Environmental impact of pesticides

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pesticides can cause serious issues for those that consume them and the environment around them. They can destroy ecosystems and introduce all sorts of toxins to the people and animals that consume them. Even the non-active ingredients that are often assumed to be non-toxic can be the very toxic ingredient that causes harm. Perhaps, the most commonly seen issue with pesticides is their effect on pollinators. While designed to kill pests, these chemicals also tend to kill or damage the very creatures that keep agriculture going. Sure, some chemical pesticides are mild enough to not harm the good insects, but all it takes is human error to make what’s harmless, harmful. Some effects are unknown due to the complicated and difficult to predict effect of combining pesticides. In some instances, natural pesticides offer a better alternative for farmers. Natural pesticides are pesticides that are found in nature and made from minerals, plants, and microorganisms. While they do not last as long as synthetic pesticides and are less toxic, they are more environmentally safe. (This does not mean they are safe for humans, as they are still meant to kill insects.) Specific types of natural pesticides include botanical pesticides- natural occurring chemicals extracted directly from plants or minerals; biochemical pesticides- uses substances like plant hormones that could interfere with pests mating or other behaviors; and microbial pesticides- pesticide with microorganisms like fungi, viruses, or bacteria as the active ingredient. Other things such as rosemary, marigolds, chrysanthemums, lavender, and basil work as a natural deterrent against specific pests.

1877:, and their campaign work on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) for countries in the Global South to know what hazardous and banned chemicals they might be importing have contributed to the culmination of the Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent, which went into effect in 2004. PAN's work, according to their website, involves "shifting global aid away from pesticides", in addition to community monitoring and serving as a watchdog for the World Bank policy failures. Additionally, Pesticide Action Network members helped co-author the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), working to center agroecological knowledge and farming techniques as crucial to the future of agriculture. 1072:, particularly when these chemicals are overused or misused as chemical compounds build up in the soil. The full impact of pesticides on soil microorganisms is still not entirely understood; many studies have found deleterious effects of pesticides on soil microorganisms and biochemical processes, while others have found that the residue of some pesticides can be degraded and assimilated by microorganisms. The effect of pesticides on soil microorganisms is impacted by the persistence, concentration, and toxicity of the applied pesticide, in addition to various environmental factors. This complex interaction of factors makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions about the interaction of pesticides with the 1376: 1120: 908: 41: 1106:

involves interactions among microorganisms in the soil. Sorption affects bioaccumulation of pesticides which are dependent on organic matter in the soil. Weak organic acids have been shown to be weakly sorbed by soil, because of pH and mostly acidic structure. Sorbed chemicals have been shown to be less accessible to microorganisms. Aging mechanisms are poorly understood but as residence times in soil increase, pesticide residues become more resistant to degradation and extraction as they lose biological activity.

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The alternatives to pesticides include a range of genetic material introduction to plants that target a particular pest, and active ingredients that control the mating and reproduction of certain pests or kill target pests. Biopesticides are affective in small quantities and degrade quickly making them an eco-friendly alternative to pesticides. They are often used in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as well and has been an important component to the UK IPM strategy for its crop protection.

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other land-use types (e.g. agricultural, residential) contributes to the decline of these birds. Avicides poses a huge threat of direct poisoning of non-target birds. As poisoned birds can fly long distances before they die, death of non-target birds often remains unnoticed. Many countries have no registered pesticides of this group at all. In USA registered avicides belong to restricted use pesticides and can be used only by certified pest control operations.

1491: 151: 54: 1102:, with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts. A smaller content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of pesticide that will leave the area of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down pesticides. 981: 7190: 27: 7345: 1368: 1235:; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed pesticides. Earthworms digest organic matter and increase nutrient content in the top layer of soil. They protect human health by ingesting decomposing litter and serving as bioindicators of soil activity. Pesticides have had harmful effects on growth and reproduction on earthworms. Some pesticides can 1534:

milk and inhalation of small particles. Pesticides tracked into the home from family members increase the risk of exposure. Toxic residue in food may contribute to a child's exposure. Epidemiological studies have reported adverse effects of certain pesticides at current levels of exposure on children's cognitive development. The chemicals can bioaccumulate in the body over time.

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class comes with a specific set of environmental concerns. Such undesirable effects have led many pesticides to be banned, while regulations have limited and/or reduced the use of others. The global spread of pesticide use, including the use of older/obsolete pesticides that have been banned in some jurisdictions, has increased overall.

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humidity and high temperature result in more spray evaporating. The amount of inhalable pesticides in the outdoor environment is therefore often dependent on the season. Also, droplets of sprayed pesticides or particles from pesticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas, or pesticides may

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In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggests proper use of pesticides and disposal that follows federal or individual state guidance for farmers or commercial users. Commercial users of pesticides are told to follow the disposal instructions on the labels of the pesticides

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such as canola oil and baking soda that contain curtain active ingredients from natural substances are an environmentally friendly alternative for toxic pesticides. There are three categories of biopesticides; microbial pesticides, plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs), and biochemical biopesticides.

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Some pesticides come in granular form. Wildlife may eat the granules, mistaking them for grains of food. A few granules of a pesticide may be enough to kill a small bird. Herbicides may endanger bird populations by reducing their habitat. Furthermore, destruction of native habitat and conversion into

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and may be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife. Weather conditions at the time of application as well as temperature and relative humidity change the spread of the pesticide in the air. As wind velocity increases so does the spray drift and exposure. Low relative

4676:; Galetto, Leonardo; Garibaldi, Lucas A.; Gemmill-Herren, Barbara; Howlett, Brad G.; Imperatriz-Fonseca, Vera L.; Johnson, Steven D.; Kovács-Hostyánszki, Anikó; Kwon, Yong Jung; Lattorff, H. Michael G.; Lungharwo, Thingreipi; Seymour, Colleen L.; Vanbergen, Adam J.; Potts, Simon G. (16 August 2021). 1842:

Advanced oxidation processes have been used to combat against the problem of pesticide residue on fruits and vegetables. AOP and its technologies have been used in the removal efforts of pesticide pollutants in wastewater using different chemical reactions to target different pollutants. Researchers

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pests and only became a major problem after the use of pesticides. In both pest resurgence and secondary outbreaks, their natural enemies were more susceptible to the pesticides than the pests themselves, in some cases causing the pest population to be higher than it was before the use of pesticide.

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Loss of predator species can also lead to a related phenomenon called secondary pest outbreaks, an increase in problems from species that were not originally a problem due to loss of their predators or parasites. An estimated third of the 300 most damaging insects in the US were originally secondary

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than adults. Children may be more exposed due to their closer proximity to the ground and tendency to put unfamiliar objects in their mouth. Hand to mouth contact depends on the child's age, much like lead exposure. Children under the age of six months are more apt to experience exposure from breast

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Due to the properties of activated carbon, different types have been researched as potential treatment for absorbing different pesticide species. Researchers found a use for activated carbon from tangerine seeds in the absorption of pesticides. Researches are utilizing this tangerine seed activated

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Pesticide application can artificially select for resistant pests. In this diagram, the first generation happens to have an insect with a heightened resistance to a pesticide (red) After pesticide application, its descendants represent a larger proportion of the population, because sensitive pests

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Farmland birds are declining more rapidly than birds of any other biome in North America, a decline that is correlated with intensification and expansion of pesticide usage. In the farmland of the United Kingdom, populations of ten different bird species declined by 10 million breeding individuals

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Degradation and sorption are both factors which influence the persistence of pesticides in soil. Depending on the chemical nature of the pesticide, such processes control directly the transportation from soil to water, and in turn to air and our food. Breaking down organic substances, degradation,

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The first synthetic herbicides were discovered in the 1930's and 1940's. This was the era when synthetic antibiotics, plastics, and many other materials became available. Synthetic pesticides became popular rapidly after World War II. Crop yields increased significantly through the discovery of

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We have used chemical pesticides for years due to the immediate benefits that agribusiness gets. From their cost effectiveness to their assistance in decreasing disease spread, and increasing crop production, these pesticides appear to be a great resource. However, studies have shown that chemical

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mutations. Insecticides targeted to disrupt insects can have harmful effects on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic and acute alterations have been observed in exposes. DDT and its breakdown product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to breast cancer. Fetal DDT exposure reduces

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In 2016, the United States consumed 322 million pounds of pesticides banned in the EU, 26 million pounds of pesticides banned in Brazil and 40 million pounds of pesticides banned in China, with most of banned pesticides banned staying constant or increasing in the United States over the past 25

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may temporarily depress mosquito populations, they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging natural controls. This phenomenon, wherein the population of a pest species rebounds to equal or greater numbers than it had before pesticide use, is called pest resurgence and can be

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Environmental modelling indicates that globally over 60% of global agricultural land (~24.5 million km²) is "at risk of pesticide pollution by more than one active ingredient", and that over 30% is at "high risk" of which a third are in high-biodiversity regions. Each pesticide or pesticide

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Still are there environmental problems that emerge from runoff and other negative effects of pesticides. Runoff of pesticides into wastewater and pesticide drift into other ecosystems has led to research in the removal and remediation of pesticides in the environment. Research has been done on

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is of great interest. Some pesticides degrade rapidly in the environment, others, called persistent, linger, causing undesired effects. and certain authors maintain that pesticide risk and impact assessment models rely on and are sensitive to information describing dissipation from plants.

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between 1979 and 1999, allegedly from loss of plant and invertebrate species on which the birds feed. Throughout Europe, 116 species of birds were threatened as of 1999. Reductions in bird populations have been found to be associated with times and areas in which pesticides are used.

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lost 7% of their crops to pests in the 1940s; over the 1980s and 1990s, the loss was 13%, even though more pesticides were being used. Over 500 species of pests have evolved a resistance to a pesticide. Other sources estimate the number to be around 1,000 species since 1945.

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Lethal and sublethal adverse synergistic effects in bees. Its toxicity depends on season and nutritional stress, and can reduce bee survival, food consumption, thermoregulation, flight success, and increase flight velocity. It has the same mode of action of neonicotinoids.

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Rohr, J. R.; Schotthoefer, A. M.; Raffel, T. R.; Carrick, H. J.; Halstead, N.; Hoverman, J. T.; Johnson, C. M.; Johnson, L. B.; Lieske, C.; Piwoni, M. D.; Schoff, P. K.; Beasley, V. R. (2008). "Agrochemicals increase trematode infections in a declining amphibian species".

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can carry pesticides into distant aquatic environments or other fields, grazing areas, human settlements and undeveloped areas. Other problems emerge from poor production, transport, storage and disposal practices. Over time, repeat application of pesticides increases

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Fleischli, M. A.; Franson, J. C.; Thomas, N. J.; Finley, D. L.; Riley, W. (2004). "Avian Mortality Events in the United States Caused by Anticholinesterase Pesticides: A Retrospective Summary of National Wildlife Health Center Records from 1980 to 2000".

1818:. Different methods of pesticide removal require different costs and can carry different removal outcomes. Some methods require low cost techniques but many result in byproducts that require an extra cost for removal or unwarranted environmental impacts. 1856:

While dubbed economic and ecologically sound practices by suppliers, the effects of agricultural pesticides can include toxicity, bioaccumulation, persistence, and physiological responses in humans and wildlife, and several international NGOs, such as

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that contain pesticides; through oral exposure by consuming food/water; and through skin exposure by direct contact. Pesticides secrete into soils and groundwater which can end up in drinking water, and pesticide spray can drift and pollute the air.

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depend on the toxicity of the chemical and the length and magnitude of exposure. Farm workers and their families experience the greatest exposure to agricultural pesticides through direct contact. Every human contains pesticides in their fat cells.

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carbon in the removal process of carbamate pesticides that have been linked to an increased risk of cancer and other health risks. Absorption by activated carbon has been found to be a successful and cost-efficient way of removing pesticides.

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Although the evolution of pesticide resistance is usually discussed as a result of pesticide use, it is important to keep in mind that pest populations can also adapt to non-chemical methods of control. For example, the northern corn rootworm

1562:. Pesticide can affect fetuses in early stages of development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception. Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and through structural changes. 224:

Chemical, UPL, and Huapont Life Sciences. Bayer CropScience and its acquisition of Monsanto led it to record profits in 2019 of over $ 10 billion in sales, which herbicide shares growing by 22%, followed closely by Syngenta.

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Vos, J. G.; Dybing, E; Greim, H. A.; Ladefoged, O; Lambré, C; Tarazona, J. V.; Brandt, I; Vethaak, A. D. (2000). "Health effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on wildlife, with special reference to the European situation".

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Levine, E; Oloumi-Sadeghi, H; Fisher, JR (1992). "Discovery of multiyear diapause in Illinois and South Dakota Northern corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) eggs and incidence of the prolonged diapause trait in Illinois".

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Pisa, Lennard; Goulson, Dave; Yang, En-Cheng; Gibbons, David; Sánchez-Bayo, Francisco; Mitchell, Edward; Aebi, Alexandre; van der Sluijs, Jeroen; MacQuarrie, Chris J. K.; Giorio, Chiara; Long, Elizabeth Yim (9 November 2017).

992:. Pesticide residues have also been found in rain and groundwater. Studies by the UK government showed that pesticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking water in some samples of river water and groundwater. 1763:(IPM) employs chemical use only when other alternatives are ineffective. IPM causes less harm to humans and the environment. The focus is broader than on a specific pest, considering a range of pest control alternatives. 1410:

similar to those used to kill the plants. Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes that reduce fish populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods,

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estimate that US farmers lose at least $ 200 million a year from reduced crop pollination because pesticides applied to fields eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in the US and harm an additional 15%.

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Dzugan, S. A.; Rozakis, G. W.; Dzugan, K. S.; Emhof, L; Dzugan, S. S.; Xydas, C; Michaelides, C; Chene, J; Medvedovsky, M (2011). "Correction of steroidopenia as a new method of hypercholesterolemia treatment".

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In the United States, conventional pesticide use peaked in 1979, and by 2007, had been reduced by 25 percent from the 1979 peak level, while US agricultural output increased by 43 percent over the same period.

6713: 6422: 1425:, the main source of food for young fish. Pesticides can also kill off insects on which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and exposing them to greater risk from predators. 1046:

for pesticide concentrations in water bodies are principally developed by state environmental agencies, with EPA oversight. These standards may be issued for individual water bodies, or may apply statewide.

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to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.

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change in the sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest

3810:. Prepared for The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). Retrieved on 16 September 2007. 5168:

California Department of Pesticide Regulation (2008), "What are the Potential Health Effects of Pesticides?" Community Guide to Recognizing and Reporting Pesticide Problems. Sacramento, CA. Pages 27–29.

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Lewis, W. J., J. C. van Lenteren, Sharad C. Phatak, and J. H. Tumlinson, III. "A total system approach to sustainable pest management." The National Academy of Sciences 13 August 1997. Web of Science.

4197: 184:, and its metabolites were shown to cause population-level effects in raptorial birds. Initial studies in industrialized countries focused on acute mortality effects mostly involving birds or fish. 1810:

while using necessary safety measures for the disposal of hazardous waste. They are also advised to call for assistance by their local agencies in the disposal of unwanted or unused pesticides.

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Persistent organic pollutants: An Assessment Report on: DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Dioxins and Furans

819:, are considered POPs. Some POPs have the ability to volatilize and travel great distances through the atmosphere to become deposited in remote regions. Such chemicals may have the ability to 1487:

causes a sex reversal. Across the United States and Canada disorders such as decreased hatching success, feminization, skin lesions, and other developmental abnormalities have been reported.

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Altered the patch-level floral display and later a two-thirds reduction of the total number of bee visits and in a shift in the visitors from large-bodied bees to small-bodied bees and flies

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The faster a given pesticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it poses to aquatic life. Insecticides are typically more toxic to aquatic life than herbicides and fungicides.

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Abdel-Mallek AY, Moharram AM, Abdel-Kader MI, Omar SA (1994). "Effect of soil treatment with the organophosphorus insecticide Profenfos on the fungal flora and some microbial activities".

831:(i.e. become more concentrated) up to 70,000 times their original concentrations. POPs can affect non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humans by disruption in the 1224:

Animal studies mostly focus on fish, insects, birds, amphibians and arachnids. Many kinds of animals are harmed by pesticides, leading many countries to regulate pesticide usage through

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Today, over 3.5 billion kilograms of synthetic pesticides are used for the world's agriculture in an over $ 45 billion industry. Current lead agrichemical producers include

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estimates that 72 million birds are killed by pesticides in the United States each year. Bald eagles are common examples of nontarget organisms that are impacted by pesticide use.

6611: 2035: 1228:. Animals including humans may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain on food, for example when wild animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying. 6589: 1355:

used in peanut farming are only slightly toxic to birds and mammals, but may kill earthworms, which can in turn reduce populations of the birds and mammals that feed on them.

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Story, P.; Cox, M. (2001). "Review of the effects of organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides on vertebrates. Are there implications for locust management in Australia?".

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A wind-borne threat to Sierra frogs: A study finds that pesticides used on farms in the San Joaquin Valley damage the nervous systems of amphibians in Yosemite and elsewhere

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Mie, Axel; Andersen, Helle Raun; Gunnarsson, Stefan; Kahl, Johannes; Kesse-Guyot, Emmanuelle; Rembiałkowska, Ewa; Quaglio, Gianluca; Grandjean, Philippe (27 October 2017).

1332:-induced egg shell thinning has especially affected European and North American bird populations. From 1990 to 2014 the number of common farmland birds has declined in the 4112:. Pesticides in the Nation's Streams and Ground Water, 1992–2001 (Report). The Quality of Our Nation's Waters. Reston, VA: US Geological Survey. p. 4. Circular 1291. 6408: 4732: 932:

occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides that are applied to crops can

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Sharma, Akanksha; Shukla, Ananya; Attri, Kriti; Kumar, Megha; Kumar, Puneet; Suttee, Ashish; Singh, Gurpal; Barnwal, Ravi Pratap; Singla, Neha (15 September 2020).

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through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff, or it may be spilled, for example accidentally or through neglect. They may also be carried to water by

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Gillion, RJ; Barbash, JE; Crawford, GG; Hamilton, PA; Martin, JD; Nakagaki, N; Nowell, LH; Scott, JC; Stackelberg, PE; Thelin, GP; Wolock, DM (15 February 2007) .

6626: 6621: 6594: 3533:"Combined nutritional stress and a new systemic pesticide (flupyradifurone, Sivanto®) reduce bee survival, food consumption, flight success, and thermoregulation" 1057: 4177: 3686:

Freemark, K. (1995). "Impacts of agricultural herbicide use on terrestrial wildlife in temperate landscapes: A review with special reference to North America".

1239:, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain especially hard. 1035: 2309:

Rajak, Prem; Roy, Sumedha; Ganguly, Abhratanu; Mandi, Moutushi; Dutta, Anik; Das, Kanchana; Nanda, Sayantani; Ghanty, Siddhartha; Biswas, Gopal (1 May 2023).

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There is an ongoing research focused on pesticide removal, a 2022 study for example demonstrated excellent removal efficiency of 80% for often used pesticide

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Rajak, Prem; Roy, Sumedha; Ganguly, Abhratanu; Mandi, Moutushi; Dutta, Anik; Das, Kanchana; Nanda, Sayantani; Ghanty, Siddhartha; Biswas, Gopal (May 2023).

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USDA ERS. 2013. Table 1. Indices of farm output, input and total factor productivity for the United States, 1948–2011. (last update 27 September 2013)

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There are four major routes through which pesticides reach the water: it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate, or

2767: 1545:, coma or death. Developmental effects have been associated with pesticides. Recent increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America, such as 1231:

Pesticides can eliminate some animals' essential food sources, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet or starve. Residues can travel up the

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On the other side, pesticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth.

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Guedes, R. N. C.; Roditakis, E.; Campos, M. R.; Haddi, K.; Bielza, P.; Siqueira, H. A. A.; Tsagkarakou, A.; Vontas, J.; Nauen, R. (31 January 2019).

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Biondi, A.; Mommaerts, V.; Smagghe, G.; Viñuela, E.; Zappalà, L.; Desneux, N. (2012). "The non-target impact of spinosyns on beneficial arthropods".

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have found this method of pesticide removal using coupled free chlorine/ultrasound to be successful at removing pesticide residue from vegetables.

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and amphibians have been reported. Crocodiles, many turtle species and some lizards lack sex-distinct chromosomes until after fertilization during

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at levels likely to be found in habitats near fields sprayed with the chemical kills the tadpoles and causes behavioral and growth abnormalities.

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Arias-Estévez, Manuel; Eugenio López-Periago; Elena Martínez-Carballo; Jesús Simal-Gándara; Juan-Carlos Mejuto; Luis García-Río (February 2008).

1861:, have risen in response to the economic activities of these larger transnational corporations. Historically, PAN's contributions targeting the 1375: 6923: 6938: 6616: 5780: 5745: 5697: 5049: 4895: 2494: 2019: 1522: 859: 7241: 7033: 6881: 3770:

Newton, I. (2004). "The recent declines of farmland bird populations in Britain: An appraisal of causal factors and conservation actions".

167:, greatly lowering rates of typhus and malaria worldwide. In 1962, an estimated 85,000,000 kilograms of DDT was produced in the US alone. 4662:

Walley F, Taylor A and Lupwayi (2006) Herbicide effects on pulse crop nodulation and nitrogen fixation. FarmTech 2006 Proceedings 121–123.

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Kohler, H. -R.; Triebskorn, R. (2013). "Wildlife Ecotoxicology of Pesticides: Can We Track Effects to the Population Level and Beyond?".

2038: 6886: 6532: 6517: 70: 4133: 783:(POPs) are compounds that resist degradation and thus remain in the environment beyond their intended term. Some pesticides, including 69:

describe the broad series of consequences of using pesticides. The unintended consequences of pesticides is one of the main drivers of

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chemical signaling. Reduction of this symbiotic chemical signaling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields.

6128:"Activated carbon derived from waste tangerine seed for the high-performance adsorption of carbamate pesticides from water and plant" 4037: 7208: 6817: 6802: 6636: 6584: 6294: 4520: 4492:

Lotter DW, Seidel R, Liebhardt W (2003). "The performance of organic and conventional cropping systems in an extreme climate year".

4376: 4098:. Statewide IPM Program, Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. Ipm.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved on 15 October 2007. 2541: 2461: 2387: 6189:

Comninellis, Christos; Kapalka, Agnieszka; Malato, Sixto; Parsons, Simon A; Poulios, Ioannis; Mantzavinos, Dionissios (June 2008).

2481:. Advances in Chemistry. Vol. 1. 1155 Sixteenth Street, N.W. Washington 6, D. C: American Chemical Society. pp. 244–249. 5618: 1904:

Tudi, Muyesaier; Daniel Ruan, Huada; Wang, Li; Lyu, Jia; Sadler, Ross; Connell, Des; Chu, Cordia; Phung, Dung Tri (January 2021).

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are near commercialization, and none with a novel, resistance-free mode of action. Similarly, as of January 2019 discovery of new

7519: 6864: 6678: 6569: 6559: 4216:"Environmental consequences of modern production agriculture: How can alternative agriculture address these issues and concerns?" 3803: 1443: 1329: 262: 93:

reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Other

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Crawford, S. L.; Fiedler, E. R. (1992). "Childhood physical and sexual abuse and failure to complete military basic training".

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Henry, M.; Beguin, M.; Requier, F.; Rollin, O.; Odoux, J. -F.; Aupinel, P.; Aptel, J.; Tchamitchian, S.; Decourtye, A. (2012).

1886: 1584:(white) have been selectively killed. After repeated applications, resistant pests may comprise the majority of the population. 1437: 4736: 3591:"An update of the Worldwide Integrated Assessment (WIA) on systemic insecticides. Part 2: impacts on organisms and ecosystems" 7182: 6703: 6698: 5182: 2183:

Lamberth, C.; Jeanmart, S.; Luksch, T.; Plant, A. (2013). "Current Challenges and Trends in the Discovery of Agrochemicals".

4275: 117:, while its effects on other species can facilitate the pest's resurgence. Alternatives to heavy use of pesticides, such as 2404: 6869: 6807: 6382: 2895: 6385: 631:, water and/or food intake and behavior, impaired development, reduced reproduction and hatching success in vertebrates. 485:, water and/or food intake and behavior, impaired development, reduced reproduction and hatching success in vertebrates. 461:, water and/or food intake and behavior, impaired development, reduced reproduction and hatching success in vertebrates. 7404: 7359: 6465: 5903:

Chandler, David; Bailey, Alastair S.; Tatchell, G. Mark; Davidson, Gill; Greaves, Justin; Grant, Wyn P. (12 July 2011).

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Galloway, T. S.; Depledge, M. H. (2001). "Immunotoxicity in Invertebrates: Measurement and Ecotoxicological Relevance".

2813: 2510: 1891: 1870: 1630:), with 'crises' in insect control occurring early-on after the introduction of pesticide use in the 20th century. The 907: 780: 775: 170:

Public concern over the undesirable environmental effects of chemicals arose in the early 1960s with the publication of

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While various measures for minimizing pesticide use apply to gardens, they are not relevant to agriculture on scale.

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and Sweden; in Germany, which relies more on organic farming and less on pesticides the decline has been slower; in

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In the United States, pesticides were found to pollute every stream and over 90% of wells sampled in a study by the

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The Rotterdam convention on hazardous chemicals and pesticides: a meaningful step towards environmental protection?

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and are smaller when they do, decreasing their ability to catch prey and avoid predators. Exposing tadpoles to the

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signaling and cause subsequent olfactory dysfunction, as well as affecting foraging behavior, learning and memory.

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Dicks, Lynn V.; Breeze, Tom D.; Ngo, Hien T.; Senapathi, Deepa; An, Jiandong; Aizen, Marcelo A.; Basu, Parthiba;

1303: 1225: 1054:(EQS), or maximum allowable concentrations of some pesticides in bodies of water above which toxicity may occur. 996: 965: 3484:"Lethal and sublethal synergistic effects of a new systemic pesticide, flupyradifurone (Sivanto®), on honeybees" 2420: 1446:

across the world, for unexplained reasons which are thought to be varied but of which pesticides may be a part.

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Children are more susceptible and sensitive to pesticides, because they are still developing and have a weaker

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to particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles. Ground spraying produces less pesticide drift than

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Non-target organisms can also be impacted by pesticides. In some cases, a pest insect that is controlled by a

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does. Farmers can employ a buffer zone around their crop, consisting of empty land or non-crop plants such as

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can flourish should an insecticide application kill both pest and beneficial populations. A study comparing

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Impaired foraging, brood development, and colony success in terms of growth rate and new queen production.

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and absorb the pesticides, preventing drift into other areas. Such windbreaks are legally required in the

32:

A farmworker wearing protective equipment pouring a concentrated pesticide into a sprayer tank with water.

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Streaming online video about efforts to reduce pesticide use in rice in Bangladesh. Windows Media Player

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Pesticides being sprayed onto a recently plowed field by tractor. Aerial spraying is a main source of

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Prior or during the development of synthetic pesticides, many natural ones were identified including

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Application of herbicides to bodies of water can kill plants on which fish depend for their habitat.

1185: 989: 287: 3723:"Disruption of a Belowground Mutualism Alters Interactions Between Plants and Their Floral Visitors" 2979: 2675:"Ranking List of 2019 Top 20 Global Agrochemical Companies Recomposed, Graced by 11 Chinese Players" 2236:"A survey of honey bee-collected pollen reveals widespread contamination by agricultural pesticides" 1814:

different methods to treat pesticide pollution including the use of activated carbon absorption and

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that was previously effective at controlling the pest. Pest species evolve pesticide resistance via

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Part 75. Conditions and provisions for developing a national strategy for biodiversity conservation

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The extensive use of pesticides in agricultural production can degrade and damage the community of

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In England, the use of pesticides in gardens and farmland has seen a reduction in the number of

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Chapter 5: Impact of Pesticides on Soil Microbial Diversity, Enzymes, and Biochemical Reactions

1729:, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect. Likewise, pesticides sprayed to control 7464: 7454: 7038: 6913: 6859: 6658: 6643: 6300: 6290: 6267: 6249: 6163: 6155: 6103: 6095: 6022: 5942: 5924: 5877: 5869: 5776: 5741: 5693: 5632: 5581: 5447: 5439: 5378: 5329: 5294: 5276: 5227: 5011: 4705: 4673: 4645: 4551: 4409: 4372: 3900: 3752: 3665: 3630: 3612: 3570: 3562: 3513: 3464: 3407: 3382: 3355: 3290: 3241: 3159: 3119: 3083: 3037: 2992: 2923: 2861: 2793: 2748: 2730: 2656: 2638: 2617:"Integrated Pest Management for Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture in Asia and Africa" 2589: 2537: 2490: 2457: 2424: 2383: 2332: 2255: 2208: 2165: 2091: 2015: 1945: 1927: 1866: 1699: 1596: 1504: 1490: 1412: 1345: 1189: 1143: 1127: 1095: 1088: 808: 738:

Reduced food availability and adverse secondary effects on soil invertebrates and butterflies

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formation in these plants saves the world economy $ 10 billion in synthetic nitrogen

1043: 929: 919: 875: 820: 404: 209: 109: 74: 58: 4559: 1192:

colony abruptly disappear. Application of pesticides to crops that are in bloom can kill

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respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, and immunological toxicity in rats and humans

6206: 6190: 6143: 6008: 5857: 5262: 4693: 4621: 4539: 4470: 3876: 3738: 3699: 3548: 3450: 3395: 3333: 3229: 2970: 2911: 2716: 2577: 2196: 2151: 2134:

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worker mortality due to homing failure (risks for colony collapse remain controversial)

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that are applied to water to kill plants are toxic to fish and other water animals at

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Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated water. Pesticide

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Wide field margins can reduce fertilizer and pesticide pollution in streams and rivers

980: 7567: 7485: 7136: 7091: 7071: 6893: 6668: 6175: 6034: 5905:"The development, regulation and use of biopesticides for integrated pest management" 5889: 5762: 5459: 4717: 4063: 3783: 3707: 2601: 2220: 1764: 1672: 1657: 1530: 1480: 1472: 1454: 1407: 1312: 1307: 586: 549: 176: 171: 82: 5644: 5349:"Pesticides: An important but underused model for the environmental health sciences" 5023: 4604:"Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants" 3996:

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family insect pest, showed that the pest population rebounded due to loss of insect

7409: 7344: 7314: 7287: 7282: 6829: 6824: 6812: 6772: 6757: 6445: 6245: 6191:"Advanced oxidation processes for water treatment: advances and trends for R&D" 6151: 4248: 4095: 3302: 3253: 1822: 1797: 1550: 1538: 1099: 1069: 1011:. Factors that affect a pesticide's ability to contaminate water include its water 1008: 673: 658: 553: 94: 26: 6400: 6091: 5577: 5193: 4784: 4677: 4294:"State-Specific Water Quality Standards Effective under the Clean Water Act (CWA)" 3142:

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Pesticides are implicated in a range of impacts on human health due to pollution

1422: 1348:, after a decline in the early 2000s the level has returned to the one of 1990. 1341: 1180:, the loss of species that pollinate plants, including through the mechanism of 1155: 954: 720: 706: 126: 86: 5772: 5627: 5600: 4701: 4547: 4215: 3859:

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and application on loose topsoil increases the chance of runoff into waterways.

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Pesticide combinations imperil frogs, probably contribute to amphibian decline

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The summer the rivers died: Toxic runoff from potato farms is poisoning P.E.I.

5047:

Pesticides and aquatic animals: A guide to reducing impacts on aquatic systems

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mitigate these consequences, without the harmful toxic chemical application.

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Reduced survival and reproductive rates in seed-eating or carnivorous birds

723: 702: 565: 511: 503:

Acute mortality attributed to inhibition of acetylcholine esterase activity

466: 419:

Acute mortality attributed to inhibition of acetylcholine esterase activity

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The negative effects of pesticides are not just in the area of application.

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Authority, Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines (31 March 2015).

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Environmental indicators of pesticide leaching and runoff from farm fields

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Biological controls such as resistant plant varieties and the use of

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Pesticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off

1147: 1015:, the distance from an application site to a body of water, weather, 800: 784: 335:

Juvenile population decline and adult mortality in wildlife reptiles

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linked to elimination of its predators and other natural enemies.

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by spending the year when the field is planted with soybeans in a

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International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

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describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a

719:

Reduced abundance of some insect taxa, predominantly susceptible

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Affect various physiological and behavioral traits of beneficial

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of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds

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can also be an innovative way to control pests. Strains can be

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Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a

4169:

Hogan,, CM, Patmore L, Latshaw, G, Seidman, H, et al. (1973),

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