to appoint a regent to govern the country in place of a minor monarch. As a result, the Xuande Emperor's decision was to have senior officials consult on government matters with the emperor's grandmother, 1737:

In the autumn and winter of 1434, the emperor led a military detachment on a tour of the northern border. However, upon returning to Beijing, he fell ill. He was sick for almost two months, until he suddenly died on 31 January 1435. He died in the Palace of Heavenly Purity in the

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in 1431–1433. During Xuande's rule, eunuchs gained influence, particularly in the secret police. The emperor sought order through purges in the Censorate and military service reforms in 1428, but these didn't fully address inefficiencies and low morale among hereditary soldiers.

1459:, while the Western Mongolian Oirats were led by Toghon. However, Arughtai was not recognized by the Uriankhai Mongols in the southeast of Mongolia. As a result, he maintained friendly relations with the Ming dynasty and engaged in trade, exchanging horses for silk and tea. 1434:

north disappeared, leading officials to view naval expeditions as expensive and unnecessary imperial ventures. This decision had long-term negative consequences, as it weakened the morale and strength of the Ming fleet, leaving them later unable to effectively deal with the

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banknotes were only worth 2% of their nominal value. In an unsuccessful attempt to promote paper currency, the Hongxi Emperor, the predecessor of the Xuande Emperor, closed precious metal mines. However, the Xuande government allowed for a partial resumption of mining.

1278:. Ministers Jian Yi and Xia Yuanji advocated for using military force to suppress Vietnamese resistance, while Grand Secretaries Yang Shiqi and Yang Yong suggested withdrawing from Vietnam. However, due to conflicting opinions, the meeting ended without a resolution. 885:

The emperor initially hesitated, but eventually succumbed to pressure from Grand Secretary Yang Rong and other advisors, ultimately taking personal command of the punitive expedition on 9 September. A vanguard of 20,000 soldiers, led by the experienced general Xue Lu

1274:), and a new head of civil administration, minister Chen Qia (陳洽), in May 1426. Seeking advice from his entourage, the emperor recalled the Hongwu Emperor's prohibition on invading Vietnam (and other countries) and the Yongle Emperor's original goal of restoring the 745:, had caused peasants to leave the economy. In response, the Xuande Emperor lowered taxes and dispatched "grand coordinators" to the provinces to improve the performance of local authorities. These coordinators were responsible for addressing issues of injustice and 1669: 1301:). Despite this, the Ming garrison successfully defended against the attack on Đông Quan. However, due to the incompetence of Wang Tong, the Ming forces failed to capitalize on their success, allowing the Vietnamese to prepare for the arrival of reinforcements. 1574:

Not only did the emperor engage with art, but he also actively supported and influenced artistic trends of his time. He personally evaluated the works of painters applying for court positions and aimed to elevate court painting to the level of the peak of

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prince. In April 1425, he sent the prince to Nanjing to make preparations for the relocation of the capital from Beijing. However, the Hongxi Emperor's health deteriorated and he called the prince back, but unfortunately died before his son could return.

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introduced the collection of a portion of taxes not in rice, but in silver and fabrics, which was beneficial for both taxpayers and the government, and in the southern regions of the empire, it promoted the monetization of the economy and the textile

1563:) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2007, Robert D. Mowry, the curator of Chinese Art Collections at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, described him as "the only Ming emperor who displayed genuine artistic talent and interest". The Dutch orientalist 1438:

pirates. Additionally, it also had a negative impact on China's influence in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. As a result, the end of the early Ming period marked the end of the three-hundred-year China's dominance in the East Asian seas.

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The rebellion of the emperor's uncle confirmed to the emperor and officials that the decision to remove members of the imperial family from any influence on the military was the right one. The failure of the war in Vietnam and the subsequent

752:

After a short reign of ten years, the emperor died due to a brief illness. His rule was marked by a period of relative peace, with no major internal or foreign conflicts. Later historians regarded his reign as the golden age of the dynasty.

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the government introduced a tax supplement designated for covering the costs of transportation along the Grand Canal to Beijing, thereby easing the burden on taxpayers who only transported rice to the canal, rather than all the way to

3887:

Li, Kangying (2007). "A study on the Song, Yuan and Ming monetary policies within the context of worldwide hard currency flows during the 11th-16th centuries and their impact on Ming institutions". In Schottenhammer, Angela (ed.).

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in each county, warehouses were built to collect the tax rice; previously, it had been stored in barns by tax captains (landowners responsible for transporting rice from villages to designated locations, such as the

1402:, regularly visited Beijing. However, there were no envoys from the Indian Ocean coast. The ban on unauthorized trade and overseas travel by subjects was still in place, but it was not effectively enforced. 1152:

alone was not enough to meet the demands of the market. It was primarily used for large payments and paying taxes, while copper coins remained the preferred currency for smaller transactions in cities.

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During the Xuande era, there was relative calm on the northern border. The Jurchens, who lived in present-day Manchuria, acknowledged Ming sovereignty and did not oppose the expeditions led by eunuch

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rebelled against the young emperor but was ultimately unsuccessful. With the guidance of capable advisors, the Xuande Emperor personally led his army against his uncle and easily defeated him.

1813: 1540:. He typically used ink without the use of colors, choosing subjects with symbolic and allegorical meanings. He was considered the best painter among Chinese emperors since 1750:; "Penetrating Ancestor"). His final resting place is the Jingling Mausoleum near Beijing. He left behind two sons and two daughters, with one daughter died in infancy. 1646: 1596: 1536:." He was especially skilled in depicting animals, particularly dogs. He drew inspiration from the techniques and styles of literati painters of his time, particularly 1511:

women (after the emperor's death, the Ming government allowed fifty-three Korean women to return to their homeland), falcons, hunting dogs, tigers, cooks, and eunuchs.

1583:, by appointing them as officers of the Imperial Guard. His reign is also renowned for its exceptional craftsmanship in bronzes and porcelain, particularly the famous 1571:, as "skilfully painted" although "not a beautiful work". The vibrant paintings suggest that the emperor painted from real animals, likely kept in the palace gardens. 1777: 4436: 769:(1379–1442). He was born on 16 March 1399. At the time, Zhu Zhanji's parents lived in Beijing, northeast China, in the palace of his grandfather, Zhu Di, the later 1285: 4468: 1623: 3908: 1820: 1406:

He's great expeditions took place in 1430–33, possibly to restore the empire's prestige after their retreat from Vietnam. Zheng He brought envoys from

804:, literally 'crown prince') since 1404. Zhu Zhanji's education in Confucian teachings and ways of government was overseen by Grand Secretary Hu Guang ( 1201:) to oversee the collection of taxes. Among them was Zhou Chen (周忱), Left Vice Minister of Works, who was sent to Nanzhili. Along with Kuang Zhong ( 1002:, a painting by an unknown Ming artist, painted on silk during the Xuande era (1426–1435). In the painting, the Xuande Emperor is depicted playing 4207: 808:). He also dedicated himself to studying military expeditions. In court intrigues, Zhu Zhanji consistently defended his father against his uncles 3980: 1769:, who effectively ruled the empire. Through her cooperation with the Grand Secretaries, state policy remained consistent until the early 1440s. 4506: 1258:

During the early years of the Xuande Emperor's reign, a major issue that arose was the war in Vietnam, known in Ming terms as the rebellion in

4452: 839: 4501: 1950: 4424: 4420: 4216: 4161: 689: 73: 4412: 4097: 2559: 4035: 3751: 1237:

other taxes for a period of one to two years. These actions were highly praised and recorded in the official history of the dynasty.

3671: 3960: 3941: 3897: 3877: 3856: 3791: 1757:, who had been created crown prince in May 1428. He became emperor at the young age of eight. However, the rules established by the 2587:

At the forefront of the opponents of long-distance voyages were Grand Secretary Yang Shiqi and the Minister of Revennue Xia Yuanji.

1703: 1115: 829: 4416: 4408: 3761:

Chan, Hok-lam (1988). "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.).

3499: 1102:

and even take the emperor prisoner. This event highlighted the weakness of the Ming armies due to the prolonged period of peace.

894:, were also involved in the rebellion. However, they were not punished in order to preserve the prestige of the imperial family. 1782: 3576: 4076: 1316:

on Vietnam. The long-term warfare also resulted in a strong and efficient Vietnamese army, which would later be challenged by

1043:

dismissals in the previous decade. While officials and censors who abused their powers were punished, they were not executed.

4521: 4511: 4056: 3812: 3770: 1524: 589: 4448: 2094: 641: 300: 4200: 1840: 1576: 537: 1304:

On 30 September 1427, Liu Sheng's army reached the border, where Lê Lợi unexpectedly proposed handing over power to

2284: 1241:

the land tax remained at 25–28 million tons. This reduction in expenses allowed the state to maintain a balanced

1046:

During the reign of the Xuande Emperor, the regional administration saw a regular posting of grand coordinators (

220: 3823: 4400: 4267: 4257: 4175: 3916: 1936: 1754: 1556: 1533: 1305: 1099: 338: 145: 109: 4077:"明宣宗書畫展 / From the Brush of Xuande: Painting and Calligraphy of the Ming Emperor Xuanzong : Introduction" 4516: 4392: 1541: 1483:(shōgun 1394–1425, effectively ruled 1408–1428) adamantly refused any communication. However, his successor 1281: 950: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4444: 4440: 4432: 4396: 4193: 2449: 1766: 1610: 1548: 916: 766: 473: 57: 4428: 4404: 4388: 1333: 733: 3603: 1220:

in each county, restored support granaries where surplus crops were stored in fertile years in case of

1019: 4496: 4491: 3999: 3500:"From the Brush of Xuande: Painting and Calligraphy of the Ming Emperor Xuanzong : Introduction" 1579:

in the early 12th century. He also financially supported several calligraphers and painters, such as

4098:"Timeline of the Ming & Qing Palace Events. The Reign of the Xuande Emperor (approx. 1426–1435)" 1262:, which had been ongoing since 1408. In 1425, Ming troops, led by newly appointed commanders Li An ( 995: 3981:"Gibbon paintings in China, Japan, and Korea: Historical distribution, production rate and context" 2196: 1480: 1464: 1173: 3824:"Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the "Great Depression" of the Mid-Fifteenth Century" 1471:

maintained good relations with the Ming government, a relationship that has continued since then.

1660: 1560: 1484: 625: 617: 926: 4313: 4052: 4031: 3991: 3956: 3937: 3893: 3873: 3852: 3835: 3808: 3787: 3766: 3747: 1491:), which the Japanese immediately exchanged for silk (one-fifth) and copper coins (the rest). 1395: 1328: 1197: 909: 573: 565: 322: 4101: 2728: 1275: 4303: 4293: 4273: 4165: 1564: 1259: 778: 701: 516: 493: 3538: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4262: 4237: 3675: 1963: 774: 773:, who was then known as Prince of Yan. In the summer of 1399, Zhu Di rebelled against the 388: 343: 168: 551: 1479:

The Xuande Emperor made repeated attempts to establish relations with Japan, but shogun

4308: 4247: 4242: 4232: 4154: 4046: 3890:

The East Asian maritime world 1400-1800: its fabrics of power and dynamics of exchanges

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The founder of the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, established paper money, known as

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power, he made the decision to reverse his father's plan to relocate the capital from

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Several thousand Chinese women were also released from service in the Forbidden City.

1637: 1552: 1419: 1342: 1165: 1120: 3580: 1168:, particularly in Jiangnan. This region, which includes prefectures such as Suzhou, 4224: 4125: 4080: 1854: 1762: 634: 523: 453: 441: 254: 196: 2729:"Timeline of the Ming & Qing Palace Events. The Yongle Emperor (r. 1403-1424)" 1729: 1027:

In terms of internal politics, the emperor focused on implementing reforms in the

1532:

landscapes, figures, "grass and insects," and particularly enjoyed the genre of "

1266:) and Chen Zhi, suffered multiple defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, led by 4365: 4338: 2615: 2107: 1903: 1803: 1710: 1427: 982:

In the years 1424–1444, Yang Shiqi served as the head of the Grand Secretariat.

669: 414: 277: 4185: 4349: 3807:. Seattle, Wash.; Chesham: University of Washington Press; Combined Academic. 1584: 1452: 891: 813: 746: 237: 4048:

When China ruled the seas: the treasure fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433

3995: 3839: 1379: the places visited by the Chinese during the seven voyages of Zheng He; 4376: 4360: 4354: 3763:

The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

2092:

Portrayed by Zhu Ya Wen as the main character in the 2019 Chinese TV series

1537: 1523:

Ming dynasty Xuande mark and period (1426–35) imperial blue and white vase.

1507: 1407: 1181: 1028: 871: 809: 717: 582: 1195:

In October 1430, the emperor dispatched a group of high-ranking officials (

862:

Southeast Asia. This stability allowed for internal reforms to take place.

47: 1245:

during the Xuande era, a feat that was not always achieved in later eras.

4030:(Library of World Biography Series ed.). New York: Pearson Longman. 4028:

Zheng He : China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433

1787: 1580: 1456: 1352: 1169: 1055: 1051: 879: 875: 742: 729: 724:

threats, with relations established with the Eastern Mongols and Western

603: 749:

among tax collectors, as well as assessing the state of military units.

1448: 1415: 1399: 1366: 1362: 1177: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1035:), who had been in the position since 1415, with the honorable Gu Zuo ( 1003: 713: 709: 448: 436: 192: 24: 20: 3953:

Possessing the Past: Treasures from the National Palace Museum, Taipei

2102: 2067: 1614: 1502: 1495: 1411: 1317: 1242: 1221: 1083: 1063: 725: 697: 376: 65: 61: 398:

Xiantian Chongdao Yingming Shensheng Qinwen Zhaowu Kuanren Chunxiao

1547:

Some of his works are held by prestigious institutions such as the

1494:

The Ming authorities only accepted Japanese traders at the port of

3909:"Ming China and Southeast Asia in the 15th Century: A Reappraisal" 3869:

Fountain of Fortune: money and monetary policy in China, 1000–1700

2258: 1839: 1728: 1518: 1435: 1370: 1327: 1298: 1280: 1114: 1059: 1018: 994: 838: 828: 117: 3539:"Imperial Salukis. Speedy hounds, portrayed by a Chinese emperor" 1270:. In response, the emperor appointed a new commander, Wang Tong ( 1209:

unified measures and weights to prevent collectors from cheating;

692:, reigned from 1425 to 1435. He was the son and successor of the 1430:

coast, and other countries to China, which pleased the emperor.

1423: 1391: 870:

The accession of the young emperor was challenged by his uncle,

796:, literally 'imperial grandson-heir') while his father had been 4189: 1086:

and six of the nine frontier garrisons on the northern border.

1139:

banknotes, causing their value to rapidly decrease. By 1425,

646: 4065:"Chinese Government in Ming Times" by Charles Hucker (1969). 1164:

One of the areas that the emperor focused on for reform was

1098:, when the Mongols were able to defeat the Ming army led by 3765:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 182–304. 1863:; 20 May 1402 – 5 December 1443), personal name Shanxiang ( 1567:(1910–1967) praised one of the Xuande Emperor's paintings, 1506:

emperor rejected a request to admit Korean students to the

3936:. Vol. 1., A–L. New York: Columbia University Press. 3153: 3151: 3149: 3124: 3122: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3076: 1288:, the campaign of 1427, and the Ming retreat of 1427–1428. 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 1746:; "Distinguished Emperor") and the temple name Xuanzong ( 622: 608: 594: 3892:. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 99–136. 3872:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. 3666: 3664: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3366: 3308: 3306: 3272: 3270: 3109: 3107: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2880: 2878: 912:

during the reign of the Xuande Emperor, from 1425–1435:

3051: 3049: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2704: 1390:

Envoys from Southeast Asian countries, such as Champa,

844:

Hunting of Emperor Xuanzong of Ming Dynasty with arrows

3746:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 3651: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3475: 3473: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3221: 3219: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3036: 3034: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3015: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2931: 2929: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2779: 2777: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 1361: the pilgrimage of seven Chinese men (including 668:(16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435), also known by his 570: 556: 542: 528: 3972:

The gibbon in China. An essay in Chinese animal lore

3608:

Chinaknowledge - a universal guide for China studies

2105:

as the main character in the 2022 Chinese TV series

4329: 4223: 3672:"Zhu Zhanji - Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty" 640: 633: 616: 602: 588: 581: 564: 550: 536: 522: 515: 510: 492: 483: 469: 459: 447: 435: 413: 387: 370: 356: 321: 245: 231: 202: 178: 174: 164: 156: 151: 141: 131: 123: 116: 105: 95: 87: 79: 72: 32: 1753:The Xuande Emperor's successor was his elder son, 1742:. He was given the posthumous name Emperor Zhang ( 1676:Three Yang , an Auspicious Start (to the New Year) 1451:. These expeditions even reached the mouth of the 1341: the journey of the main fleet from China to 2596:The mission was led by the eunuch Chai Shan (柴山). 1945:; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), first son 854:Emperor for the security of the northern border. 4079:. Taipei: National Palace Museum. Archived from 3502:. Taipei: National Palace Museum. Archived from 1972:; 21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457), second son 3932:Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976). 1783:The Ming Emperor Xuanzong Enjoying Himself 1006:, a Chinese game similar to golf, with eunuchs. 907: 3604:"Persons in Chinese History - Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮" 704:of his reign, means "proclamation of virtue". 4201: 2077: 2071: 2059: 2050: 2041: 2032: 2023: 2014: 2005: 1996: 1987: 1978: 1967: 1954: 1940: 1925: 1916: 1907: 1893: 1882: 1873: 1864: 1858: 781:, and became the third Ming emperor in 1402. 498: 422: 36: 8: 4100:. Beijing: The Palace Museum. Archived from 3804:Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle 3721:"Shang Shi (Royal Feast): Cast & Crew." 3394: 2672:《宣宗章皇帝實錄》. "仁宗昭皇帝嫡長子，母今太皇太后，以己卯歲二月九日生上於北京。" 3674:. Cultural China. 2007–2010. Archived from 1887:; 9 January 1420 – 17 October 1479) in 1437 4208: 4194: 4186: 4116: 3725:. MyDramaList.com. Accessed 28 April 2024. 3712:. MyDramaList.com. Accessed 28 April 2024. 2120: 1015:Censorate, provincial administration, army 507: 152:Imperial Grandson-heir of the Ming dynasty 29: 3563: 3464: 3452: 3440: 3193: 3157: 3140: 3128: 3086: 2013:Consort Zhuangshunjing, of the Cao clan ( 2004:Consort Zhuangjingshu, of the Jiao clan ( 1385: the Arab cities visited by Ma Huan. 834:Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming on Horseback 383:): 8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436 3955:. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 3708:"Ming Dynasty (2019): Cast & Crew." 3524: 2618:(181–234), a military leader during the 1986:Consort Chunjingxian, of the Zhao clan ( 1776: 1126:from the Xuande era of the Ming dynasty. 3934:Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644 3786:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2640: 2571: 2049:Consort Gongshunchong, of the Li clan ( 2040:Consort Zhenjinggong, of the Zhu clan ( 1589: 1355:squadron—to Bengal, Arabia, and Africa; 269: 1417; dep. 1428) 3696: 3634: 3382: 3324: 3312: 3276: 3181: 3169: 3098: 3055: 3006: 2987: 2903: 2714: 2355: 2351: 2341: 2239: 2129: 2125: 2031:Consort Gongdingli, of the Yuan clan ( 624: 572: 480: 353: 3783:Early Ming China: A Political History 3551: 3067: 2510: 2507: 2497: 2484: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2454: 2448: 2438: 2425: 2415: 2411: 2399: 2396: 2386: 2373: 2363: 2359: 2338: 2328: 2315: 2305: 2301: 2289: 2283: 2273: 2257: 2247: 2243: 2227: 2221: 2211: 2195: 2185: 2181: 2169: 2163: 2153: 2137: 2133: 2022:Consort Zhenhuishun, of the Xu clan ( 1995:Consort Zhenshunhui, of the Wu clan ( 1977:Consort Duanjinggui, of the He clan ( 903:Grand Secretaries, ministers, eunuchs 788:In 1411, Zhu Zhanji was appointed as 761:Zhu Zhanji was the eldest son of the 7: 3951:Fong, Wen; Watt, James C. Y (1996). 3655: 3579:. cultural-china.com. Archived from 3479: 3428: 3411: 3357: 3336: 3297: 3261: 3242: 3225: 3210: 3040: 3025: 2968: 2956: 2935: 2920: 2884: 2869: 2852: 2831: 2802: 2783: 2768: 2749: 2695: 2660: 1455:. The Eastern Mongols were ruled by 23:emperor also known as "Xuande", see 2578:The so-called "gold flower silver". 2560:Chinese emperors family tree (late) 2058:Consort Suxicheng, of the He clan ( 1324:Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean 765:(1378–1425; reigned from 1424) and 212:Xuande 10, 3rd day of the 1st month 184:Hongwu 32, 9th day of the 2nd month 4051:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 3113: 14: 3974:. Leiden, Nizozemsko: E.J. Brill. 1058:, and in 1430, they were sent to 169:Imperial Grandson-heir Zhu Yunwen 1812: 1702: 1687: 1668: 1645: 1622: 1595: 1555:in Beijing, and formerly in the 1351: the expected route of the 1160:Taxes in Jiangnan and the empire 118:Crown Prince of the Ming dynasty 46: 3537:Mowry, Robert (May–June 2007). 2614:Marquis of Wu was the title of 1682:; 1429), National Palace Museum 1286:Sino-Vietnamese War (1406–1428) 1070:. They were also dispatched to 728:. The Xuande Emperor permitted 647: 623: 609: 595: 289: 266: 16:5th emperor of the Ming dynasty 3801:Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002). 2076:; d. 1428), personal name Ai ( 1844:Portrait of the Xuande Emperor 1827: 1716: 1694: 1679: 1656: 1633: 1606: 1591:The Xuande Emperor's paintings 1525:The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1036: 1032: 975: 968: 961: 954: 944: 930: 920: 805: 793: 571: 557: 543: 529: 499: 403: 127:1 November 1424 – 27 June 1425 83:27 June 1425 – 31 January 1435 1: 4507:15th-century Chinese monarchs 4437:5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms 1921:; 1424–1470), third daughter 1878:; 1420–1443), first daughter 1463:(along the later line of the 4502:Emperors of the Ming dynasty 4217:Emperors of the Ming dynasty 3851:. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. 3828:The Journal of Asian Studies 2731:. Beijing: The Palace Museum 1912:; 1399 – 26 September 1462) 4162:Emperor of the Ming dynasty 4045:Levathes, Louise L (1994). 3866:Von Glahn, Richard (1996). 1898:; d. 1433), second daughter 1824:Emperor Xuanzong at Leisure 1767:Grand Empress Dowager Zhang 1000:Emperor Xuanzong at Leisure 947:), 1402–1414 and 1424–1427; 933:), 1402–1414 and 1414–1444; 690:emperor of the Ming dynasty 328: 74:Emperor of the Ming dynasty 4538: 3979:Geissmann, Thomas (2008). 3970:Gulik, Robert van (1967). 3822:Atwell, William S (2002). 3780:Dreyer, Edward L. (1982). 3740:Mote, Frederick W (2003). 3395:Goodrich & Fang (1976) 2353: 2339:Xuande Emperor (1399–1435) 2233: 2127: 1959:; 1397 – 16 January 1462) 1733:Tomb of the Xuande Emperor 311:(before 1435) 18: 4386: 4320: 4172: 4159: 4151: 4146: 4119: 4026:Dreyer, Edward L (2007). 2491: 2472: 2468: 2460: 2432: 2413: 2405: 2380: 2361: 2357: 2322: 2303: 2295: 2267: 2245: 2241: 2205: 2183: 2175: 2147: 2131: 2078: 2072: 2060: 2051: 2042: 2033: 2024: 2015: 2006: 1997: 1988: 1979: 1968: 1955: 1941: 1926: 1917: 1908: 1894: 1883: 1874: 1865: 1859: 1747: 1743: 1320:, located further south. 1294: 1271: 1263: 1202: 1189: 937: 887: 801: 734:final Indian Ocean voyage 685: 677: 658: 506: 488: 423: 420: 394: 380: 375: 363: 361: 352: 221:Palace of Heavenly Purity 215: 187: 45: 37: 4176:Emperor Yingzong of Ming 1557:Arthur M. Sackler Museum 1515:The emperor as an artist 674:Emperor Xuanzong of Ming 3907:Wade, Geoffrey (2004). 3743:Imperial China 900-1800 1542:Emperor Huizong of Song 371:Era name and dates 227:, Beijing, Ming dynasty 146:Crown Prince Zhu Qizhen 136:Crown Prince Zhu Gaochi 3849:China: a macro history 3525:Fong & Watt (1996) 1951:Empress Dowager Xiaoyi 1845: 1790: 1734: 1697:National Palace Museum 1611:National Palace Museum 1549:National Palace Museum 1528: 1387: 1289: 1127: 1024: 1007: 984: 846: 836: 301:Empress Dowager Xiaoyi 58:National Palace Museum 4522:Painters from Beijing 4512:Ming dynasty painters 2450:Empress Chengxiaozhao 1904:Empress Xiaogongzhang 1855:Empress Gongrangzhang 1843: 1780: 1761:, the founder of the 1732: 1522: 1331: 1284: 1118: 1022: 998: 842: 832: 474:Empress Chengxiaozhao 278:Empress Xiaogongzhang 255:Empress Gongrangzhang 52:Palace portrait on a 3915:(28). Archived from 3913:Working Paper Series 1725:Death and succession 1719:), The Palace Museum 1023:Ming China provinces 779:three-year civil war 777:, defeated him in a 236:Jingling Mausoleum, 4179:(Zhengtong Emperor) 4005:on 17 December 2008 3847:Huang, Ray (1997). 3541:. Harvard magazine. 3527:, pp. 338–339. 3397:, pp. 685–686. 3116:, pp. 121–122. 2971:, pp. 291–292. 2070:, of the Guo clan ( 1906:, of the Sun clan ( 1892:Princess Yongqing ( 1849:Consorts and Issue: 1508:Imperial University 1465:Great Wall of China 1293:General Liu Sheng ( 866:Zhu Gaoxu rebellion 112:(Zhengtong Emperor) 4104:on 6 December 2018 3678:on 15 October 2012 3602:Theobald, Ulrich. 2285:Empress Renxiaowen 2087:In Popular Culture 1953:, of the Wu clan ( 1924:Married Xue Huan ( 1915:Princess Changde ( 1881:Married Shi Jing ( 1857:, of the Hu clan ( 1846: 1791: 1735: 1661:Harvard Art Museum 1561:Harvard Art Museum 1529: 1388: 1334:Voyage of Zheng He 1290: 1128: 1025: 1008: 847: 837: 820:Beginning of reign 4479: 4478: 4184: 4183: 4173:Succeeded by 3919:on 9 January 2014 3554:, pp. 94–95. 3443:, pp. 90–91. 3172:, pp. 86–87. 3143:, pp. 74–75. 2887:, pp. 93–94. 2550: 2549: 2197:Empress Xiaocigao 2068:Concubine Zhen'ai 1872:Princess Shunde ( 1653:Two Saluki Hounds 1638:The Palace Museum 1534:flowers and birds 1111:Finance and money 910:Grand Secretaries 688:), was the fifth 680:), personal name 662: 661: 654: 653: 590:Yale Romanization 517:Standard Mandarin 479: 478: 431: 430: 19:For the founding 4529: 4355:Prince of Lu (魯) 4344:Prince of Lu (潞) 4324: 4210: 4203: 4196: 4187: 4166:Emperor of China 4152:Preceded by 4142: 4135: 4134:25 February 1398 4117: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4062: 4041: 4014: 4012: 4010: 4004: 3998:. Archived from 3985: 3975: 3966: 3947: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3903: 3883: 3862: 3843: 3818: 3797: 3776: 3757: 3726: 3719: 3713: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3668: 3659: 3653: 3638: 3632: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3573: 3567: 3564:Geissmann (2008) 3561: 3555: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3496: 3483: 3477: 3468: 3465:Von Glahn (1996) 3462: 3456: 3453:Von Glahn (1996) 3450: 3444: 3441:Von Glahn (1996) 3438: 3432: 3426: 3415: 3409: 3398: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3361: 3355: 3340: 3334: 3328: 3322: 3316: 3310: 3301: 3295: 3280: 3274: 3265: 3259: 3246: 3240: 3229: 3223: 3214: 3208: 3197: 3194:Von Glahn (1996) 3191: 3185: 3179: 3173: 3167: 3161: 3158:Von Glahn (1996) 3155: 3144: 3141:Von Glahn (1996) 3138: 3132: 3129:Von Glahn (1996) 3126: 3117: 3111: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3087:Von Glahn (1996) 3084: 3071: 3065: 3059: 3053: 3044: 3038: 3029: 3023: 3010: 3004: 2991: 2985: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2939: 2933: 2924: 2918: 2907: 2901: 2888: 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502: 501: 481: 426: 425: 408: 404:憲天崇道英明神聖欽文昭武寬仁純孝 382: 365: 354: 339:Emperor Yingzong 332: 312: 293: 291: 270: 268: 217: 209: 189: 110:Emperor Yingzong 50: 41: 40: 39: 30: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4482: 4481: 4480: 4475: 4382: 4325: 4322: 4318: 4219: 4214: 4180: 4178: 4169: 4164: 4157: 4141:31 January 1435 4136: 4130: 4129: 4122: 4121:Xuande Emperor 4107: 4105: 4095: 4086: 4084: 4083:on 7 April 2012 4075: 4072: 4059: 4044: 4038: 4025: 4022: 4020:Further reading 4017: 4008: 4006: 4002: 3983: 3978: 3969: 3963: 3950: 3944: 3931: 3922: 3920: 3906: 3900: 3886: 3880: 3865: 3859: 3846: 3821: 3815: 3800: 3794: 3779: 3773: 3760: 3754: 3739: 3735: 3730: 3729: 3720: 3716: 3707: 3703: 3695: 3691: 3681: 3679: 3670: 3669: 3662: 3654: 3641: 3633: 3622: 3612: 3610: 3601: 3600: 3596: 3586: 3584: 3575: 3574: 3570: 3562: 3558: 3550: 3546: 3536: 3535: 3531: 3523: 3519: 3509: 3507: 3506:on 6 April 2012 3498: 3497: 3486: 3478: 3471: 3463: 3459: 3451: 3447: 3439: 3435: 3427: 3418: 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and Korea 1445: 1386: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1374: 1358: 1356: 1348: 1346: 1338: 1326: 1256: 1251: 1162: 1113: 1108: 1106:Economic policy 1017: 985: 905: 900: 868: 827: 822: 775:Jianwen Emperor 759: 538:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 389:Posthumous name 348: 344:Jingtai Emperor 326: 325: 317: 314: 310: 306: 303: 295: 292: 1417) 287: 283: 280: 272: 264: 260: 257: 241: 219: 213: 211: 207: 206:31 January 1435 191: 185: 183: 68: 35: 34: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4535: 4533: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4517:Animal artists 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4484: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4387: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4352: 4347: 4341: 4335: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4229: 4227: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4213: 4212: 4205: 4198: 4190: 4182: 4181: 4174: 4171: 4158: 4155:Hongxi Emperor 4153: 4149: 4148: 4147:Regnal titles 4144: 4143: 4123: 4120: 4115: 4114: 4093: 4071: 4070:External links 4068: 4067: 4066: 4063: 4057: 4042: 4037:978-0321084439 4036: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4015: 3988:Gibbon Journal 3976: 3967: 3961: 3948: 3942: 3929: 3904: 3898: 3884: 3878: 3863: 3857: 3844: 3819: 3813: 3798: 3792: 3777: 3771: 3758: 3753:978-0674012127 3752: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3728: 3727: 3714: 3701: 3699:, p. 237. 3689: 3660: 3658:, p. 303. 3639: 3637:, p. 236. 3620: 3594: 3583:on 22 May 2012 3568: 3556: 3544: 3529: 3517: 3484: 3482:, p. 301. 3469: 3457: 3445: 3433: 3431:, p. 300. 3416: 3414:, p. 299. 3399: 3387: 3385:, p. 233. 3362: 3360:, p. 302. 3341: 3329: 3327:, p. 229. 3317: 3315:, p. 228. 3302: 3300:, p. 290. 3281: 3279:, p. 227. 3266: 3264:, p. 298. 3247: 3245:, p. 297. 3230: 3228:, p. 296. 3215: 3213:, p. 295. 3198: 3186: 3174: 3162: 3145: 3133: 3118: 3103: 3091: 3072: 3070:, p. 181. 3060: 3045: 3043:, p. 294. 3030: 3028:, p. 293. 3011: 3009:, p. 231. 2992: 2990:, p. 230. 2973: 2961: 2959:, p. 291. 2940: 2938:, p. 304. 2925: 2923:, p. 287. 2908: 2906:, p. 234. 2889: 2874: 2872:, p. 289. 2857: 2855:, p. 288. 2836: 2834:, p. 625. 2807: 2805:, p. 626. 2788: 2786:, p. 284. 2773: 2771:, p. 286. 2754: 2752:, p. 622. 2742: 2719: 2717:, p. 226. 2700: 2698:, p. 285. 2677: 2665: 2663:, p. 623. 2639: 2638: 2636: 2633: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2620:Three Kingdoms 2607: 2598: 2589: 2580: 2570: 2569: 2567: 2564: 2563: 2562: 2555: 2552: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2503: 2502: 2499: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2476: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2453: 2447: 2444: 2443: 2440: 2439: 2437: 2434: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2420: 2417: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2392: 2391: 2388: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2368: 2365: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2346: 2343: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2317: 2314: 2311: 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1621: 1619: 1601: 1594: 1592: 1516: 1513: 1476: 1473: 1444: 1441: 1381: 1375: 1357: 1347: 1337: 1325: 1322: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1249:Foreign policy 1247: 1230: 1229: 1225: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1161: 1158: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1096:Battle of Tumu 1016: 1013: 980: 979: 972: 965: 958: 948: 941: 934: 924: 906: 904: 901: 899: 898:Administration 896: 867: 864: 826: 823: 821: 818: 771:Yongle Emperor 763:Hongxi Emperor 758: 755: 694:Hongxi Emperor 666:Xuande Emperor 660: 659: 656: 655: 652: 651: 644: 638: 637: 631: 630: 620: 614: 613: 606: 600: 599: 592: 586: 585: 583:Yue: Cantonese 579: 578: 568: 562: 561: 554: 548: 547: 540: 534: 533: 526: 520: 519: 513: 512: 511:Transcriptions 504: 503: 496: 490: 489: 486: 485: 484:Xuande Emperor 477: 476: 471: 467: 466: 464:Hongxi Emperor 461: 457: 456: 451: 445: 444: 439: 433: 432: 429: 428: 418: 417: 411: 410: 392: 391: 385: 384: 373: 372: 368: 367: 359: 358: 350: 349: 347: 346: 341: 335: 333: 319: 318: 316: 315: 308: 304: 299: 298: 296: 285: 281: 276: 275: 273: 262: 258: 253: 252: 249: 247: 243: 242: 235: 233: 229: 228: 225:Forbidden City 210:(aged 35) 204: 200: 199: 180: 176: 175: 172: 171: 166: 162: 161: 158: 154: 153: 149: 148: 143: 139: 138: 133: 129: 128: 125: 121: 120: 114: 113: 107: 103: 102: 100:Hongxi Emperor 97: 93: 92: 89: 85: 84: 81: 77: 76: 70: 69: 56:, kept in the 54:hanging scroll 51: 43: 42: 33:Xuande Emperor 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4534: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4385: 4378: 4375: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4331:Southern Ming 4328: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270:(Restoration) 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4211: 4206: 4204: 4199: 4197: 4192: 4191: 4188: 4177: 4168: 4167: 4163: 4156: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4133: 4128: 4127: 4118: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4073: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4050: 4049: 4043: 4039: 4033: 4029: 4024: 4023: 4019: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3982: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3964: 3962:9780810964945 3958: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3943:0-231-03801-1 3939: 3935: 3930: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3899:9783447054744 3895: 3891: 3885: 3881: 3879:0-520-20408-5 3875: 3871: 3870: 3864: 3860: 3858:1-56324-730-5 3854: 3850: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3810: 3806: 3805: 3799: 3795: 3793:0-8047-1105-4 3789: 3785: 3784: 3778: 3774: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3755: 3749: 3745: 3744: 3738: 3737: 3732: 3724: 3718: 3715: 3711: 3705: 3702: 3698: 3697:Dreyer (1982) 3693: 3690: 3677: 3673: 3667: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3635:Dreyer (1982) 3631: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3621: 3609: 3605: 3598: 3595: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3569: 3565: 3560: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3545: 3540: 3533: 3530: 3526: 3521: 3518: 3505: 3501: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3467:, p. 90. 3466: 3461: 3458: 3455:, p. 91. 3454: 3449: 3446: 3442: 3437: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3423: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3391: 3388: 3384: 3383:Dreyer (1982) 3379: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3339:, p. 35. 3338: 3333: 3330: 3326: 3325:Dreyer (1982) 3321: 3318: 3314: 3313:Dreyer (1982) 3309: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3277:Dreyer (1982) 3273: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3222: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3199: 3196:, p. 73. 3195: 3190: 3187: 3184:, p. 97. 3183: 3182:Atwell (2002) 3178: 3175: 3171: 3170:Atwell (2002) 3166: 3163: 3160:, p. 83. 3159: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3137: 3134: 3131:, p. 75. 3130: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3101:, p. 86. 3100: 3099:Atwell (2002) 3095: 3092: 3089:, p. 74. 3088: 3083: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3061: 3058:, p. 91. 3057: 3056:Atwell (2002) 3052: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3007:Dreyer (1982) 3003: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2988:Dreyer (1982) 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2904:Dreyer (1982) 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2743: 2730: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2715:Dreyer (1982) 2711: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2678: 2669: 2666: 2662: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2641: 2634: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2611: 2608: 2602: 2599: 2593: 2590: 2584: 2581: 2575: 2572: 2565: 2561: 2558: 2557: 2553: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2513: 2505: 2504: 2501: 2500: 2495: 2494: 2489: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2478: 2477: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2457: 2451: 2446: 2445: 2442: 2441: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2429: 2423: 2422: 2419: 2418: 2409: 2408: 2403: 2402: 2394: 2393: 2390: 2389: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2349: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2336: 2335: 2332: 2331: 2326: 2325: 2320: 2319: 2313: 2312: 2309: 2308: 2299: 2298: 2293: 2292: 2286: 2281: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2271: 2270: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2255: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2230: 2224: 2219: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2209: 2208: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2192: 2189: 2188: 2179: 2178: 2173: 2172: 2166: 2161: 2160: 2157: 2156: 2151: 2150: 2145: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2123: 2122: 2115: 2110: 2109: 2104: 2101:Portrayed by 2100: 2097: 2096: 2091: 2090: 2086: 2069: 2066: 2057: 2048: 2039: 2030: 2021: 2012: 2003: 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1171: 1167: 1166:fiscal policy 1159: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1125: 1123: 1117: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1091: 1087: 1085: 1079: 1078:around 1426. 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1044: 1040: 1030: 1021: 1014: 1012: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 983: 978:), 1427–1429. 973: 966: 964:), 1426–1429; 959: 957:), 1424–1446; 952: 949: 942: 940:), 1402–1431; 935: 928: 925: 923:), 1402–1440; 918: 915: 914: 913: 911: 902: 897: 895: 893: 883: 881: 877: 873: 865: 863: 859: 855: 851: 845: 841: 835: 831: 824: 819: 817: 815: 811: 799: 791: 786: 782: 780: 776: 772: 768: 767:Empress Zhang 764: 756: 754: 750: 748: 744: 738: 735: 731: 727: 721: 719: 715: 711: 705: 703: 699: 695: 691: 683: 675: 671: 667: 657: 645: 643: 639: 636: 632: 626: 621: 619: 615: 607: 605: 601: 593: 591: 587: 584: 580: 574: 569: 567: 563: 555: 553: 549: 544:Shiuander dih 541: 539: 535: 527: 525: 521: 518: 514: 509: 505: 497: 495: 491: 487: 482: 475: 472: 468: 465: 462: 458: 455: 452: 450: 446: 443: 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Dynasties 4421:S. Dynasties 4252: 4160: 4138: 4131: 4126:House of Zhu 4124: 4106:. Retrieved 4102:the original 4085:. Retrieved 4081:the original 4047: 4027: 4007:. Retrieved 4000:the original 3987: 3971: 3952: 3933: 3921:. Retrieved 3917:the original 3912: 3889: 3868: 3848: 3831: 3827: 3803: 3782: 3762: 3742: 3722: 3717: 3709: 3704: 3692: 3680:. Retrieved 3676:the original 3611:. Retrieved 3607: 3597: 3585:. Retrieved 3581:the original 3571: 3566:, p. 3. 3559: 3552:Gulik (1967) 3547: 3532: 3520: 3508:. Retrieved 3504:the original 3460: 3448: 3436: 3390: 3332: 3320: 3189: 3177: 3165: 3136: 3094: 3068:Huang (1997) 3063: 2964: 2745: 2733:. Retrieved 2722: 2674:(in Chinese) 2668: 2610: 2601: 2592: 2583: 2574: 2374:Zhang Congyi 2106: 2095:Ming Dynasty 2093: 1935:Zhu Qizhen, 1848: 1847: 1823: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1781: 1763:Ming dynasty 1752: 1736: 1709: 1675: 1652: 1629: 1602: 1573: 1568: 1546: 1530: 1500: 1493: 1488: 1478: 1469: 1461: 1446: 1432: 1428:East African 1404: 1389: 1332:The Seventh 1314: 1310: 1303: 1291: 1276:Trần dynasty 1257: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1196: 1194: 1186: 1163: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1140: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1121: 1119:A porcelain 1092: 1088: 1080: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1026: 1009: 999: 990: 986: 981: 960:Zhang Ying ( 943:Huang Huai ( 908: 884: 878:prefecture, 869: 860: 856: 852: 848: 843: 833: 797: 790:Huang Taisun 789: 787: 783: 760: 751: 739: 722: 716:. His uncle 706: 681: 673: 665: 663: 635:Southern Min 610:Syun-dak dai 596:Syūn-dāk dai 524:Hanyu Pinyin 405: 399: 395: 362:Zhu Zhanji ( 327: 208:(1435-01-31) 197:Ming dynasty 91:27 June 1425 88:Enthronement 4497:1435 deaths 4492:1399 births 4417:16 Kingdoms 4009:17 December 3990:(4): 1–39. 3733:Works cited 3723:MyDramaList 3710:MyDramaList 3682:14 February 3656:Chan (1988) 3480:Chan (1988) 3429:Chan (1988) 3412:Chan (1988) 3358:Chan (1988) 3337:Wade (2004) 3298:Chan (1988) 3262:Chan (1988) 3243:Chan (1988) 3226:Chan (1988) 3211:Chan (1988) 3041:Chan (1988) 3026:Chan (1988) 2969:Chan (1988) 2957:Chan (1988) 2936:Chan (1988) 2921:Chan (1988) 2885:Tsai (2002) 2870:Chan (1988) 2853:Chan (1988) 2832:Mote (2003) 2803:Mote (2003) 2784:Chan (1988) 2769:Chan (1988) 2750:Mote (2003) 2735:23 December 2696:Chan (1988) 2661:Mote (2003) 2616:Zhuge Liang 2452:(1379–1442) 2287:(1362–1407) 2261:(1332–1385) 2225:(1378–1425) 2199:(1332–1382) 2167:(1360–1424) 2141:(1328–1398) 2108:Royal Feast 1527:, New York. 1373:and Medina; 974:Chen Shan ( 936:Jin Youzi ( 798:Huang Taizi 670:temple name 648:Suan-tik tē 558:Hsüan-te Ti 415:Temple name 188:洪武三十二年二月初九日 165:Predecessor 132:Predecessor 96:Predecessor 4486:Categories 4409:3 Kingdoms 4379:(doubtful) 4170:1425–1435 4108:5 December 4096:Li, Yang. 4058:0671701584 3814:0295981245 3772:0521243327 3613:7 February 3577:"Shang Xi" 2727:Li, Yang. 2630:References 2064:; d. 1435) 2055:; d. 1435) 2046:; d. 1435) 2037:; d. 1435) 2028:; d. 1435) 2019:; d. 1435) 2010:; d. 1435) 2001:; d. 1435) 1992:; d. 1435) 1983:; d. 1435) 1755:Zhu Qizhen 1711:Marquis Wu 1585:Jingdezhen 1481:Yoshimochi 1453:Amur River 967:Quan Jin ( 927:Yang Shiqi 892:Zhu Gaosui 814:Zhu Gaosui 747:corruption 682:Zhu Zhanji 552:Wade–Giles 421:Xuanzong ( 238:Ming tombs 4339:Hongguang 4314:Chongzhen 4087:6 January 3996:1661-707X 3923:19 August 3840:0021-9118 3587:2 January 3510:6 January 3114:Li (2007) 2635:Citations 2508:Lady Tong 2485:Tong Shan 1930:) in 1440 1713:in Repose 1659:; 1427), 1640:, Beijing 1636:; 1427), 1609:; 1427), 1538:Xia Chang 1485:Yoshinori 1408:Sri Lanka 1396:Ayutthaya 1228:industry. 1213:capital); 1182:Zhenjiang 1174:Songjiang 1029:Censorate 917:Yang Rong 872:Zhu Gaoxu 825:Accession 810:Zhu Gaoxu 718:Zhu Gaoxu 530:Xuāndé Dì 240:, Beijing 216:宣德十年正月初三日 160:1411–1424 142:Successor 106:Successor 4373:(regent) 4357:(regent) 4346:(regent) 4304:Taichang 4294:Longqing 4274:Chenghua 4268:Yingzong 4258:Yingzong 2554:See also 2426:Lady Zhu 2397:Zhang Qi 2316:Lady Xie 2116:Ancestry 1909:孝恭章皇后孫氏 1860:恭讓章皇后胡氏 1788:Shang Xi 1695:《御臨黃筌花鳥》 1617:, Taiwan 1581:Shang Xi 1457:Arughtai 1443:Mongolia 1353:Hong Bao 1306:Trần Cảo 1217:Beijing; 1170:Hangzhou 1056:Zhejiang 1052:Nanzhili 880:Shandong 876:Qingzhou 743:Jiangnan 730:Zheng He 702:era name 604:Jyutping 4289:Jiajing 4284:Zhengde 4279:Hongzhi 4263:Jingtai 4238:Jianwen 2622:period. 2073:貞哀國嬪郭氏 2061:肅僖成妃何氏 2052:恭順充妃李氏 2043:貞靜恭妃諸氏 2034:恭定麗妃袁氏 2025:貞惠順妃徐氏 2016:莊順敬妃曹氏 2007:莊靜淑妃焦氏 1998:貞順惠妃吳氏 1989:純靜賢妃趙氏 1980:端靜貴妃何氏 1969:景泰帝朱祁鈺 1956:榮思賢妃吳氏 1489:baochao 1449:Yishiha 1416:Calicut 1400:Sumatra 1367:Calicut 1365:) from 1363:Ma Huan 1254:Vietnam 1178:Jiaxing 1141:baochao 1136:baochao 1076:Shaanxi 1072:Jiangxi 1068:Sichuan 1004:chuiwan 971:), 1425 951:Yang Pu 714:Nanjing 710:Beijing 700:", the 672:as the 494:Chinese 449:Dynasty 396:Emperor 313: 309: 305: 294: 286: 282: 271: 263: 259: 246:Spouses 193:Beijing 25:Liu Bei 21:Shu Han 4449:W. 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