Knowledge (XXG)

Four-momentum

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7778: 403: 5577: 7265: 5242: 4774: 6926: 42: 416: 5602:, are then used to transform to the lab frame, and the resulting expression (again Lorentz force law) is interpreted in the spirit of Newton's second law, leading to the correct expression for the relativistic three- momentum. The disadvantage, of course, is that it isn't immediately clear that the result applies to all particles, whether charged or not, and that it doesn't yield the complete four-vector. 5572:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {p} &={\frac {\partial L}{\partial \mathbf {v} }}=\left({\partial L \over \partial {\dot {x}}},{\partial L \over \partial {\dot {y}}},{\partial L \over \partial {\dot {z}}}\right)=m(\gamma v_{x},\gamma v_{y},\gamma v_{z})=m\gamma \mathbf {v} =m\mathbf {u} ,\\E&=\mathbf {p} \cdot \mathbf {v} -L={\frac {mc^{2}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}},\end{aligned}}} 4473: 6182: 3391: 7478: 3963: 7260:{\displaystyle E=\int _{V}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \mathbf {v} }}\left({\frac {{\mathcal {L}}_{p}}{u^{0}}}\right)\cdot \mathbf {v} u^{0}{\sqrt {-g}}dx^{1}dx^{2}dx^{3}-\int _{V}\left({\mathcal {L}}_{p}+{\mathcal {L}}_{f}\right){\sqrt {-g}}dx^{1}dx^{2}dx^{3}+\sum _{n=1}^{N}\left(\mathbf {v} _{n}\cdot {\frac {\partial L_{f}}{\partial \mathbf {v} _{n}}}\right).} 4418: 2094: 2721: 1656: 5942: 3150: 3656: 4769:{\displaystyle p^{\mu }=-\partial ^{\mu }=-{\frac {\partial S}{\partial x_{\mu }}}=mu^{\mu }=m\left({\frac {c}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}},{\frac {v_{x}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}},{\frac {v_{y}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}},{\frac {v_{z}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\right),} 4144: 7273: 1059: 3540: 1871: 2533: 1499: 923: 5234: 2322: 3651: 4135: 1842: 6350: 697: 1320: 2482:
vary. This time, the system is allowed to move through configuration space at "arbitrary speed" or with "more or less energy", the field equations still assumed to hold and variation can be carried out on the integral, but instead observe
6177:{\displaystyle p^{\mu }A_{\mu }=\eta _{\mu \nu }p^{\mu }A^{\nu }=\eta _{\mu \nu }p^{\mu }{\frac {d}{d\tau }}{\frac {p^{\nu }}{m}}={\frac {1}{2m}}{\frac {d}{d\tau }}p\cdot p={\frac {1}{2m}}{\frac {d}{d\tau }}\left(-m^{2}c^{2}\right)=0.} 3386:{\displaystyle \delta ds^{2}=\delta \eta _{\mu \nu }dx^{\mu }dx^{\nu }=\eta _{\mu \nu }\left(\delta \left(dx^{\mu }\right)dx^{\nu }+dx^{\mu }\delta \left(dx^{\nu }\right)\right)=2\eta _{\mu \nu }\delta \left(dx^{\mu }\right)dx^{\nu }.} 928: 7473:{\displaystyle \mathbf {P} =\int _{V}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \mathbf {v} }}\left({\frac {{\mathcal {L}}_{p}}{u^{0}}}\right)u^{0}{\sqrt {-g}}dx^{1}dx^{2}dx^{3}+\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {\partial L_{f}}{\partial \mathbf {v} _{n}}}.} 3061: 2405: 5051: 3398: 5114: 4887: 7684: 3958:{\displaystyle \delta S=-m\int \eta _{\mu \nu }{\frac {d\delta x^{\mu }}{d\tau }}{\frac {dx^{\nu }}{d\tau }}d\tau =-m\int \eta _{\mu \nu }{\frac {d\delta x^{\mu }}{d\tau }}u^{\nu }d\tau =-m\int \eta _{\mu \nu }\leftd\tau } 1389: 5579:
which constitute the standard formulae for canonical momentum and energy of a closed (time-independent Lagrangian) system. With this approach it is less clear that the energy and momentum are parts of a four-vector.
4413:{\displaystyle \delta S=\left_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}+m\int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}\delta x^{\mu }{\frac {du_{\mu }}{ds}}ds=-mu_{\mu }\delta x^{\mu }={\frac {\partial S}{\partial x^{\mu }}}\delta x^{\mu }=-p_{\mu }\delta x^{\mu },} 1081:
four-vector for massive particles. The other choice of signature would flip signs in certain formulas (like for the norm here). This choice is not important, but once made it must for consistency be kept throughout.
762: 6918: 6542: 2203: 4958: 5725: 5247: 2465: 3545: 2867: 3968: 2089:{\displaystyle \delta S=\left.\left\right|_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}+\int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}\left({\frac {\partial L}{\partial q}}-{\frac {d}{dt}}{\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {q}}}}\right)\delta qdt.} 5126: 6477:
In the case when there is a moving physical system with a continuous distribution of matter in curved spacetime, the primary expression for four-momentum is four-vector with covariant index:
2794: 2716:{\displaystyle {\frac {dS}{dt}}={\frac {\partial S}{\partial t}}+\sum _{i}{\frac {\partial S}{\partial q_{i}}}{\dot {q}}_{i}={\frac {\partial S}{\partial t}}+\sum _{i}p_{i}{\dot {q}}_{i}=L.} 1753: 6457: 6211: 1085:
The Minkowski norm is Lorentz invariant, meaning its value is not changed by Lorentz transformations/boosting into different frames of reference. More generally, for any two four-momenta
555: 6700: 3127: 1175: 1651:{\displaystyle p_{i}={\frac {\partial S}{\partial q_{i}}}={\frac {\partial S}{\partial x_{i}}},\quad E=-{\frac {\partial S}{\partial t}}=-c\cdot {\frac {\partial S}{\partial x_{0}}},} 1166: 7715: 7512: 2524: 447: 7744: 5605:
It is also possible to avoid electromagnetism and use well tuned experiments of thought involving well-trained physicists throwing billiard balls, utilizing knowledge of the
2947: 5750: 7534: 6802: 6614: 2329: 8117: 7920: 6856: 6829: 6757: 6730: 6641: 6572: 5059: 7561: 5903:. By measuring the energies and three-momenta of the daughter particles, one can reconstruct the invariant mass of the two-particle system, which must be equal to 7764: 7581: 6780: 6592: 1409: 1325: 1461:
to derive the four-momentum, including the expression for the energy. One may at once, using the observations detailed below, define four-momentum from the
4973: 4792: 7586: 440: 1054:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mu \nu }={\begin{pmatrix}-1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}} 2410: 1453:, being content that it is a four-vector with the correct units and correct behavior. Another, more satisfactory, approach is to begin with the 7777: 402: 8055: 7830: 5939:
is simply zero. The four-acceleration is proportional to the proper time derivative of the four-momentum divided by the particle's mass, so
2817: 8013: 477: 6865: 3535:{\displaystyle \delta ds=\eta _{\mu \nu }\delta dx^{\mu }{\frac {dx^{\nu }}{ds}}=\eta _{\mu \nu }d\delta x^{\mu }{\frac {dx^{\nu }}{ds}},} 41: 6483: 8027:. 4th rev. English edition, reprinted with corrections; translated from the Russian by Morton Hamermesh. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. 433: 2728: 8078: 7983: 1062: 61: 8032: 6403: 4913: 5659: 3082: 2931: 81: 7801: 5590:
More pedestrian approaches include expected behavior in electrodynamics. In this approach, the starting point is application of
2527: 5598:
in the rest frame of the particle. The transformation properties of the electromagnetic field tensor, including invariance of
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that holds for massless particles as well. Squaring the expressions for energy and three-momentum and relating them gives the
2127:
follow at once. When the equations of motion are known (or simply assumed to be satisfied), one may let go of the requirement
918:{\displaystyle p\cdot p=\eta _{\mu \nu }p^{\mu }p^{\nu }=p_{\nu }p^{\nu }=-{E^{2} \over c^{2}}+|\mathbf {p} |^{2}=-m^{2}c^{2}} 6466: 6205: 2923: 5587:
quantities for isolated systems in the Lagrangian framework. Hence four-momentum is conserved as well. More on this below.
5229:{\displaystyle \eta ^{\mu \nu }{\frac {\partial S}{\partial x^{\mu }}}{\frac {\partial S}{\partial x^{\nu }}}=-m^{2}c^{2}.} 1429:
There are several ways to arrive at the correct expression for four-momentum. One way is to first define the four-velocity
258: 5117: 4964: 1125: 2486: 2317:{\displaystyle \delta S=\sum _{i}{\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {q}}_{i}}}\delta q_{i}=\sum _{i}p_{i}\delta q_{i}.} 138: 420: 148: 86: 163: 5756:
Note that the invariant mass of a system of particles may be more than the sum of the particles' rest masses, since
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from forces between the particles contribute to the invariant mass. As an example, two particles with four-momenta
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As shown above, there are three conservation laws (not independent, the last two imply the first and vice versa):
6859: 6649: 5606: 1454: 325: 3646:{\displaystyle \delta ds=\eta _{\mu \nu }{\frac {d\delta x^{\mu }}{d\tau }}{\frac {dx^{\nu }}{cd\tau }}d\tau ,} 5930:
If the mass of an object does not change, the Minkowski inner product of its four-momentum and corresponding
4130:{\displaystyle \delta S=\left_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}+m\int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}\delta x^{\mu }{\frac {du_{\mu }}{ds}}ds} 2124: 1861: 277: 51: 6461:
This, in turn, allows the potential energy from the charged particle in an electrostatic potential and the
5595: 1469: 727: 101: 96: 8132: 7689: 7486: 1865: 1837:{\displaystyle p_{\mu }=-{\frac {\partial S}{\partial x^{\mu }}}=\left({E \over c},-\mathbf {p} \right)} 7932:
Fedosin, Sergey G. (2024-04-18). "What should we understand by the four-momentum of physical system?".
6920:
of the system is given. The following formulas are obtained for the energy and momentum of the system:
7720: 7941: 6345:{\displaystyle A=\left(A^{0},A^{1},A^{2},A^{3}\right)=\left({\phi \over c},A_{x},A_{y},A_{z}\right)} 3068: 2801: 1458: 692:{\displaystyle p=\left(p^{0},p^{1},p^{2},p^{3}\right)=\left({\frac {E}{c}},p_{x},p_{y},p_{z}\right).} 497: 222: 56: 5730: 1857: 1315:{\displaystyle u=\left(u^{0},u^{1},u^{2},u^{3}\right)=\gamma _{v}\left(c,v_{x},v_{y},v_{z}\right),} 315: 272: 7517: 6785: 6597: 1844:
is a covariant four-vector with the three-vector part being the (negative of) canonical momentum.
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is the generalized four-momentum associated with the action of fields on particles; four-vector
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to satisfy the equations of motion, and the action is a function of the upper integration limit
8137: 8092: 8074: 8051: 8028: 8009: 8005: 7979: 7826: 6834: 6807: 6735: 6708: 6619: 6550: 5931: 5591: 743: 723: 380: 345: 340: 310: 197: 168: 158: 153: 8108: 8088: 7949: 6393: 6389: 6357: 6192: 5816: 5804:. If these particles were to collide and stick, the mass of the composite object would be 10 5761: 1462: 1070: 485: 350: 320: 7539: 6465:
on the charged particle moving in a magnetic field to be incorporated in a compact way, in
6196: 5599: 739: 335: 330: 305: 282: 192: 5841:
of two daughter particles produced in the decay of a heavier particle with four-momentum
7945: 3056:{\displaystyle S=-mc\int ds=\int Ldt,\quad L=-mc^{2}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}},} 17: 8067: 8044: 7997: 7783: 7749: 7566: 6765: 6759:
is the four-momentum of the fields arising from the action of particles on the fields.
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It is also possible to derive the results from the Lagrangian directly. By definition,
1418: 1394: 1112: 747: 549: 407: 375: 236: 91: 8126: 7961: 7796: 6462: 2400:{\displaystyle \delta S=\sum _{i}{\frac {\partial S}{\partial {q}_{i}}}\delta q_{i},} 1119: 123: 5908: 370: 5609:
and assuming conservation of momentum. This too gives only the three-vector part.
4907:, follows. By comparing the expressions for momentum and energy directly, one has 5046:{\displaystyle {\frac {E^{2}}{c^{2}}}=\mathbf {p} \cdot \mathbf {p} +m^{2}c^{2}.} 5109:{\displaystyle p_{\mu }\leftrightarrow -{\frac {\partial S}{\partial x^{\mu }}}} 4882:{\displaystyle E={\frac {mc^{2}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}=m_{r}c^{2},} 756: 489: 355: 231: 7953: 7679:{\displaystyle L_{f}=\int _{V}{\mathcal {L}}_{f}{\sqrt {-g}}dx^{1}dx^{2}dx^{3}} 7514:
is that part of the Lagrangian density that contains terms with four-currents;
5915:, where the Z′ boson would show up as a bump in the invariant mass spectrum of 8112: 7993: 7791: 7773: 6643:
can be represented as the sum of two non-local four-vectors of integral type:
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to find the mass of the heavier particle. Conservation of four-momentum gives
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as in the observations above. Now compare the last three expressions to find
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vector. This means that it is easy to keep track of how it transforms under
5727:
is conserved (not to be confused with the classic non-relativistic momentum
719: 493: 183: 8069:
Relativistic Mechanics - Special Relativity and Classical Particle Dynamics
722:. The four-momentum is useful in relativistic calculations because it is a 1384:{\displaystyle \gamma _{v}:={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}} 5920: 5916: 5912: 5654: 5622: 1078: 711: 360: 5651: 7686:
is the part of the Lagrangian associated with the Lagrangian density
5632: 1111:
For a massive particle, the four-momentum is given by the particle's
8096: 6913:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}={\mathcal {L}}_{p}+{\mathcal {L}}_{f}} 6537:{\displaystyle P_{\mu }=\left({\frac {E}{c}},-\mathbf {P} \right).} 6187:
Canonical momentum in the presence of an electromagnetic potential
5924: 5907:. This technique is used, e.g., in experimental searches for 1077:. The negativity of the norm reflects that the momentum is a 7696: 7616: 7493: 7321: 7104: 7087: 6972: 6899: 6882: 6871: 4953:{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =E{\frac {\mathbf {v} }{c^{2}}},} 2530:. Compute using the above expression for canonical momenta, 5720:{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\left(p^{1},p^{2},p^{3}\right)} 2460:{\displaystyle p_{i}={\frac {\partial S}{\partial q_{i}}}.} 1886: 8097:"The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics" 1864:, one finds (generally) in an intermediate stage for the 7978:(2nd ed.). Reading, Mass.: Addison–Wesley Pub. Co. 5796:
separately, but their total mass (the system mass) is 10
2862:{\displaystyle E=H=-{\frac {\partial S}{\partial t}}.} 953: 7752: 7723: 7692: 7589: 7569: 7563:
is the time component of four-velocity of particles;
7542: 7520: 7489: 7276: 6929: 6868: 6837: 6810: 6788: 6768: 6738: 6711: 6652: 6622: 6600: 6580: 6553: 6486: 6406: 6214: 5945: 5733: 5662: 5245: 5129: 5062: 4976: 4916: 4795: 4476: 4147: 3971: 3659: 3548: 3401: 3153: 3085: 2950: 2820: 2731: 2536: 2489: 2413: 2332: 2206: 2098:
The assumption is then that the varied paths satisfy
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Consider initially a system of one degree of freedom
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four-momentum of a particle with relativistic energy
7825:. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. p. 191. 7823:
Spacetime physics introduction to special relativity
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in the equation for the norm gives the relativistic
4786:, and the famed result for the relativistic energy, 2469:
In a similar fashion, keep endpoints fixed, but let
8066: 8043: 7758: 7738: 7709: 7678: 7575: 7555: 7528: 7506: 7472: 7259: 6912: 6850: 6823: 6796: 6774: 6751: 6724: 6694: 6635: 6608: 6586: 6566: 6536: 6451: 6344: 6204:, moving in an electromagnetic field given by the 6176: 5744: 5719: 5571: 5228: 5108: 5045: 4952: 4881: 4768: 4422:where the second step employs the field equations 4412: 4129: 3957: 3645: 3534: 3385: 3121: 3055: 2861: 2788: 2715: 2518: 2459: 2399: 2316: 2088: 1836: 1650: 1403: 1383: 1314: 1160: 1053: 917: 691: 8050:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5628:(either covariant or contravariant) is conserved. 2789:{\displaystyle H=\sum _{i}p_{i}{\dot {q}}_{i}-L,} 1468:. Given that in general for a closed system with 1391:is the Lorentz factor (associated with the speed 7746:is velocity of a particle of matter with number 2168:is still fixed. The above equation becomes with 7881: 7869: 7857: 7845: 8004:. Translated from Russian by J. B. Sykes and 6594:of physical system and relativistic momentum 441: 8: 6452:{\displaystyle P^{\mu }=p^{\mu }+qA^{\mu }.} 7917: 6695:{\displaystyle P_{\mu }=p_{\mu }+K_{\mu }.} 3122:{\displaystyle \delta S=-mc\int \delta ds.} 2200:, and letting in more degrees of freedom, 448: 434: 29: 7751: 7730: 7725: 7722: 7701: 7695: 7694: 7691: 7670: 7657: 7644: 7627: 7621: 7615: 7614: 7607: 7594: 7588: 7568: 7547: 7541: 7521: 7519: 7498: 7492: 7491: 7488: 7458: 7453: 7441: 7431: 7425: 7414: 7401: 7388: 7375: 7358: 7352: 7336: 7326: 7320: 7319: 7316: 7304: 7295: 7289: 7277: 7275: 7240: 7235: 7223: 7213: 7204: 7199: 7187: 7176: 7163: 7150: 7137: 7120: 7109: 7103: 7102: 7092: 7086: 7085: 7073: 7060: 7047: 7034: 7017: 7011: 7002: 6987: 6977: 6971: 6970: 6967: 6955: 6946: 6940: 6928: 6904: 6898: 6897: 6887: 6881: 6880: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6842: 6836: 6815: 6809: 6789: 6787: 6767: 6743: 6737: 6716: 6710: 6683: 6670: 6657: 6651: 6627: 6621: 6601: 6599: 6579: 6558: 6552: 6521: 6505: 6491: 6485: 6440: 6424: 6411: 6405: 6331: 6318: 6305: 6288: 6269: 6256: 6243: 6230: 6213: 6157: 6147: 6120: 6105: 6078: 6063: 6049: 6043: 6028: 6022: 6009: 5996: 5986: 5973: 5960: 5950: 5944: 5737: 5732: 5706: 5693: 5680: 5663: 5661: 5551: 5541: 5535: 5521: 5511: 5497: 5489: 5467: 5456: 5438: 5422: 5406: 5371: 5370: 5356: 5339: 5338: 5324: 5307: 5306: 5292: 5276: 5262: 5250: 5246: 5244: 5217: 5207: 5188: 5170: 5161: 5143: 5134: 5128: 5097: 5079: 5067: 5061: 5034: 5024: 5012: 5004: 4993: 4983: 4977: 4975: 4939: 4930: 4928: 4917: 4915: 4870: 4860: 4842: 4832: 4826: 4812: 4802: 4794: 4747: 4737: 4731: 4718: 4712: 4698: 4688: 4682: 4669: 4663: 4649: 4639: 4633: 4620: 4614: 4600: 4590: 4584: 4572: 4555: 4536: 4518: 4497: 4481: 4475: 4401: 4388: 4372: 4356: 4338: 4329: 4316: 4280: 4270: 4264: 4249: 4244: 4237: 4232: 4214: 4209: 4202: 4197: 4186: 4173: 4146: 4104: 4094: 4088: 4073: 4068: 4061: 4056: 4038: 4033: 4026: 4021: 4010: 3997: 3970: 3938: 3919: 3913: 3892: 3882: 3855: 3841: 3813: 3792: 3779: 3770: 3731: 3721: 3704: 3691: 3682: 3658: 3614: 3604: 3587: 3574: 3565: 3547: 3512: 3502: 3496: 3477: 3453: 3443: 3437: 3418: 3400: 3374: 3356: 3332: 3306: 3285: 3269: 3251: 3222: 3209: 3196: 3180: 3164: 3152: 3084: 3040: 3030: 3024: 3016: 3010: 2949: 2836: 2819: 2771: 2760: 2759: 2752: 2742: 2730: 2698: 2687: 2686: 2679: 2669: 2642: 2633: 2622: 2621: 2611: 2593: 2587: 2560: 2537: 2535: 2490: 2488: 2445: 2427: 2418: 2412: 2388: 2372: 2367: 2352: 2346: 2331: 2305: 2292: 2282: 2269: 2253: 2242: 2241: 2226: 2220: 2205: 2052: 2051: 2037: 2022: 1999: 1986: 1981: 1974: 1969: 1954: 1949: 1942: 1937: 1908: 1907: 1893: 1873: 1824: 1808: 1791: 1773: 1761: 1755: 1636: 1618: 1586: 1564: 1546: 1534: 1516: 1507: 1501: 1396: 1370: 1360: 1354: 1342: 1333: 1327: 1298: 1285: 1272: 1251: 1233: 1220: 1207: 1194: 1177: 1149: 1133: 1127: 948: 936: 930: 909: 899: 883: 878: 872: 867: 856: 846: 840: 828: 818: 805: 795: 782: 764: 675: 662: 649: 632: 613: 600: 587: 574: 557: 6804:, as well as components of four-vectors 8008:. (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. 7813: 5760:in the system center-of-mass frame and 1750:in the present metric convention) that 32: 6616:. At the same time, the four-momentum 5583:The energy and the three-momentum are 8023:Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. (2000). 7821:Taylor, Edwin; Wheeler, John (1992). 7536:is the velocity of matter particles; 746:quantity equal (up to factors of the 544:is the particle's three-velocity and 7: 7905: 7893: 5879:of the heavier particle is given by 5823:involves combining the four-momenta 478:classical three-dimensional momentum 1161:{\displaystyle p^{\mu }=mu^{\mu },} 27:4D relativistic energy and momentum 8046:Introduction to Special Relativity 7710:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{f}} 7507:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{p}} 7449: 7434: 7301: 7297: 7231: 7216: 6952: 6948: 5367: 5359: 5335: 5327: 5303: 5295: 5273: 5265: 5181: 5173: 5154: 5146: 5090: 5082: 4529: 4521: 4494: 4349: 4341: 2847: 2839: 2653: 2645: 2604: 2596: 2571: 2563: 2519:{\displaystyle {\frac {dS}{dt}}=L} 2438: 2430: 2363: 2355: 2237: 2229: 2048: 2040: 2010: 2002: 1904: 1896: 1784: 1776: 1629: 1621: 1597: 1589: 1557: 1549: 1527: 1519: 755:) to the square of the particle's 25: 7583:is determinant of metric tensor; 6473:Four-momentum in curved spacetime 6396:) canonical momentum four-vector 2922:in the above equation yields the 7776: 7739:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{n}} 7726: 7522: 7454: 7305: 7278: 7236: 7200: 7003: 6956: 6790: 6602: 6574:is expressed through the energy 6522: 5738: 5664: 5498: 5490: 5468: 5457: 5277: 5251: 5013: 5005: 4931: 4918: 3071:for a free particle. From this, 1825: 873: 415: 414: 401: 40: 5815:One practical application from 3079:The variation of the action is 2993: 2924:Hamilton–Jacobi equations 2528:fundamental theorem of calculus 1576: 488:; similarly four-momentum is a 476:) is the generalization of the 8025:The classical theory of fields 6467:relativistic quantum mechanics 6206:electromagnetic four-potential 5444: 5396: 5118:Hamilton–Jacobi equation 5073: 4509: 4503: 1073:for definiteness chosen to be 879: 868: 1: 6392:, the components of the (not 5745:{\displaystyle m\mathbf {v} } 5613:Conservation of four-momentum 2932:Hamilton's principal function 1118:multiplied by the particle's 742:of the four-momentum gives a 8073:. New York: W. A. Benjamin. 7529:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } 6797:{\displaystyle \mathbf {P} } 6609:{\displaystyle \mathbf {P} } 3075:glossing over these details, 7974:Goldstein, Herbert (1980). 7802:Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector 5819:of the conservation of the 2141:. In this case the path is 1856:. In the derivation of the 1658:it is immediate (recalling 149:Relativistic Doppler effect 87:Inertial frame of reference 8154: 8042:Rindler, Wolfgang (1991). 7882:Landau & Lifshitz 1975 7870:Landau & Lifshitz 1975 7858:Landau & Lifshitz 1975 7846:Landau & Lifshitz 2000 484:. Momentum is a vector in 482:four-dimensional spacetime 144:Relativity of simultaneity 8113:10.1080/14786441008636725 6858:can be calculated if the 5607:velocity addition formula 4903:is the now unfashionable 1455:principle of least action 1107:Relation to four-velocity 712:non-relativistic momentum 710:of above is the ordinary 7954:10.1088/1402-4896/ad3b45 6851:{\displaystyle K_{\mu }} 6824:{\displaystyle p_{\mu }} 6752:{\displaystyle K_{\mu }} 6725:{\displaystyle p_{\mu }} 6636:{\displaystyle P_{\mu }} 6567:{\displaystyle P_{\mu }} 5911:at high-energy particle 4965:energy–momentum relation 1168:where the four-velocity 164:Bell's spaceship paradox 18:Energy–momentum 4-vector 7918:Lewis & Tolman 1909 5788:each have (rest) mass 3 1470:generalized coordinates 728:Lorentz transformations 278:Galilean transformation 139:Mass–energy equivalence 52:Principle of relativity 7760: 7740: 7711: 7680: 7577: 7557: 7530: 7508: 7474: 7430: 7261: 7192: 6914: 6852: 6825: 6798: 6776: 6753: 6726: 6696: 6637: 6610: 6588: 6568: 6538: 6453: 6346: 6178: 5746: 5721: 5573: 5230: 5110: 5047: 4954: 4883: 4770: 4414: 4131: 3959: 3647: 3536: 3387: 3123: 3057: 2863: 2790: 2717: 2520: 2461: 2401: 2318: 2090: 1860:from the action using 1838: 1652: 1405: 1385: 1316: 1162: 1055: 919: 740:Minkowski norm squared 693: 102:Lorentz transformation 7761: 7741: 7712: 7681: 7578: 7558: 7556:{\displaystyle u^{0}} 7531: 7509: 7475: 7410: 7262: 7172: 6915: 6853: 6826: 6799: 6777: 6754: 6727: 6697: 6638: 6611: 6589: 6569: 6539: 6454: 6347: 6179: 5747: 5722: 5574: 5231: 5111: 5048: 4955: 4884: 4771: 4415: 4132: 3960: 3648: 3537: 3388: 3137:, observe first that 3124: 3058: 2864: 2814:in the present case, 2791: 2718: 2521: 2462: 2402: 2319: 2091: 1839: 1653: 1406: 1386: 1317: 1163: 1056: 920: 694: 82:Einstein's postulates 8065:Sard, R. D. (1970). 7750: 7721: 7690: 7587: 7567: 7540: 7518: 7487: 7274: 6927: 6866: 6835: 6808: 6786: 6766: 6736: 6709: 6650: 6620: 6598: 6578: 6551: 6484: 6404: 6212: 5943: 5731: 5660: 5585:separately conserved 5243: 5127: 5060: 4974: 4914: 4793: 4474: 4145: 3969: 3657: 3546: 3399: 3151: 3083: 3067:is the relativistic 2948: 2871:Incidentally, using 2818: 2729: 2534: 2487: 2411: 2330: 2204: 2125:Lagrange's equations 1872: 1862:Hamilton's principle 1754: 1500: 1459:Lagrangian framework 1395: 1326: 1176: 1126: 929: 763: 714:of the particle and 556: 57:Theory of relativity 7976:Classical mechanics 7946:2024PhyS...99e5034F 5596:Newton's second law 4256: 4221: 4080: 4045: 2926:. In this context, 1993: 1961: 1858:equations of motion 504:and three-momentum 273:Galilean relativity 193:Minkowski spacetime 97:Maxwell's equations 8118:Wikisource version 7921:Wikisource version 7756: 7736: 7707: 7676: 7573: 7553: 7526: 7504: 7470: 7257: 6910: 6848: 6821: 6794: 6772: 6749: 6722: 6692: 6633: 6606: 6584: 6564: 6534: 6449: 6342: 6174: 5742: 5717: 5569: 5567: 5226: 5106: 5043: 4950: 4879: 4766: 4410: 4228: 4157: 4127: 4052: 3981: 3955: 3643: 3532: 3383: 3119: 3053: 2859: 2804:, leads to, since 2786: 2747: 2713: 2674: 2592: 2516: 2457: 2397: 2351: 2314: 2287: 2225: 2086: 1965: 1884: 1834: 1648: 1443:and simply define 1401: 1381: 1312: 1158: 1067:special relativity 1051: 1045: 915: 689: 462:special relativity 408:Physics portal 129:Length contraction 34:Special relativity 8057:978-0-19-853952-0 7832:978-0-7167-2327-1 7759:{\displaystyle n} 7635: 7576:{\displaystyle g} 7465: 7366: 7342: 7310: 7247: 7128: 7025: 6993: 6961: 6775:{\displaystyle E} 6587:{\displaystyle E} 6513: 6296: 6133: 6118: 6091: 6076: 6058: 6041: 5932:four-acceleration 5927:–antimuon pairs. 5873:, while the mass 5592:Lorentz force law 5560: 5559: 5557: 5383: 5379: 5351: 5347: 5319: 5315: 5282: 5195: 5168: 5104: 4999: 4945: 4905:relativistic mass 4851: 4850: 4848: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4707: 4706: 4704: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4543: 4363: 4295: 4119: 3932: 3868: 3807: 3746: 3719: 3632: 3602: 3527: 3468: 3048: 3046: 2854: 2768: 2738: 2695: 2665: 2660: 2630: 2618: 2583: 2578: 2555: 2508: 2452: 2379: 2342: 2278: 2260: 2250: 2216: 2064: 2060: 2035: 2017: 1920: 1916: 1816: 1798: 1643: 1604: 1571: 1541: 1484:canonical momenta 1404:{\displaystyle v} 1379: 1378: 1376: 862: 744:Lorentz invariant 724:Lorentz covariant 640: 458: 457: 198:Spacetime diagram 169:Ehrenfest paradox 159:Relativistic disk 154:Thomas precession 134:Relativistic mass 16:(Redirected from 8145: 8116: 8107:(106): 510–523. 8084: 8072: 8061: 8049: 8038: 8019: 8015:978-0-7506-28969 7989: 7966: 7965: 7929: 7923: 7915: 7909: 7903: 7897: 7891: 7885: 7884:, pp. 15–16 7879: 7873: 7867: 7861: 7855: 7849: 7848:, pp. 25–29 7843: 7837: 7836: 7818: 7786: 7781: 7780: 7765: 7763: 7762: 7757: 7745: 7743: 7742: 7737: 7735: 7734: 7729: 7716: 7714: 7713: 7708: 7706: 7705: 7700: 7699: 7685: 7683: 7682: 7677: 7675: 7674: 7662: 7661: 7649: 7648: 7636: 7628: 7626: 7625: 7620: 7619: 7612: 7611: 7599: 7598: 7582: 7580: 7579: 7574: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7552: 7551: 7535: 7533: 7532: 7527: 7525: 7513: 7511: 7510: 7505: 7503: 7502: 7497: 7496: 7479: 7477: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7464: 7463: 7462: 7457: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7432: 7429: 7424: 7406: 7405: 7393: 7392: 7380: 7379: 7367: 7359: 7357: 7356: 7347: 7343: 7341: 7340: 7331: 7330: 7325: 7324: 7317: 7311: 7309: 7308: 7296: 7294: 7293: 7281: 7266: 7264: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7249: 7248: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7239: 7229: 7228: 7227: 7214: 7209: 7208: 7203: 7191: 7186: 7168: 7167: 7155: 7154: 7142: 7141: 7129: 7121: 7119: 7115: 7114: 7113: 7108: 7107: 7097: 7096: 7091: 7090: 7078: 7077: 7065: 7064: 7052: 7051: 7039: 7038: 7026: 7018: 7016: 7015: 7006: 6998: 6994: 6992: 6991: 6982: 6981: 6976: 6975: 6968: 6962: 6960: 6959: 6947: 6945: 6944: 6919: 6917: 6916: 6911: 6909: 6908: 6903: 6902: 6892: 6891: 6886: 6885: 6875: 6874: 6857: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6847: 6846: 6830: 6828: 6827: 6822: 6820: 6819: 6803: 6801: 6800: 6795: 6793: 6781: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6758: 6756: 6755: 6750: 6748: 6747: 6731: 6729: 6728: 6723: 6721: 6720: 6701: 6699: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6687: 6675: 6674: 6662: 6661: 6642: 6640: 6639: 6634: 6632: 6631: 6615: 6613: 6612: 6607: 6605: 6593: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6563: 6562: 6543: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6526: 6525: 6514: 6506: 6496: 6495: 6458: 6456: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6444: 6429: 6428: 6416: 6415: 6399: 6390:vector potential 6387: 6358:scalar potential 6355: 6351: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6341: 6337: 6336: 6335: 6323: 6322: 6310: 6309: 6297: 6289: 6279: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6261: 6260: 6248: 6247: 6235: 6234: 6203: 6193:charged particle 6183: 6181: 6180: 6175: 6167: 6163: 6162: 6161: 6152: 6151: 6134: 6132: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6106: 6092: 6090: 6079: 6077: 6075: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6053: 6044: 6042: 6040: 6029: 6027: 6026: 6017: 6016: 6001: 6000: 5991: 5990: 5981: 5980: 5965: 5964: 5955: 5954: 5938: 5906: 5902: 5878: 5872: 5849: 5840: 5831: 5817:particle physics 5807: 5799: 5791: 5787: 5775: 5762:potential energy 5751: 5749: 5748: 5743: 5741: 5726: 5724: 5723: 5718: 5716: 5712: 5711: 5710: 5698: 5697: 5685: 5684: 5667: 5646: 5627: 5578: 5576: 5575: 5570: 5568: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5555: 5546: 5545: 5536: 5528: 5527: 5526: 5525: 5512: 5501: 5493: 5471: 5460: 5443: 5442: 5427: 5426: 5411: 5410: 5389: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5381: 5380: 5372: 5365: 5357: 5352: 5350: 5349: 5348: 5340: 5333: 5325: 5320: 5318: 5317: 5316: 5308: 5301: 5293: 5283: 5281: 5280: 5271: 5263: 5254: 5235: 5233: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5221: 5212: 5211: 5196: 5194: 5193: 5192: 5179: 5171: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5152: 5144: 5142: 5141: 5115: 5113: 5112: 5107: 5105: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5088: 5080: 5072: 5071: 5052: 5050: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5038: 5029: 5028: 5016: 5008: 5000: 4998: 4997: 4988: 4987: 4978: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4944: 4943: 4934: 4929: 4921: 4902: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4874: 4865: 4864: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4846: 4837: 4836: 4827: 4819: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4803: 4785: 4775: 4773: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4742: 4741: 4732: 4724: 4723: 4722: 4713: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4702: 4693: 4692: 4683: 4675: 4674: 4673: 4664: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4653: 4644: 4643: 4634: 4626: 4625: 4624: 4615: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4604: 4595: 4594: 4585: 4577: 4573: 4560: 4559: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4540: 4527: 4519: 4502: 4501: 4486: 4485: 4469: 4449: 4432: 4419: 4417: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4405: 4393: 4392: 4377: 4376: 4364: 4362: 4361: 4360: 4347: 4339: 4334: 4333: 4321: 4320: 4296: 4294: 4286: 4285: 4284: 4271: 4269: 4268: 4255: 4254: 4253: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4220: 4219: 4218: 4208: 4207: 4206: 4196: 4192: 4191: 4190: 4178: 4177: 4136: 4134: 4133: 4128: 4120: 4118: 4110: 4109: 4108: 4095: 4093: 4092: 4079: 4078: 4077: 4067: 4066: 4065: 4044: 4043: 4042: 4032: 4031: 4030: 4020: 4016: 4015: 4014: 4002: 4001: 3964: 3962: 3961: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3942: 3933: 3931: 3920: 3918: 3917: 3902: 3898: 3897: 3896: 3887: 3886: 3869: 3867: 3856: 3849: 3848: 3818: 3817: 3808: 3806: 3798: 3797: 3796: 3780: 3778: 3777: 3747: 3745: 3737: 3736: 3735: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3710: 3709: 3708: 3692: 3690: 3689: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3644: 3633: 3631: 3620: 3619: 3618: 3605: 3603: 3601: 3593: 3592: 3591: 3575: 3573: 3572: 3541: 3539: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3526: 3518: 3517: 3516: 3503: 3501: 3500: 3485: 3484: 3469: 3467: 3459: 3458: 3457: 3444: 3442: 3441: 3426: 3425: 3392: 3390: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3378: 3366: 3362: 3361: 3360: 3340: 3339: 3321: 3317: 3316: 3312: 3311: 3310: 3290: 3289: 3274: 3273: 3261: 3257: 3256: 3255: 3230: 3229: 3214: 3213: 3201: 3200: 3188: 3187: 3169: 3168: 3146: 3136: 3128: 3126: 3125: 3120: 3066: 3062: 3060: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3044: 3035: 3034: 3025: 3017: 3015: 3014: 2943: 2929: 2921: 2920: 2918: 2917: 2911: 2908: 2893: 2868: 2866: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2853: 2845: 2837: 2813: 2799: 2795: 2793: 2792: 2787: 2776: 2775: 2770: 2769: 2761: 2757: 2756: 2746: 2722: 2720: 2719: 2714: 2703: 2702: 2697: 2696: 2688: 2684: 2683: 2673: 2661: 2659: 2651: 2643: 2638: 2637: 2632: 2631: 2623: 2619: 2617: 2616: 2615: 2602: 2594: 2591: 2579: 2577: 2569: 2561: 2556: 2554: 2546: 2538: 2525: 2523: 2522: 2517: 2509: 2507: 2499: 2491: 2481: 2466: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2451: 2450: 2449: 2436: 2428: 2423: 2422: 2406: 2404: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2392: 2380: 2378: 2377: 2376: 2371: 2361: 2353: 2350: 2323: 2321: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2309: 2297: 2296: 2286: 2274: 2273: 2261: 2259: 2258: 2257: 2252: 2251: 2243: 2235: 2227: 2224: 2199: 2182: 2167: 2158: 2140: 2122: 2095: 2093: 2092: 2087: 2070: 2066: 2065: 2063: 2062: 2061: 2053: 2046: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2023: 2018: 2016: 2008: 2000: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1980: 1979: 1978: 1960: 1959: 1958: 1948: 1947: 1946: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1921: 1919: 1918: 1917: 1909: 1902: 1894: 1855: 1843: 1841: 1840: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1828: 1817: 1809: 1799: 1797: 1796: 1795: 1782: 1774: 1766: 1765: 1749: 1736: 1723: 1710: 1697: 1687: 1677: 1667: 1657: 1655: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1627: 1619: 1605: 1603: 1595: 1587: 1572: 1570: 1569: 1568: 1555: 1547: 1542: 1540: 1539: 1538: 1525: 1517: 1512: 1511: 1495: 1481: 1467: 1452: 1442: 1416: 1410: 1408: 1407: 1402: 1390: 1388: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1374: 1365: 1364: 1355: 1347: 1343: 1338: 1337: 1321: 1319: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1290: 1289: 1277: 1276: 1256: 1255: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1225: 1224: 1212: 1211: 1199: 1198: 1171: 1167: 1165: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1153: 1138: 1137: 1117: 1102: 1092: 1088: 1076: 1071:metric signature 1060: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1050: 1049: 944: 943: 924: 922: 921: 916: 914: 913: 904: 903: 888: 887: 882: 876: 871: 863: 861: 860: 851: 850: 841: 833: 832: 823: 822: 810: 809: 800: 799: 790: 789: 754: 738:Calculating the 717: 709: 698: 696: 695: 690: 685: 681: 680: 679: 667: 666: 654: 653: 641: 633: 623: 619: 618: 617: 605: 604: 592: 591: 579: 578: 547: 543: 537: 503: 486:three dimensions 450: 443: 436: 423: 418: 417: 410: 406: 405: 298: 225: 186: 117: 75: 44: 30: 21: 8153: 8152: 8148: 8147: 8146: 8144: 8143: 8142: 8123: 8122: 8087: 8081: 8064: 8058: 8041: 8035: 8022: 8016: 7998:Lifshitz, E. M. 7992: 7986: 7973: 7970: 7969: 7934:Physica Scripta 7931: 7930: 7926: 7916: 7912: 7904: 7900: 7892: 7888: 7880: 7876: 7868: 7864: 7856: 7852: 7844: 7840: 7833: 7820: 7819: 7815: 7810: 7782: 7775: 7772: 7748: 7747: 7724: 7719: 7718: 7693: 7688: 7687: 7666: 7653: 7640: 7613: 7603: 7590: 7585: 7584: 7565: 7564: 7543: 7538: 7537: 7516: 7515: 7490: 7485: 7484: 7452: 7448: 7437: 7433: 7397: 7384: 7371: 7348: 7332: 7318: 7312: 7300: 7285: 7272: 7271: 7234: 7230: 7219: 7215: 7198: 7197: 7193: 7159: 7146: 7133: 7101: 7084: 7083: 7079: 7069: 7056: 7043: 7030: 7007: 6983: 6969: 6963: 6951: 6936: 6925: 6924: 6896: 6879: 6864: 6863: 6838: 6833: 6832: 6811: 6806: 6805: 6784: 6783: 6764: 6763: 6739: 6734: 6733: 6712: 6707: 6706: 6679: 6666: 6653: 6648: 6647: 6623: 6618: 6617: 6596: 6595: 6576: 6575: 6554: 6549: 6548: 6504: 6500: 6487: 6482: 6481: 6475: 6436: 6420: 6407: 6402: 6401: 6397: 6394:gauge-invariant 6385: 6378: 6371: 6361: 6353: 6327: 6314: 6301: 6287: 6283: 6265: 6252: 6239: 6226: 6225: 6221: 6210: 6209: 6199: 6189: 6153: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6125: 6110: 6083: 6068: 6045: 6033: 6018: 6005: 5992: 5982: 5969: 5956: 5946: 5941: 5940: 5934: 5904: 5894: 5887: 5880: 5874: 5871: 5864: 5857: 5851: 5848: 5842: 5839: 5833: 5830: 5824: 5805: 5797: 5789: 5777: 5765: 5729: 5728: 5702: 5689: 5676: 5675: 5671: 5658: 5657: 5635: 5625: 5615: 5600:electric charge 5566: 5565: 5547: 5537: 5517: 5513: 5482: 5476: 5475: 5434: 5418: 5402: 5366: 5358: 5334: 5326: 5302: 5294: 5291: 5287: 5272: 5264: 5255: 5241: 5240: 5237: 5213: 5203: 5184: 5180: 5172: 5157: 5153: 5145: 5130: 5125: 5124: 5093: 5089: 5081: 5063: 5058: 5057: 5054: 5030: 5020: 4989: 4979: 4972: 4971: 4961: 4935: 4912: 4911: 4901: 4893: 4890: 4866: 4856: 4838: 4828: 4808: 4804: 4791: 4790: 4777: 4743: 4733: 4714: 4694: 4684: 4665: 4645: 4635: 4616: 4596: 4586: 4571: 4567: 4551: 4532: 4528: 4520: 4493: 4477: 4472: 4471: 4464: 4463: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4434: 4423: 4397: 4384: 4368: 4352: 4348: 4340: 4325: 4312: 4287: 4276: 4272: 4260: 4245: 4233: 4210: 4198: 4182: 4169: 4162: 4158: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4139: 4138: 4111: 4100: 4096: 4084: 4069: 4057: 4034: 4022: 4006: 3993: 3986: 3982: 3967: 3966: 3934: 3924: 3909: 3888: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3854: 3850: 3837: 3809: 3799: 3788: 3781: 3766: 3738: 3727: 3723: 3711: 3700: 3693: 3678: 3655: 3654: 3621: 3610: 3606: 3594: 3583: 3576: 3561: 3544: 3543: 3519: 3508: 3504: 3492: 3473: 3460: 3449: 3445: 3433: 3414: 3397: 3396: 3370: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3328: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3281: 3265: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3218: 3205: 3192: 3176: 3160: 3149: 3148: 3138: 3132: 3081: 3080: 3076: 3064: 3036: 3026: 3006: 2946: 2945: 2941: 2938: 2937: 2936: 2927: 2912: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2900: 2895: 2872: 2846: 2838: 2816: 2815: 2805: 2797: 2758: 2748: 2727: 2726: 2685: 2675: 2652: 2644: 2620: 2607: 2603: 2595: 2570: 2562: 2547: 2539: 2532: 2531: 2500: 2492: 2485: 2484: 2476: 2470: 2441: 2437: 2429: 2414: 2409: 2408: 2384: 2366: 2362: 2354: 2328: 2327: 2326:Observing that 2301: 2288: 2265: 2240: 2236: 2228: 2202: 2201: 2194: 2184: 2183:, and defining 2169: 2166: 2160: 2156: 2146: 2138: 2128: 2120: 2109: 2099: 2047: 2039: 2027: 2009: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1982: 1970: 1950: 1938: 1903: 1895: 1892: 1888: 1885: 1870: 1869: 1868:of the action, 1853: 1849: 1807: 1803: 1787: 1783: 1775: 1757: 1752: 1751: 1744: 1738: 1731: 1725: 1718: 1712: 1705: 1699: 1689: 1679: 1669: 1659: 1632: 1628: 1620: 1596: 1588: 1560: 1556: 1548: 1530: 1526: 1518: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1486: 1480: 1472: 1465: 1444: 1430: 1427: 1412: 1393: 1392: 1366: 1356: 1329: 1324: 1323: 1294: 1281: 1268: 1261: 1257: 1247: 1229: 1216: 1203: 1190: 1189: 1185: 1174: 1173: 1169: 1145: 1129: 1124: 1123: 1115: 1109: 1094: 1093:, the quantity 1090: 1086: 1074: 1044: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1022: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1000: 999: 994: 989: 984: 978: 977: 972: 967: 962: 949: 932: 927: 926: 905: 895: 877: 852: 842: 824: 814: 801: 791: 778: 761: 760: 750: 736: 715: 702: 671: 658: 645: 631: 627: 609: 596: 583: 570: 569: 565: 554: 553: 545: 539: 529: 522: 515: 505: 501: 470:momentum–energy 454: 413: 400: 399: 392: 391: 390: 300: 299: 296: 288: 287: 283:Aether theories 268: 267: 266: 247: 246: 227: 226: 221: 213: 212: 188: 187: 182: 174: 173: 119: 118: 115: 107: 106: 77: 76: 73: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8151: 8149: 8141: 8140: 8135: 8125: 8124: 8121: 8120: 8085: 8080:978-0805384918 8079: 8062: 8056: 8039: 8033: 8020: 8014: 7990: 7985:978-0201029185 7984: 7968: 7967: 7924: 7910: 7898: 7886: 7874: 7862: 7860:, pp. 139 7850: 7838: 7831: 7812: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7805: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7788: 7787: 7784:Physics portal 7771: 7768: 7755: 7733: 7728: 7704: 7698: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7660: 7656: 7652: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7634: 7631: 7624: 7618: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7597: 7593: 7572: 7550: 7546: 7524: 7501: 7495: 7481: 7480: 7469: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7428: 7423: 7420: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7404: 7400: 7396: 7391: 7387: 7383: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7365: 7362: 7355: 7351: 7346: 7339: 7335: 7329: 7323: 7315: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7268: 7267: 7256: 7252: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7196: 7190: 7185: 7182: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7153: 7149: 7145: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7127: 7124: 7118: 7112: 7106: 7100: 7095: 7089: 7082: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7037: 7033: 7029: 7024: 7021: 7014: 7010: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6990: 6986: 6980: 6974: 6966: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6932: 6907: 6901: 6895: 6890: 6884: 6878: 6873: 6845: 6841: 6818: 6814: 6792: 6771: 6746: 6742: 6719: 6715: 6703: 6702: 6691: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6660: 6656: 6630: 6626: 6604: 6583: 6561: 6557: 6547:Four-momentum 6545: 6544: 6533: 6529: 6524: 6520: 6517: 6512: 6509: 6503: 6499: 6494: 6490: 6474: 6471: 6448: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6432: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6414: 6410: 6383: 6376: 6369: 6340: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6295: 6292: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6224: 6220: 6217: 6188: 6185: 6173: 6170: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6131: 6128: 6124: 6116: 6113: 6109: 6104: 6101: 6098: 6095: 6089: 6086: 6082: 6074: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6048: 6039: 6036: 6032: 6025: 6021: 6015: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5999: 5995: 5989: 5985: 5979: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5963: 5959: 5953: 5949: 5892: 5885: 5869: 5862: 5855: 5846: 5837: 5828: 5821:invariant mass 5758:kinetic energy 5754: 5753: 5740: 5736: 5715: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5648: 5629: 5614: 5611: 5564: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5540: 5534: 5531: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5507: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5477: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5452: 5449: 5446: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5430: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5414: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5398: 5395: 5392: 5388: 5378: 5375: 5369: 5364: 5361: 5355: 5346: 5343: 5337: 5332: 5329: 5323: 5314: 5311: 5305: 5300: 5297: 5290: 5286: 5279: 5275: 5270: 5267: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5249: 5248: 5225: 5220: 5216: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5199: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5178: 5175: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5151: 5148: 5140: 5137: 5133: 5122: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5087: 5084: 5078: 5075: 5070: 5066: 5042: 5037: 5033: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4996: 4992: 4986: 4982: 4969: 4949: 4942: 4938: 4933: 4927: 4924: 4920: 4909: 4897: 4878: 4873: 4869: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4845: 4841: 4835: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4798: 4788: 4765: 4761: 4750: 4746: 4740: 4736: 4730: 4727: 4721: 4717: 4711: 4701: 4697: 4691: 4687: 4681: 4678: 4672: 4668: 4662: 4652: 4648: 4642: 4638: 4632: 4629: 4623: 4619: 4613: 4603: 4599: 4593: 4589: 4583: 4580: 4576: 4570: 4566: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4526: 4523: 4517: 4514: 4511: 4508: 4505: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4489: 4484: 4480: 4461: 4457: 4444: 4440: 4409: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4380: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4346: 4343: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4308: 4305: 4302: 4299: 4293: 4290: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4248: 4240: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4224: 4217: 4213: 4205: 4201: 4195: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4156: 4153: 4150: 4126: 4123: 4117: 4114: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4076: 4072: 4064: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4048: 4041: 4037: 4029: 4025: 4019: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3989: 3985: 3980: 3977: 3974: 3965:which is just 3954: 3951: 3947: 3941: 3937: 3930: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3866: 3863: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3833: 3830: 3827: 3824: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3805: 3802: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3784: 3776: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3762: 3759: 3756: 3753: 3750: 3744: 3741: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3717: 3714: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3696: 3688: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3674: 3671: 3668: 3665: 3662: 3642: 3639: 3636: 3630: 3627: 3624: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3600: 3597: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3579: 3571: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3557: 3554: 3551: 3531: 3525: 3522: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3483: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3466: 3463: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3429: 3424: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3410: 3407: 3404: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3277: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3228: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3186: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3172: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3156: 3118: 3115: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3077: 3074: 3073: 3052: 3043: 3039: 3033: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3002: 2999: 2996: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2858: 2852: 2849: 2844: 2841: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2826: 2823: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2774: 2767: 2764: 2755: 2751: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2701: 2694: 2691: 2682: 2678: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2658: 2655: 2650: 2647: 2641: 2636: 2629: 2626: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2598: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2576: 2573: 2568: 2565: 2559: 2553: 2550: 2545: 2542: 2515: 2512: 2506: 2503: 2498: 2495: 2474: 2456: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2432: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2407:one concludes 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2357: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2256: 2249: 2246: 2239: 2234: 2231: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2192: 2164: 2154: 2136: 2118: 2107: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2069: 2059: 2056: 2050: 2045: 2042: 2033: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2015: 2012: 2007: 2004: 1997: 1989: 1985: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1964: 1957: 1953: 1945: 1941: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1924: 1915: 1912: 1906: 1901: 1898: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1850: 1847: 1846: 1832: 1827: 1823: 1820: 1815: 1812: 1806: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1778: 1772: 1769: 1764: 1760: 1742: 1729: 1716: 1703: 1647: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1623: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1602: 1599: 1594: 1591: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1575: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1554: 1551: 1545: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1524: 1521: 1515: 1510: 1506: 1490: 1476: 1426: 1423: 1419:speed of light 1400: 1373: 1369: 1363: 1359: 1353: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1332: 1311: 1307: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1260: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1157: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1141: 1136: 1132: 1113:invariant mass 1108: 1105: 1103:is invariant. 1048: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1001: 998: 995: 993: 990: 988: 985: 983: 980: 979: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 961: 958: 955: 954: 952: 947: 942: 939: 935: 912: 908: 902: 898: 894: 891: 886: 881: 875: 870: 866: 859: 855: 849: 845: 839: 836: 831: 827: 821: 817: 813: 808: 804: 798: 794: 788: 785: 781: 777: 774: 771: 768: 748:speed of light 735: 734:Minkowski norm 732: 688: 684: 678: 674: 670: 665: 661: 657: 652: 648: 644: 639: 636: 630: 626: 622: 616: 612: 608: 603: 599: 595: 590: 586: 582: 577: 573: 568: 564: 561: 550:Lorentz factor 527: 520: 513: 456: 455: 453: 452: 445: 438: 430: 427: 426: 425: 424: 411: 394: 393: 389: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 302: 301: 295: 294: 293: 290: 289: 286: 285: 280: 275: 269: 265: 264: 261: 255: 254: 253: 252: 249: 248: 245: 244: 239: 234: 228: 220: 219: 218: 215: 214: 211: 210: 205: 200: 195: 189: 181: 180: 179: 176: 175: 172: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 120: 114: 113: 112: 109: 108: 105: 104: 99: 94: 92:Speed of light 89: 84: 78: 72: 71: 70: 67: 66: 65: 64: 59: 54: 46: 45: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8150: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8130: 8128: 8119: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8094: 8093:Tolman, R. C. 8090: 8086: 8082: 8076: 8071: 8070: 8063: 8059: 8053: 8048: 8047: 8040: 8036: 8034:9780750627689 8030: 8026: 8021: 8017: 8011: 8007: 8003: 7999: 7995: 7994:Landau, L. D. 7991: 7987: 7981: 7977: 7972: 7971: 7963: 7959: 7955: 7951: 7947: 7943: 7940:(5): 055034. 7939: 7935: 7928: 7925: 7922: 7919: 7914: 7911: 7908:, Section 3.2 7907: 7902: 7899: 7896:, Section 3.1 7895: 7890: 7887: 7883: 7878: 7875: 7871: 7866: 7863: 7859: 7854: 7851: 7847: 7842: 7839: 7834: 7828: 7824: 7817: 7814: 7807: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7797:Four-gradient 7795: 7793: 7790: 7789: 7785: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7767: 7753: 7731: 7702: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7632: 7629: 7622: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7595: 7591: 7570: 7548: 7544: 7499: 7467: 7459: 7442: 7438: 7426: 7421: 7418: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7402: 7398: 7394: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7363: 7360: 7353: 7349: 7344: 7337: 7333: 7327: 7313: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7270: 7269: 7254: 7250: 7241: 7224: 7220: 7210: 7205: 7194: 7188: 7183: 7180: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7164: 7160: 7156: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7125: 7122: 7116: 7110: 7098: 7093: 7080: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7022: 7019: 7012: 7008: 6999: 6995: 6988: 6984: 6978: 6964: 6941: 6937: 6933: 6930: 6923: 6922: 6921: 6905: 6893: 6888: 6876: 6861: 6843: 6839: 6816: 6812: 6782:and momentum 6769: 6760: 6744: 6740: 6717: 6713: 6689: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6671: 6667: 6663: 6658: 6654: 6646: 6645: 6644: 6628: 6624: 6581: 6559: 6555: 6531: 6527: 6518: 6515: 6510: 6507: 6501: 6497: 6492: 6488: 6480: 6479: 6478: 6472: 6470: 6468: 6464: 6463:Lorentz force 6459: 6446: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6430: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6412: 6408: 6395: 6391: 6382: 6375: 6368: 6364: 6359: 6338: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6290: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6231: 6227: 6222: 6218: 6215: 6207: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6186: 6184: 6171: 6168: 6164: 6158: 6154: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6129: 6126: 6122: 6114: 6111: 6107: 6102: 6099: 6096: 6093: 6087: 6084: 6080: 6072: 6069: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6046: 6037: 6034: 6030: 6023: 6019: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5997: 5993: 5987: 5983: 5977: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5961: 5957: 5951: 5947: 5937: 5933: 5928: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5901: 5898: 5891: 5884: 5877: 5868: 5861: 5854: 5845: 5836: 5827: 5822: 5818: 5813: 5811: 5803: 5795: 5785: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5763: 5759: 5734: 5713: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5681: 5677: 5672: 5668: 5656: 5653: 5649: 5647:is conserved. 5645: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5624: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5603: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5588: 5586: 5581: 5562: 5552: 5548: 5542: 5538: 5532: 5529: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5508: 5505: 5502: 5494: 5486: 5484: 5479: 5472: 5464: 5461: 5453: 5450: 5447: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5428: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5393: 5390: 5386: 5376: 5373: 5362: 5353: 5344: 5341: 5330: 5321: 5312: 5309: 5298: 5288: 5284: 5268: 5259: 5257: 5236: 5223: 5218: 5214: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5197: 5189: 5185: 5176: 5162: 5158: 5149: 5138: 5135: 5131: 5121: 5119: 5098: 5094: 5085: 5076: 5068: 5064: 5056:Substituting 5053: 5040: 5035: 5031: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5009: 5001: 4994: 4990: 4984: 4980: 4968: 4966: 4960: 4947: 4940: 4936: 4925: 4922: 4908: 4906: 4900: 4896: 4889: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4843: 4839: 4833: 4829: 4823: 4820: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4799: 4796: 4787: 4784: 4781: 4763: 4759: 4748: 4744: 4738: 4734: 4728: 4725: 4719: 4715: 4709: 4699: 4695: 4689: 4685: 4679: 4676: 4670: 4666: 4660: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4636: 4630: 4627: 4621: 4617: 4611: 4601: 4597: 4591: 4587: 4581: 4578: 4574: 4568: 4564: 4561: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4545: 4537: 4533: 4524: 4515: 4512: 4506: 4498: 4490: 4487: 4482: 4478: 4468: 4460: 4455: 4443: 4438: 4430: 4426: 4420: 4407: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4344: 4335: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4306: 4303: 4300: 4297: 4291: 4288: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4250: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4222: 4215: 4211: 4203: 4199: 4193: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4151: 4148: 4137: 4124: 4121: 4115: 4112: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4053: 4049: 4046: 4039: 4035: 4027: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3987: 3983: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3952: 3949: 3945: 3939: 3935: 3928: 3925: 3921: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3903: 3899: 3893: 3889: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3861: 3857: 3851: 3845: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3831: 3828: 3825: 3822: 3819: 3814: 3810: 3803: 3800: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3782: 3774: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3760: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3748: 3742: 3739: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3715: 3712: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3694: 3686: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3663: 3660: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3628: 3625: 3622: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3598: 3595: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3577: 3569: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3555: 3552: 3549: 3529: 3523: 3520: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3486: 3481: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3464: 3461: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3427: 3422: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3393: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3226: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3170: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3154: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3131:To calculate 3129: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3104: 3101: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3086: 3072: 3070: 3050: 3041: 3037: 3031: 3027: 3021: 3018: 3011: 3007: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2990: 2987: 2984: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2935: 2933: 2925: 2916: 2907: 2898: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2869: 2856: 2850: 2842: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2772: 2765: 2762: 2753: 2749: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2732: 2723: 2710: 2707: 2704: 2699: 2692: 2689: 2680: 2676: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2656: 2648: 2639: 2634: 2627: 2624: 2612: 2608: 2599: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2574: 2566: 2557: 2551: 2548: 2543: 2540: 2529: 2513: 2510: 2504: 2501: 2496: 2493: 2480: 2473: 2467: 2454: 2446: 2442: 2433: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2394: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2373: 2368: 2358: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2324: 2311: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2293: 2289: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2254: 2247: 2244: 2232: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2210: 2207: 2198: 2191: 2187: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2163: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2123:, from which 2117: 2113: 2106: 2102: 2096: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2067: 2057: 2054: 2043: 2031: 2028: 2024: 2019: 2013: 2005: 1995: 1987: 1983: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1962: 1955: 1951: 1943: 1939: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1922: 1913: 1910: 1899: 1889: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1845: 1830: 1821: 1818: 1813: 1810: 1804: 1800: 1792: 1788: 1779: 1770: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1748: 1741: 1735: 1728: 1722: 1715: 1709: 1702: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1682: 1676: 1672: 1666: 1662: 1645: 1637: 1633: 1624: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1600: 1592: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1573: 1565: 1561: 1552: 1543: 1535: 1531: 1522: 1513: 1508: 1504: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1451: 1447: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1415: 1398: 1371: 1367: 1361: 1357: 1351: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1330: 1309: 1305: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1262: 1258: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1182: 1179: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1121: 1120:four-velocity 1114: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1097: 1083: 1080: 1075:(–1, 1, 1, 1) 1072: 1068: 1064: 1063:metric tensor 1046: 1040: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 996: 991: 986: 981: 974: 969: 964: 959: 956: 950: 945: 940: 937: 933: 910: 906: 900: 896: 892: 889: 884: 864: 857: 853: 847: 843: 837: 834: 829: 825: 819: 815: 811: 806: 802: 796: 792: 786: 783: 779: 775: 772: 769: 766: 758: 753: 749: 745: 741: 733: 731: 729: 725: 721: 713: 708: 705: 701:The quantity 699: 686: 682: 676: 672: 668: 663: 659: 655: 650: 646: 642: 637: 634: 628: 624: 620: 614: 610: 606: 601: 597: 593: 588: 584: 580: 575: 571: 566: 562: 559: 551: 542: 536: 533: 526: 519: 512: 508: 499: 498:contravariant 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 468:(also called 467: 466:four-momentum 463: 451: 446: 444: 439: 437: 432: 431: 429: 428: 422: 412: 409: 404: 398: 397: 396: 395: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 303: 292: 291: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 270: 262: 260: 257: 256: 251: 250: 243: 242:Four-momentum 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 229: 224: 217: 216: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 190: 185: 178: 177: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 124:Time dilation 122: 121: 111: 110: 103: 100: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 79: 69: 68: 63: 60: 58: 55: 53: 50: 49: 48: 47: 43: 39: 38: 35: 31: 19: 8133:Four-vectors 8104: 8100: 8089:Lewis, G. N. 8068: 8045: 8024: 8001: 7975: 7937: 7933: 7927: 7913: 7901: 7889: 7877: 7872:, p. 30 7865: 7853: 7841: 7822: 7816: 7482: 6761: 6705:Four-vector 6704: 6546: 6476: 6460: 6380: 6373: 6366: 6362: 6200: 6190: 5935: 5929: 5899: 5896: 5889: 5882: 5875: 5866: 5859: 5852: 5843: 5834: 5825: 5814: 5809: 5801: 5793: 5783: 5779: 5771: 5767: 5755: 5643: 5640: 5636: 5616: 5604: 5589: 5584: 5582: 5238: 5123: 5055: 4970: 4962: 4910: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4789: 4782: 4779: 4466: 4458: 4453: 4441: 4436: 4428: 4424: 4421: 4141: 3394: 3143: 3139: 3133: 3130: 3078: 2944:is given by 2939: 2914: 2905: 2896: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2870: 2810: 2806: 2724: 2478: 2471: 2468: 2325: 2196: 2189: 2185: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2161: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2133: 2129: 2115: 2111: 2104: 2100: 2097: 1851: 1848:Observations 1746: 1739: 1733: 1726: 1720: 1713: 1707: 1700: 1694: 1690: 1684: 1680: 1674: 1670: 1664: 1660: 1491: 1487: 1477: 1473: 1457:and use the 1449: 1445: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1428: 1413: 1110: 1099: 1095: 1084: 751: 737: 706: 703: 700: 540: 534: 531: 524: 517: 510: 506: 473: 469: 465: 459: 241: 116:Consequences 62:Formulations 2940:The action 2802:Hamiltonian 757:proper mass 490:four-vector 237:Proper mass 232:Proper time 74:Foundations 8127:Categories 8006:J. S. Bell 7808:References 7792:Four-force 6860:Lagrangian 5631:The total 4776:with norm 3069:Lagrangian 2930:is called 2725:Now using 1425:Derivation 326:FitzGerald 311:Sommerfeld 263:Precursors 208:Light cone 203:World line 8101:Phil. Mag 8002:Mechanics 8000:(1975) . 7962:268967902 7906:Sard 1970 7894:Sard 1970 7630:− 7605:∫ 7450:∂ 7435:∂ 7412:∑ 7361:− 7302:∂ 7298:∂ 7287:∫ 7232:∂ 7217:∂ 7211:⋅ 7174:∑ 7123:− 7071:∫ 7067:− 7020:− 7000:⋅ 6953:∂ 6949:∂ 6938:∫ 6844:μ 6817:μ 6745:μ 6718:μ 6685:μ 6672:μ 6659:μ 6629:μ 6560:μ 6519:− 6493:μ 6442:μ 6426:μ 6413:μ 6291:ϕ 6141:− 6130:τ 6097:⋅ 6088:τ 6051:ν 6038:τ 6024:μ 6014:ν 6011:μ 6007:η 5998:ν 5988:μ 5978:ν 5975:μ 5971:η 5962:μ 5952:μ 5913:colliders 5909:Z′ bosons 5782:, −4 GeV/ 5621:The four- 5533:− 5503:− 5495:⋅ 5454:γ 5432:γ 5416:γ 5400:γ 5377:˙ 5368:∂ 5360:∂ 5345:˙ 5336:∂ 5328:∂ 5313:˙ 5304:∂ 5296:∂ 5274:∂ 5266:∂ 5201:− 5190:ν 5182:∂ 5174:∂ 5163:μ 5155:∂ 5147:∂ 5139:ν 5136:μ 5132:η 5099:μ 5091:∂ 5083:∂ 5077:− 5074:↔ 5069:μ 5010:⋅ 4824:− 4729:− 4680:− 4631:− 4582:− 4557:μ 4538:μ 4530:∂ 4522:∂ 4516:− 4499:μ 4495:∂ 4491:− 4483:μ 4403:μ 4395:δ 4390:μ 4382:− 4374:μ 4366:δ 4358:μ 4350:∂ 4342:∂ 4331:μ 4323:δ 4318:μ 4307:− 4282:μ 4266:μ 4258:δ 4230:∫ 4188:μ 4180:δ 4175:μ 4164:− 4149:δ 4106:μ 4090:μ 4082:δ 4054:∫ 4012:μ 4004:δ 3999:μ 3988:− 3973:δ 3953:τ 3940:ν 3929:τ 3915:μ 3907:δ 3904:− 3894:ν 3884:μ 3876:δ 3865:τ 3846:ν 3843:μ 3839:η 3835:∫ 3829:− 3823:τ 3815:ν 3804:τ 3794:μ 3786:δ 3775:ν 3772:μ 3768:η 3764:∫ 3758:− 3752:τ 3743:τ 3733:ν 3716:τ 3706:μ 3698:δ 3687:ν 3684:μ 3680:η 3676:∫ 3670:− 3661:δ 3653:and thus 3638:τ 3629:τ 3616:ν 3599:τ 3589:μ 3581:δ 3570:ν 3567:μ 3563:η 3550:δ 3514:ν 3498:μ 3490:δ 3482:ν 3479:μ 3475:η 3455:ν 3439:μ 3428:δ 3423:ν 3420:μ 3416:η 3403:δ 3376:ν 3358:μ 3342:δ 3337:ν 3334:μ 3330:η 3308:ν 3292:δ 3287:μ 3271:ν 3253:μ 3237:δ 3227:ν 3224:μ 3220:η 3211:ν 3198:μ 3185:ν 3182:μ 3178:η 3174:δ 3155:δ 3147:and that 3108:δ 3105:∫ 3096:− 3087:δ 3022:− 3001:− 2979:∫ 2967:∫ 2958:− 2848:∂ 2840:∂ 2834:− 2778:− 2766:˙ 2740:∑ 2693:˙ 2667:∑ 2654:∂ 2646:∂ 2628:˙ 2605:∂ 2597:∂ 2585:∑ 2572:∂ 2564:∂ 2439:∂ 2431:∂ 2382:δ 2364:∂ 2356:∂ 2344:∑ 2334:δ 2299:δ 2280:∑ 2263:δ 2248:˙ 2238:∂ 2230:∂ 2218:∑ 2208:δ 2072:δ 2058:˙ 2049:∂ 2041:∂ 2020:− 2011:∂ 2003:∂ 1967:∫ 1923:δ 1914:˙ 1905:∂ 1897:∂ 1876:δ 1866:variation 1822:− 1793:μ 1785:∂ 1777:∂ 1771:− 1763:μ 1630:∂ 1622:∂ 1616:⋅ 1610:− 1598:∂ 1590:∂ 1584:− 1558:∂ 1550:∂ 1528:∂ 1520:∂ 1352:− 1331:γ 1249:γ 1151:μ 1135:μ 957:− 941:ν 938:μ 934:η 893:− 838:− 830:ν 820:ν 807:ν 797:μ 787:ν 784:μ 780:η 770:⋅ 720:rest mass 494:spacetime 474:momenergy 376:Ehrenfest 346:Minkowski 316:Michelson 184:Spacetime 8138:Momentum 8095:(1909). 7770:See also 6862:density 5921:positron 5917:electron 5770:, 4 GeV/ 5655:momentum 5623:momentum 1079:timelike 538:, where 421:Category 371:von Laue 341:Poincaré 331:Herglotz 306:Einstein 223:Dynamics 7942:Bibcode 6762:Energy 6356:is the 5786:, 0, 0) 5778:(5 GeV/ 5774:, 0, 0) 5766:(5 GeV/ 5652:3-space 2919:⁠ 2901:⁠ 2800:is the 2526:by the 2143:assumed 1417:is the 1061:is the 496:. The 356:Abraham 336:Lorentz 259:History 8077:  8054:  8031:  8012:  7982:  7960:  7829:  6352:where 6197:charge 6191:For a 5806:  5798:  5790:  5633:energy 4892:where 4450:, and 3063:where 2796:where 2159:, but 1463:action 925:where 419:  381:Tolman 366:Planck 351:Fizeau 321:Morley 297:People 8103:. 6. 7958:S2CID 7483:Here 3144:dsδds 2894:with 2139:) = 0 2121:) = 0 1069:with 552:, is 386:Dirac 8075:ISBN 8052:ISBN 8029:ISBN 8010:ISBN 7980:ISBN 7827:ISBN 6831:and 6388:the 6360:and 5925:muon 5832:and 5808:GeV/ 5800:GeV/ 5792:GeV/ 5776:and 5650:The 5594:and 2195:) = 2110:) = 1698:and 1482:and 1322:and 1089:and 718:its 548:the 530:) = 361:Born 8109:doi 7950:doi 6400:is 6365:= ( 6195:of 5923:or 4448:= 0 4431:= 0 3542:or 3395:So 3142:= 2 3140:δds 3134:δds 1706:= − 1411:), 1172:is 1065:of 509:= ( 492:in 480:to 472:or 460:In 8129:: 8105:18 8099:. 8091:; 7996:; 7956:. 7948:. 7938:99 7936:. 7766:. 7717:; 6469:. 6379:, 6372:, 6208:: 6172:0. 5895:= 5888:⋅ 5865:+ 5858:= 5812:. 5752:). 5639:= 5120:, 4967:, 4467:δx 4465:≡ 4454:δx 4437:δx 4433:, 4429:ds 4425:du 2934:. 2899:= 2888:, 2884:, 2876:= 2809:= 2477:= 2197:δq 2186:δq 2173:= 2148:δq 2130:δq 2112:δq 2101:δq 1745:= 1737:, 1732:= 1724:, 1719:= 1711:, 1693:= 1688:, 1683:= 1678:, 1673:= 1668:, 1665:ct 1663:= 1496:, 1450:mu 1448:= 1440:dτ 1436:dx 1434:= 1421:. 1340::= 1122:, 1098:⋅ 759:: 730:. 532:γm 523:, 516:, 464:, 8115:. 8111:: 8083:. 8060:. 8037:. 8018:. 7988:. 7964:. 7952:: 7944:: 7835:. 7754:n 7732:n 7727:v 7703:f 7697:L 7672:3 7668:x 7664:d 7659:2 7655:x 7651:d 7646:1 7642:x 7638:d 7633:g 7623:f 7617:L 7609:V 7601:= 7596:f 7592:L 7571:g 7549:0 7545:u 7523:v 7500:p 7494:L 7468:. 7460:n 7455:v 7443:f 7439:L 7427:N 7422:1 7419:= 7416:n 7408:+ 7403:3 7399:x 7395:d 7390:2 7386:x 7382:d 7377:1 7373:x 7369:d 7364:g 7354:0 7350:u 7345:) 7338:0 7334:u 7328:p 7322:L 7314:( 7306:v 7291:V 7283:= 7279:P 7255:. 7251:) 7242:n 7237:v 7225:f 7221:L 7206:n 7201:v 7195:( 7189:N 7184:1 7181:= 7178:n 7170:+ 7165:3 7161:x 7157:d 7152:2 7148:x 7144:d 7139:1 7135:x 7131:d 7126:g 7117:) 7111:f 7105:L 7099:+ 7094:p 7088:L 7081:( 7075:V 7062:3 7058:x 7054:d 7049:2 7045:x 7041:d 7036:1 7032:x 7028:d 7023:g 7013:0 7009:u 7004:v 6996:) 6989:0 6985:u 6979:p 6973:L 6965:( 6957:v 6942:V 6934:= 6931:E 6906:f 6900:L 6894:+ 6889:p 6883:L 6877:= 6872:L 6840:K 6813:p 6791:P 6770:E 6741:K 6714:p 6690:. 6681:K 6677:+ 6668:p 6664:= 6655:P 6625:P 6603:P 6582:E 6556:P 6532:. 6528:) 6523:P 6516:, 6511:c 6508:E 6502:( 6498:= 6489:P 6447:. 6438:A 6434:q 6431:+ 6422:p 6418:= 6409:P 6398:P 6386:) 6384:z 6381:A 6377:y 6374:A 6370:x 6367:A 6363:A 6354:φ 6339:) 6333:z 6329:A 6325:, 6320:y 6316:A 6312:, 6307:x 6303:A 6299:, 6294:c 6285:( 6281:= 6277:) 6271:3 6267:A 6263:, 6258:2 6254:A 6250:, 6245:1 6241:A 6237:, 6232:0 6228:A 6223:( 6219:= 6216:A 6201:q 6169:= 6165:) 6159:2 6155:c 6149:2 6145:m 6137:( 6127:d 6123:d 6115:m 6112:2 6108:1 6103:= 6100:p 6094:p 6085:d 6081:d 6073:m 6070:2 6066:1 6061:= 6056:m 6047:p 6035:d 6031:d 6020:p 6003:= 5994:A 5984:p 5967:= 5958:A 5948:p 5936:A 5919:– 5905:M 5900:c 5897:M 5893:C 5890:P 5886:C 5883:P 5881:− 5876:M 5870:B 5867:p 5863:A 5860:p 5856:C 5853:p 5847:C 5844:p 5838:B 5835:p 5829:A 5826:p 5810:c 5802:c 5794:c 5784:c 5780:c 5772:c 5768:c 5739:v 5735:m 5714:) 5708:3 5704:p 5700:, 5695:2 5691:p 5687:, 5682:1 5678:p 5673:( 5669:= 5665:p 5644:c 5641:p 5637:E 5626:p 5563:, 5553:2 5549:c 5543:2 5539:v 5530:1 5523:2 5519:c 5515:m 5509:= 5506:L 5499:v 5491:p 5487:= 5480:E 5473:, 5469:u 5465:m 5462:= 5458:v 5451:m 5448:= 5445:) 5440:z 5436:v 5429:, 5424:y 5420:v 5413:, 5408:x 5404:v 5397:( 5394:m 5391:= 5387:) 5374:z 5363:L 5354:, 5342:y 5331:L 5322:, 5310:x 5299:L 5289:( 5285:= 5278:v 5269:L 5260:= 5252:p 5224:. 5219:2 5215:c 5209:2 5205:m 5198:= 5186:x 5177:S 5159:x 5150:S 5095:x 5086:S 5065:p 5041:. 5036:2 5032:c 5026:2 5022:m 5018:+ 5014:p 5006:p 5002:= 4995:2 4991:c 4985:2 4981:E 4948:, 4941:2 4937:c 4932:v 4926:E 4923:= 4919:p 4899:r 4895:m 4877:, 4872:2 4868:c 4862:r 4858:m 4854:= 4844:2 4840:c 4834:2 4830:v 4821:1 4814:2 4810:c 4806:m 4800:= 4797:E 4783:c 4780:m 4778:− 4764:, 4760:) 4749:2 4745:c 4739:2 4735:v 4726:1 4720:z 4716:v 4710:, 4700:2 4696:c 4690:2 4686:v 4677:1 4671:y 4667:v 4661:, 4651:2 4647:c 4641:2 4637:v 4628:1 4622:x 4618:v 4612:, 4602:2 4598:c 4592:2 4588:v 4579:1 4575:c 4569:( 4565:m 4562:= 4553:u 4549:m 4546:= 4534:x 4525:S 4513:= 4510:] 4507:S 4504:[ 4488:= 4479:p 4462:2 4459:t 4456:) 4452:( 4445:1 4442:t 4439:) 4435:( 4427:/ 4408:, 4399:x 4386:p 4379:= 4370:x 4354:x 4345:S 4336:= 4327:x 4314:u 4310:m 4304:= 4301:s 4298:d 4292:s 4289:d 4278:u 4274:d 4262:x 4251:2 4247:t 4239:1 4235:t 4226:m 4223:+ 4216:2 4212:t 4204:1 4200:t 4194:] 4184:x 4171:u 4167:m 4160:[ 4155:= 4152:S 4125:s 4122:d 4116:s 4113:d 4102:u 4098:d 4086:x 4075:2 4071:t 4063:1 4059:t 4050:m 4047:+ 4040:2 4036:t 4028:1 4024:t 4018:] 4008:x 3995:u 3991:m 3984:[ 3979:= 3976:S 3950:d 3946:] 3936:u 3926:d 3922:d 3911:x 3900:) 3890:u 3880:x 3872:( 3862:d 3858:d 3852:[ 3832:m 3826:= 3820:d 3811:u 3801:d 3790:x 3783:d 3761:m 3755:= 3749:d 3740:d 3729:x 3725:d 3713:d 3702:x 3695:d 3673:m 3667:= 3664:S 3641:, 3635:d 3626:d 3623:c 3612:x 3608:d 3596:d 3585:x 3578:d 3559:= 3556:s 3553:d 3530:, 3524:s 3521:d 3510:x 3506:d 3494:x 3487:d 3471:= 3465:s 3462:d 3451:x 3447:d 3435:x 3431:d 3412:= 3409:s 3406:d 3381:. 3372:x 3368:d 3364:) 3354:x 3350:d 3346:( 3326:2 3323:= 3319:) 3314:) 3304:x 3300:d 3296:( 3283:x 3279:d 3276:+ 3267:x 3263:d 3259:) 3249:x 3245:d 3241:( 3233:( 3216:= 3207:x 3203:d 3194:x 3190:d 3171:= 3166:2 3162:s 3158:d 3117:. 3114:s 3111:d 3102:c 3099:m 3093:= 3090:S 3065:L 3051:, 3042:2 3038:c 3032:2 3028:v 3019:1 3012:2 3008:c 3004:m 2998:= 2995:L 2991:, 2988:t 2985:d 2982:L 2976:= 2973:s 2970:d 2964:c 2961:m 2955:= 2952:S 2942:S 2928:S 2915:q 2913:∂ 2910:/ 2906:S 2904:∂ 2897:p 2892:) 2890:t 2886:p 2882:q 2880:( 2878:H 2874:H 2857:. 2851:t 2843:S 2831:= 2828:H 2825:= 2822:E 2811:H 2807:E 2798:H 2784:, 2781:L 2773:i 2763:q 2754:i 2750:p 2744:i 2736:= 2733:H 2711:. 2708:L 2705:= 2700:i 2690:q 2681:i 2677:p 2671:i 2663:+ 2657:t 2649:S 2640:= 2635:i 2625:q 2613:i 2609:q 2600:S 2589:i 2581:+ 2575:t 2567:S 2558:= 2552:t 2549:d 2544:S 2541:d 2514:L 2511:= 2505:t 2502:d 2497:S 2494:d 2479:t 2475:2 2472:t 2455:. 2447:i 2443:q 2434:S 2425:= 2420:i 2416:p 2395:, 2390:i 2386:q 2374:i 2369:q 2359:S 2348:i 2340:= 2337:S 2312:. 2307:i 2303:q 2294:i 2290:p 2284:i 2276:= 2271:i 2267:q 2255:i 2245:q 2233:L 2222:i 2214:= 2211:S 2193:2 2190:t 2188:( 2181:) 2179:q 2177:( 2175:S 2171:S 2165:2 2162:t 2157:) 2155:2 2152:t 2150:( 2137:2 2134:t 2132:( 2119:2 2116:t 2114:( 2108:1 2105:t 2103:( 2084:. 2081:t 2078:d 2075:q 2068:) 2055:q 2044:L 2032:t 2029:d 2025:d 2014:q 2006:L 1996:( 1988:2 1984:t 1976:1 1972:t 1963:+ 1956:2 1952:t 1944:1 1940:t 1934:| 1930:] 1926:q 1911:q 1900:L 1890:[ 1882:= 1879:S 1854:q 1831:) 1826:p 1819:, 1814:c 1811:E 1805:( 1801:= 1789:x 1780:S 1768:= 1759:p 1747:x 1743:3 1740:x 1734:x 1730:2 1727:x 1721:x 1717:1 1714:x 1708:x 1704:0 1701:x 1695:z 1691:x 1685:y 1681:x 1675:x 1671:x 1661:x 1646:, 1638:0 1634:x 1625:S 1613:c 1607:= 1601:t 1593:S 1581:= 1578:E 1574:, 1566:i 1562:x 1553:S 1544:= 1536:i 1532:q 1523:S 1514:= 1509:i 1505:p 1492:i 1488:p 1478:i 1474:q 1466:S 1446:p 1438:/ 1432:u 1414:c 1399:v 1372:2 1368:c 1362:2 1358:v 1349:1 1345:1 1335:v 1310:, 1306:) 1300:z 1296:v 1292:, 1287:y 1283:v 1279:, 1274:x 1270:v 1266:, 1263:c 1259:( 1253:v 1245:= 1241:) 1235:3 1231:u 1227:, 1222:2 1218:u 1214:, 1209:1 1205:u 1201:, 1196:0 1192:u 1187:( 1183:= 1180:u 1170:u 1156:, 1147:u 1143:m 1140:= 1131:p 1116:m 1100:q 1096:p 1091:q 1087:p 1047:) 1041:1 1036:0 1031:0 1026:0 1019:0 1014:1 1009:0 1004:0 997:0 992:0 987:1 982:0 975:0 970:0 965:0 960:1 951:( 946:= 911:2 907:c 901:2 897:m 890:= 885:2 880:| 874:p 869:| 865:+ 858:2 854:c 848:2 844:E 835:= 826:p 816:p 812:= 803:p 793:p 776:= 773:p 767:p 752:c 716:m 707:v 704:m 687:. 683:) 677:z 673:p 669:, 664:y 660:p 656:, 651:x 647:p 643:, 638:c 635:E 629:( 625:= 621:) 615:3 611:p 607:, 602:2 598:p 594:, 589:1 585:p 581:, 576:0 572:p 567:( 563:= 560:p 546:γ 541:v 535:v 528:z 525:p 521:y 518:p 514:x 511:p 507:p 502:E 449:e 442:t 435:v 20:)

Index

Energy–momentum 4-vector
Special relativity
The world line: a diagrammatic representation of spacetime
Principle of relativity
Theory of relativity
Formulations
Einstein's postulates
Inertial frame of reference
Speed of light
Maxwell's equations
Lorentz transformation
Time dilation
Length contraction
Relativistic mass
Mass–energy equivalence
Relativity of simultaneity
Relativistic Doppler effect
Thomas precession
Relativistic disk
Bell's spaceship paradox
Ehrenfest paradox
Spacetime
Minkowski spacetime
Spacetime diagram
World line
Light cone
Dynamics
Proper time
Proper mass
Four-momentum

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