753:
764:'s "Asteropus" in 620 BCE (increase in the power of the ephorate), the ephors became the ambassadors of Sparta. They handled all matters associated with foreign relations, including the creation of treaties with foreign powers and meeting with emissaries to discuss foreign politics. They held power within Sparta by also acting as the Presidents of the assembly and the justices of the supreme civil court as well as controlling army composition. The ephors needed a majority vote to make decisions binding and minority or dissenting decisions were not accepted by the assembly.
955:
822:
1141:, depicts ephors as priestly class that exercise power by interpreting the words of the Oracle. In the film they are dramatized as elderly lepers with pale skin and lesions. At the beginning of the movie, Leonidas is shown visiting the ephors and proposing a war strategy to them. The ephors then consult the Oracle and refuse Leonidas' plan, showing that they have been bribed by
604:, a complete reversal of the policy of Lysander. According to Aristotle, the ephors frequently came from poverty because any Spartan citizen could hold the position, and it was not exclusive to the upper-class. Aristotle stated that because of this they were often liable to corruption. There were times when the legal power of an ephor was taken advantage of, such as with
1166:. The ephors decide to delay the battle but under the guise of having private bodyguards, King Leonidas marches into battle with 300 Spartans. The ephors are mentioned later in the film when Leonidas receives a letter from his wife informing him that the ephors have the remainder of the Spartan army will not be joining him. Xenathon is a named ephor in the film.
1201:
hospitality. Eurytos is killed by a helot revolt and the only surviving soldier returns to Sparta to inform the remaining four ephors. The ephors send soldiers to kill the helots who killed
Eurytos stating, "The only thing more unthinkable than a helot killing an ephor is that helot escaping punishment."
790:. Unless the oracle from Delphi or Olympia stated otherwise, the ephors had the ability to depose the offending king or kings. Plutarch also stated that the ephors tried cases involving contracts among citizens. He further reported that each ephor specialized in a different type of disputed contract.
785:
population so that any
Spartan citizen could kill a helot without fear of blood guilt. This was done to keep the large helot population in check. Plutarch also stated that every eight years the ephors would watch the skies on a moonless night. If shooting stars occurred, it was up to the ephors to
1200:
and writes "Once a year, the masters declare war on the helots." The ephors were in charge of the
Krypteia and declaring war on the helots in order to keep them terrified and controlled. The next scene depicts the ephor, Eurytos, being guided by his soldiers to a helot community where they demand
728:
in Athens. He was probably designated during the elections as the candidate with the loudest shouts overall. The eponymous ephor did not have any additional power compared to his colleagues; it was only a prestigious position. In 413/2, the ordinary ephor Endios is thus described by
Thucydides as
670:
The
Spartan constitution is principally known through the work of Aristotle, who describes in detail the elections of the gerontes (the members of the Gerousia), but not the ephors. It is still assumed that the election procedure was similar. Candidates passed one by one before the assembled
744:. The list went at least as far as 556 (the year of Chilon's ephorate) and possibly up to 754 (during the reign of Theopompos as ancient authors believed). However, Diogenes lived in the 3rd century AD, and even his sources dated from the Hellenistic era, long after the events.
626:. Cleomenes's coup resulted in the death of four of the five ephors, along with ten other citizens. His abolition of the ephorship allowed him to cement his role as king and prevent anyone from stopping his political reforms. However, the ephorate was restored by the
793:
According to
Pausanias, the ephors served with the Gerousia on the Supreme criminal court of Sparta. This included presiding over treason, homicide, and other offenses that carried serious punishments. These punishments included exile, death, and disfranchisement.
557:), but does not mention the ephors. It has therefore been suggested that Pausanias was hostile to the ephors, to whom he possibly attributed his banishment, and published the Rhetra to discredit their office. Although the contents of this
691:
had no reported conflict with the ephors support the view that they could decide who would be the ephors. Some ephors were elected thanks to a famous deed that made them known among voters. For example, Leon, ephor in 419/8, had won the
802:
regular meetings became mandated. By the late sixth century BCE, the ephors had acquired this authority to oversee the assembly and could use this power against the kings of Sparta. For example, they used this authority to force King
449:, "to see", i.e., "one who oversees" or "overseer". The ephors were a council of five Spartan men elected annually who swore an oath monthly on the behalf of the state. The Spartan kings, however, would swear on behalf of themselves.
592:
while the kings were little more than generals. Up to two ephors would accompany a king on extended military campaigns as a sign of control, and they held the authority to declare war during some periods in
Spartan history.
452:
The ephors did not have to kneel before the Kings of Sparta, and were held in high esteem by the citizens because of the importance of their powers and because of the holy role that they earned throughout their functions.
671:
citizens, who shouted according to their preference, while several assessors who were confined into a windowless building declared winners the five candidates with the loudest shouts. As with the gerontes, this system of
678:
The kings played a prominent role during election campaigns by favouring their candidates, even though only one instance of such practice is known, when in 243/2 Lysander was elected ephor with the help of the king
892:
Ephors could also intervene in cases of "disturbing the peace." This included punishing underage
Spartans indirectly for their offenses against Sparta. This form of retribution would include penalizing the boys'
928:, they would examine the naked bodies of the boys every ten days to ensure they were of proper complexion and fitness and not being overfed, as well as examining the boys' clothes daily to ensure that they fit.
797:
Ephors had the authority to summon and preside over the assembly's regular meetings in the fifth century BCE. Initially this power was only assigned to kings in early years. However, with the passing of the
985:: Known for causing physical division in the voting process by making voters stand in separate spaces to represent yes or no votes. This eliminated the secrecy of the voting process. (served in 432 BCE).
580:(populace) of men between the ages of 30–60, so eligible Spartans highly sought after the position. They were forbidden to be re-elected and provided a balance for the two kings, who rarely co-operated.
836:, held the majority of the power within the Spartan government, as the two kings had to consult either with the ephors or the Gerousia in almost any official matter. The ephors also held power over the
1100:
The concept of an ephorate continues to be used by some contemporary organizations which require a monarchical element within a democratic framework. One such organization is the
Ephorate of the
2697:
1180:
novel that recounts the Battle of
Thermopylae. In Chapter 15, the ephors appear when a delegation of mothers and wives goes to the council, requesting they be allowed to join the battle.
807:
to change his conjugal arrangements to their advantage. King Anaxandridas' wife was barren but he refused to divorce her so the ephors forced him to marry a second wife to provide heirs.
810:
Two ephors were always sent on military expeditions to ensure the king acted in line, and if not, could put the king on trial. Many kings were put on trial by the ephors, including
1006:
on multiple campaigns but suffered a dispute with King Agesilaus over the locals' loyalty to him. Lysander returned home upon the end of term as ephor (served in 243 BCE).
596:
Since political and economic decisions were made by majority vote, Sparta's policy could change quickly, when the vote of one ephor changed. For example, in 403 BCE,
660:, because the term of the ephors matched the Spartan year, which started with the first full Moon after the equinox, therefore the end of September or October.
924:
The ephors paid close attention to the education of young Spartans, and played a significant role in ensuring the education was up to standard. According to
732:
As the eponymous ephors were used as dates, a list compiling their names existed in Sparta, and is mentioned by Polybius. This list was perhaps published by
1074:(Peloponnese): Messene took its independence from Sparta in 370/69, but retained some of its institutions, such as the ephors, who are mentioned c.295.
1081:, Italy): The ephorate is attested in the 3rd century, but considering that its colony Herakleia also had ephors, Taras probably had ephors since the
374:
786:
decide whether one or both of the kings had transgressed in his dealings with the gods. A transgression could include any behavior that dishonored
663:
There was probably an age requirement of at least 30 years old to be elected ephor, the age from which a Spartan citizen was no longer considered
2039:
2015:
568:
According to Plutarch, the ephorate was born out of the necessity for leaders while the kings of Sparta were absent for long periods during the
2682:
2465:
637:
in 222 BCE. Although Sparta fell under Roman rule in 146 BCE, the position existed into the 2nd century CE, when it was likely abolished by
395:. They had an extensive range of judicial, religious, legislative, and military powers, and could shape Sparta's home and foreign affairs.
1888:
Millender, Ellen G. (2018). "Kingship: The History, Power, and Prerogatives of the Spartans' 'Divine' Dyarchy". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
2601:
1274:
1607:
Millender, Ellen (2018). "Kingship: The History, Power, and Prerogatives of the Spartans' 'Divine' Dyarchy". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
1490:
Les éphores. Études sur l'histoire et sur l'image de Sparte (VIIIe-IIIe siècle avant Jésus-Christ). Histoire ancienne et médiévale 50
1414:, p. 115; though he writes p. 117 that the absence of the ephors in the Rhetra could be the result of their unimportance at the time.
561:
and Pausanias' motivations remain disputed, most modern scholars think the ephors were created at the time of Theopompos, during the
2668:
2644:
2627:
1502:
1260:
1101:
1110:
contains several regional ephorates that carry out the administration of archaeological investigations in their respective regions
1463:
1583:
1052:, Libya): The city was a colony of Cyrene and adopted its institutions as a result. It therefore counted ephors and a gerousia.
1062:, Italy): The eponymous magistrate of the city was an ephor, because it reproduced the institutions of its mother-city, Taras.
675:
was considered "childish" by Aristotle, because influential men could easily manipulate the results by pressuring the jury.
2707:
2702:
2496:
1494:
367:
973:
Leon: Became an ephor at an older age and was the founder of a Spartan colony and Olympic victor (served in 419/8 BCE).
752:
1238:
278:
256:
1015:: Introduced legislation that destroyed the equal distribution of land that Lukourgos made in the fourth century BCE.
477:
Two different accounts of the origins of the ephorate exist in ancient sources. The earliest account is found in the
1424:
530:
991:: Known for abandoning the invasion of Athens and returning to Peloponnese in 446 BCE. He went voluntarily into
1401:, pp. 38, 39, "It is most unlikely that the Ephorate was introduced before the twenties of the eighth century."
894:
2712:
546:
360:
225:
96:
1068:(Libya): Cyrene had a gerousia and a board of five ephors from an early date. It was a foundation of Thera.
2632:
1118:
419:
408:
1155:
1114:
1024:
733:
697:
576:, and all citizens were eligible. The position of ephor was the only political office open to the whole
479:
106:
954:
1031:
and was charged with implementing a new bill which included debt-cancellation and land-redistribution.
760:
The ephors held numerous duties in legislative, judicial, financial, and executive matters. Following
2649:
2523:
1122:
865:
826:
542:
514:
505:
286:
41:
1045:
943:
Only 67 ephors are known by name before the end of the third century BCE, out of potentially 3000.
630:
597:
488:
20:
2404:
2490:
1787:
1565:
1177:
761:
713:
634:
525:. Modern scholars have identified the source of the second version in a lost work written by the
814:, who was found to have accepted a bribe from the Thessalians during his military expedition to
1548:
Gribble, David (2012). "Alcibiades at the Olympics: Performance, Politics and Civic Ideology".
2678:
2664:
2640:
2623:
2461:
1622:
Kennell, Nigel (2018). "Spartan Cultural Memory in the Roman Period". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
1498:
1256:
996:
925:
741:
705:
657:
645:
612:, who persuaded the Spartans to allow Alcibiades to take control of Sparta's peace mission to
554:
123:
2099:
Richer, Nicolas (2018). "Spartan Education in the Classical Period". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
2717:
2563:
2114:
2063:
1967:
1812:
1779:
1557:
1289:
1218:
1150:
1055:
1018:
889:. The ephors also were responsible for penalizing disobedience in the military using fines.
787:
725:
627:
128:
63:
2272:
van Wees, Hans (2018). "Luxury, Austerity and Equality in Sparta". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
1903:
Van Wees, Hans (2018). "Luxury, Austerity and Equality in Sparta". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
441:
804:
729:
wielding a lot of influence within the college, even though the eponymous was Onomantios.
251:
1009:
Nausikleidas: Accompanied and supported King Pausanias on expedition (served in 403 BCE).
622:
abolished the position of ephor in 227 BCE, and replaced them with a position called the
1521:
Ruze, Francoise (2018). "The Empire of the Spartans (404-371)". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
979:: Known for being the negotiator of peace treaty, named after him (served in 387/6 BCE).
2615:
2575:
2150:
1192:
1145:. King Leonidas thus leads his 300 'bodyguards' to Thermoplyae without their approval.
1107:
1082:
569:
562:
348:
343:
1987:
Lupi, Marcello (2018). "Sparta and the Persian Wars 499-478". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
2691:
2535:
2392:
1791:
1569:
1448:
Figueira, Thomas (2018). "Helotage and the Spartan Economy". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
1188:
1184:
1171:
1065:
638:
619:
526:
461:
403:
101:
78:
1162:
over the decision to delay the battle until after the religious harvest festival of
430:
1770:
Sahlins, Marshall (2011). "Twin-born with greatness: the dual kingship of Sparta".
1248:
1091:(Santorini Island): A board of three ephors were eponymous magistrates in the city.
1003:
982:
799:
688:
538:
338:
210:
50:
2300:
Stewart, Daniel (2018). "From Leuktra to Nabis, 371-192". In Powell, Anton (ed.).
875:(Commanders of the Guard) every year from men over the age of thirty. The chosen
456:
Several other Greek city-states with a Spartan ancestry also had ephors, such as
1488:
1159:
1132:
988:
821:
811:
684:
312:
2541:
1972:
1955:
1561:
1350:
1137:
976:
908:
737:
701:
672:
605:
317:
246:
184:
159:
2433:. Archived from the original on January 27, 2019. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
1816:
724:
One of the ephors was eponymous, i.e. he gave his name to the year, like the
2548:
2518:
1829:
1088:
1012:
777:
589:
510:
500:
484:
291:
241:
220:
179:
164:
144:
68:
533:
after he had been forced to abdicate and go into exile in 394 BCE. In this
2596:
2570:
2429:
1230:
1197:
1142:
1049:
967:
959:
932:
899:(adult lovers). When men between the ages of twenty and thirty (known as
853:
845:
841:
833:
815:
772:
768:
709:
693:
664:
550:
522:
492:
322:
273:
268:
215:
205:
174:
149:
113:
58:
1783:
2589:
1163:
1078:
1071:
1059:
1028:
885:
680:
641:
457:
307:
263:
73:
1956:"Divided Power and Eynomia: Deliberative Procedures in Ancient Sparta"
2530:
1341:
947:
849:
837:
613:
609:
601:
585:
573:
518:
517:. This version is then more prevalent in subsequent authors, such as
392:
169:
154:
34:
2040:"Xenophon, Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, chapter 4, section 6"
2016:"Xenophon, Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, chapter 4, section 3"
950:: Scion of wealthy family, son of Alcibiades (served in 413/2 BCE).
2558:
992:
953:
913:
820:
782:
751:
581:
496:
200:
1217:"ephor, n.". OED Online. March 2021. Oxford University Press.
513:, who tells that the ephorate was created by the Spartan king
917:. Through this system the ephors could directly penalize the
439:
428:
417:
406:
712:
was elected in 431 just after his victory against Athens at
2485:. 2001 Center St, Sixth FI, Berkeley, CA: Image Comics Inc.
911:
charged with supervising the education of the youth in the
708:
in 387 before becoming ephor in 370/69. The famous general
537:, Pausanias likely published Lycurgus' laws, including the
2622:, London, Routledge, 2002 (originally published in 1979).
1626:. Vol. 1. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 643–662.
487:, who traces its origins to the mythical Spartan lawgiver
19:
For the use of the title in modern Greek archaeology, see
1892:. Vol. 1. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. p. 463.
1452:. Vol. 1. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. p. 579.
1219:
https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/63224?redirectedFrom=ephor
1135:'s 2007 film adaptation of the Battle of Thermoplyae,
1991:. Vol. 1. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell. p. 282.
1907:. Vol. 1. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell. p. 212.
1611:. Vol. 1. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell. p. 455.
1525:. Vol. 1. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell. p. 323.
970:: Came from higher class family (served in 431/0 BC).
644:
and superseded by imperial governance as part of the
2153:, "Spartan justice? or the 'state of the ephors'?",
1108:
The Hellenic Republic Ministry of Culture and Sports
2620:Sparta and Lakonia, A Regional History 1300–362 BC
1804:Millender, E. (2001). Spartan Literacy Revisited.
1196:, ephors are referenced when Gillen describes the
903:) committed offenses they were brought before the
871:The ephors also had the authority to choose three
509:, written in the middle of the 4th century BCE by
2698:2nd-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire
1169:Ephors have appeared in Steven Pressfield's 1998
600:convinced three of the ephors to send an army to
995:, with the Spartans condemning him to death in
656:The ephorate elections took place close to the
1085:. The office was eponymous in the 3rd century.
2304:. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 390–391.
1121:, envisaged what would now be described as a
541:, which details the different element of the
368:
8:
2654:An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis
2103:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. p. 532.
1002:Lysander: Was sent as an ambassador to King
879:would then choose three hundred of the best
391:were a board of five magistrates in ancient
1584:"Plutarch, Cleomenes, chapter 8, section 1"
1129:, but the republic lasted only six months.
503:. A diverging version first appears in the
1104:, an American fraternal research society.
683:. The fact that influential kings such as
375:
361:
25:
2381:Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis
2368:Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis
2355:Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis
2342:Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis
2329:Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis
2316:Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis
1971:
2276:. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell. p. 205.
1154:also depicts the ephorate's role in the
1949:
1947:
1945:
1516:
1514:
1210:
1158:. They are shown conflicting with King
935:, the common meal of Spartan citizens.
330:
299:
233:
192:
136:
88:
40:
33:
2488:
2088:Constitution of the Lacedaimonians 4.6
1765:
1763:
1027:: Named eponymous ephor by his nephew
852:, and they were even able to sentence
848:, the secret police who repressed the
2393:Constitution of the RR&R Ephorate
2115:"Aelian: Various Histories. Book XIV"
2064:"Aelian: Various Histories. Book III"
1253:The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War
7:
2637:The Origins of the Peloponnesian War
1117:'s constitution of 1799, written by
2663:, London, Faber & Faber, 1962.
2602:Constitution of the Lacedaemonians
1425:"Plutarch • Life of Cleomenes; 10"
1275:Constitution of the Lacedaemonians
14:
1255:. page 29. Ithaca/New York 1969,
1102:Rascals, Rogues, and Rapscallions
572:. The ephors were elected by the
2656:, Oxford University Press, 2004.
2003:Origins of the Peloponnesian War
868:was always chaired by an ephor.
740:, whose lost works were used by
1464:"Plato, Laws, Book 4, page 712"
427:) comes from the Ancient Greek
1772:Journal of Ethnographic Theory
1:
2379:Hansen & Nielsen (eds.),
2366:Hansen & Nielsen (eds.),
2353:Hansen & Nielsen (eds.),
2340:Hansen & Nielsen (eds.),
2327:Hansen & Nielsen (eds.),
2314:Hansen & Nielsen (eds.),
16:Magistrates in ancient Sparta
2652:& Thomas Heine Nielsen,
2427:Snyder, Zack. "300 (2007)".
1495:Pantheon-Sorbonne University
921:by giving them large fines.
756:1862 imagining of the ephors
704:had concluded a treaty with
2639:, London, Duckworth, 1972.
2456:Pressfield, Steven (1998).
832:The ephors, along with the
2734:
1221:(accessed April 04, 2021).
856:to death without a trial.
440:
429:
418:
407:
18:
1973:10.1017/S0009838817000544
1875:2.6.14–16; A.H.M. Jones,
1562:10.1017/S0009838811000486
1148:Rudolph Maté's 1962 film
931:The ephors had their own
2677:, Hoboken, Wiley, 2018.
2495:: CS1 maint: location (
2460:. Australia: Doubleday.
1817:10.1525/ca.2001.20.1.121
1096:Ephors in modern culture
2673:Anton Powell (editor),
2481:Gillen, Kieron (2014).
2446:1962, 20th Century Fox.
1960:The Classical Quarterly
1550:The Classical Quarterly
1487:Nicolas Richer (1998).
491:—a version followed by
97:List of Kings of Sparta
2633:G. E. M. de Ste. Croix
2288:Description of Greece.
1919:Description of Greece.
1857:Constitution of Sparta
1235:Constitution of Sparta
1119:Francesco Mario Pagano
1021:: Served in 556/5 BCE.
963:
844:. They controlled the
829:
771:, every autumn at the
757:
700:in 440, while his son
438:, "on" or "over", and
2675:A Companion to Sparta
2405:"Ministry- Structure"
2302:A Companion to Sparta
2274:A Companion to Sparta
2119:penelope.uchicago.edu
2101:A Companion to Sparta
2068:penelope.uchicago.edu
2044:www.perseus.tufts.edu
2020:www.perseus.tufts.edu
1989:A Companion to Sparta
1954:Esu, Alberto (2017).
1905:A Companion to Sparta
1890:A Companion to Sparta
1624:A Companion to Sparta
1609:A Companion to Sparta
1588:www.perseus.tufts.edu
1523:A Companion to Sparta
1468:www.perseus.tufts.edu
1450:A Companion to Sparta
1429:penelope.uchicago.edu
1388:, pp. 34, 35, 42, 43.
1156:Battle of Thermopylae
957:
824:
755:
2708:Government of Sparta
2703:Ancient Greek titles
2650:Mogens Herman Hansen
1863:2.3.9–10; Plutarch,
1806:Classical Antiquity,
1692:, pp. 277, 278, 300.
1640:, pp. 252, 253, 291.
1123:constitutional court
866:Peloponnesian League
864:The congress of the
827:Spartan Constitution
588:, who ran Sparta as
543:Spartan constitution
42:Spartan Constitution
2157:, n°3, 2000, p. 14.
2139:Companion to Sparta
1867:12.1, 16.2; Plato,
1784:10.14318/hau1.1.003
1705:, pp. 275–277, 300.
1115:Neapolitan Republic
781:declare war on the
775:, the ephors would
631:Antigonus III Doson
29:Part of a series on
21:Ephor (archaeology)
2409:www.culture.gov.gr
2141:, p. 53 (note 45).
1871:3.692; Aristotle,
1572:– via JSTOR.
1412:Sparta and Lakonia
1178:historical fiction
964:
830:
788:the Greek pantheon
758:
646:province of Achaea
635:Battle of Sellasia
584:called the ephors
2683:978-1-4051-8869-2
2467:978-0-385-49251-5
2444:The 300 Spartans,
1354:, iii. 7, 15, 16.
825:A diagram of the
742:Diogenes Laertius
521:, and especially
416:, plural form of
385:
384:
2725:
2501:
2500:
2494:
2486:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2453:
2447:
2440:
2434:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2401:
2395:
2390:
2384:
2377:
2371:
2364:
2358:
2351:
2345:
2338:
2332:
2325:
2319:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2297:
2291:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2269:
2263:
2256:
2250:
2243:
2237:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2215:
2212:
2206:
2199:
2193:
2186:
2180:
2173:
2167:
2164:
2158:
2148:
2142:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2050:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2012:
2006:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1951:
1940:
1937:
1931:
1928:
1922:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1885:
1879:
1859:15.6; Xenophon,
1853:
1847:
1844:Life of Lycurgus
1841:
1835:
1825:
1819:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1767:
1758:
1751:
1745:
1738:
1732:
1725:
1719:
1712:
1706:
1699:
1693:
1686:
1680:
1673:
1667:
1660:
1654:
1647:
1641:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1518:
1509:
1508:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1474:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1421:
1415:
1408:
1402:
1395:
1389:
1382:
1376:
1361:
1355:
1339:
1333:
1326:
1320:
1313:
1307:
1300:
1294:
1285:
1279:
1270:
1264:
1246:
1240:
1228:
1222:
1215:
1151:The 300 Spartans
726:eponymous archon
574:popular assembly
445:
444:
434:
433:
423:
422:
412:
411:
377:
370:
363:
26:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2722:
2688:
2687:
2612:
2515:
2513:Ancient sources
2510:
2505:
2504:
2487:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2442:Maté, Rudolph.
2441:
2437:
2426:
2422:
2413:
2411:
2403:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2387:
2378:
2374:
2370:, pp. 300, 301.
2365:
2361:
2352:
2348:
2339:
2335:
2331:, pp. 259, 260.
2326:
2322:
2313:
2309:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2285:
2281:
2271:
2270:
2266:
2257:
2253:
2244:
2240:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2200:
2196:
2187:
2183:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2149:
2145:
2136:
2132:
2123:
2121:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2085:
2081:
2072:
2070:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2048:
2046:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2024:
2022:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2000:
1996:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1953:
1952:
1943:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1916:
1912:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1854:
1850:
1842:
1838:
1826:
1822:
1803:
1799:
1769:
1768:
1761:
1752:
1748:
1739:
1735:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1709:
1700:
1696:
1687:
1683:
1679:, pp. 298, 299.
1674:
1670:
1666:, pp. 296, 297.
1661:
1657:
1648:
1644:
1635:
1631:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1592:
1590:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1520:
1519:
1512:
1505:
1497:. p. 636.
1486:
1485:
1481:
1472:
1470:
1462:
1461:
1457:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1433:
1431:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1409:
1405:
1396:
1392:
1383:
1379:
1362:
1358:
1340:
1336:
1332:, v. 11, 1313a.
1327:
1323:
1314:
1310:
1301:
1297:
1286:
1282:
1271:
1267:
1247:
1243:
1229:
1225:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1098:
1042:
941:
862:
805:Anaxandridas II
750:
722:
720:Eponymous ephor
654:
628:Macedonian King
475:
470:
381:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2731:
2729:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2713:Autumn equinox
2710:
2705:
2700:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2685:
2671:
2659:G. L. Huxley,
2657:
2647:
2630:
2616:Paul Cartledge
2611:
2610:Modern sources
2608:
2607:
2606:
2594:
2576:Parallel Lives
2568:
2556:
2546:
2528:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2473:
2466:
2448:
2435:
2420:
2396:
2385:
2372:
2359:
2346:
2333:
2320:
2307:
2292:
2279:
2264:
2251:
2238:
2225:
2216:
2214:Thuc. 1.87.1-2
2207:
2194:
2181:
2168:
2159:
2151:Paul Cartledge
2143:
2137:Powell (ed.),
2130:
2106:
2091:
2079:
2055:
2031:
2007:
1994:
1979:
1966:(2): 353–373.
1941:
1932:
1923:
1910:
1895:
1880:
1848:
1836:
1820:
1811:(1), 121-164.
1797:
1759:
1746:
1733:
1731:, pp. 313–320.
1720:
1718:, pp. 320–322.
1707:
1694:
1681:
1668:
1655:
1642:
1629:
1614:
1599:
1575:
1540:
1528:
1510:
1503:
1479:
1455:
1440:
1416:
1403:
1390:
1377:
1356:
1348:, ii. 33, 58;
1334:
1321:
1308:
1295:
1280:
1265:
1241:
1223:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1086:
1075:
1069:
1063:
1053:
1041:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1022:
1016:
1010:
1007:
1000:
986:
980:
974:
971:
952:
951:
940:
939:Notable ephors
937:
861:
858:
749:
746:
721:
718:
658:Autumn equinox
653:
650:
570:Messenian Wars
563:Messenian Wars
474:
471:
469:
466:
383:
382:
380:
379:
372:
365:
357:
354:
353:
352:
351:
349:Spartan mirage
346:
341:
333:
332:
328:
327:
326:
325:
320:
315:
310:
302:
301:
297:
296:
295:
294:
289:
284:
283:
282:
276:
271:
261:
260:
259:
254:
249:
236:
235:
231:
230:
229:
228:
223:
218:
213:
208:
203:
195:
194:
190:
189:
188:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
139:
138:
134:
133:
132:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
110:
109:
104:
91:
90:
86:
85:
84:
83:
82:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
53:
45:
44:
38:
37:
31:
30:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2730:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2670:
2669:0-389-02040-0
2666:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2645:0-7156-0640-9
2642:
2638:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2628:0-415-26276-3
2625:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2553:Panathenaicus
2550:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2538:
2537:
2536:De re publica
2532:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2498:
2492:
2484:
2477:
2474:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2458:Gates of Fire
2452:
2449:
2445:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2424:
2421:
2410:
2406:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2389:
2386:
2382:
2376:
2373:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2308:
2303:
2296:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2280:
2275:
2268:
2265:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2226:
2223:Thuc. 1.114.3
2220:
2217:
2211:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2107:
2102:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1995:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1933:
1927:
1924:
1920:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1899:
1896:
1891:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1837:
1833:
1831:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1778:(1): 63–101.
1777:
1773:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1757:, pp. 72, 73.
1756:
1750:
1747:
1743:
1737:
1734:
1730:
1724:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1630:
1625:
1618:
1615:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1504:2-85944-347-9
1500:
1496:
1492:
1491:
1483:
1480:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1456:
1451:
1444:
1441:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1407:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1346:De re publica
1343:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1304:Panathenaicus
1299:
1296:
1293:, viii. 354b.
1292:
1291:
1284:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1261:0-8014-9556-3
1258:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1189:graphic novel
1186:
1185:Kieron Gillen
1181:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1172:Gates of Fire
1167:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1152:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1103:
1095:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1001:
998:
994:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
972:
969:
966:
965:
962:during combat
961:
956:
949:
946:
945:
944:
938:
936:
934:
929:
927:
922:
920:
916:
915:
910:
906:
902:
898:
897:
890:
888:
887:
882:
878:
874:
869:
867:
859:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
828:
823:
819:
817:
813:
808:
806:
801:
795:
791:
789:
784:
780:
779:
774:
770:
767:According to
765:
763:
754:
747:
745:
743:
739:
735:
730:
727:
719:
717:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
698:Olympic Games
695:
690:
686:
682:
676:
674:
668:
666:
661:
659:
651:
649:
647:
643:
640:
639:Roman Emperor
636:
632:
629:
625:
621:
620:Cleomenes III
617:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
594:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
566:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
507:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
481:
472:
467:
465:
463:
459:
454:
450:
448:
443:
437:
432:
426:
421:
415:
410:
405:
404:Ancient Greek
401:
396:
394:
390:
378:
373:
371:
366:
364:
359:
358:
356:
355:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
336:
335:
334:
329:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
305:
304:
303:
298:
293:
290:
288:
285:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
266:
265:
262:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
244:
243:
240:
239:
238:
237:
232:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
198:
197:
196:
191:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
142:
141:
140:
137:Social groups
135:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
108:
105:
103:
100:
99:
98:
95:
94:
93:
92:
87:
80:
79:Cleomenes III
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
60:
57:
56:
54:
52:
49:
48:
47:
46:
43:
39:
36:
32:
28:
27:
22:
2674:
2661:Early Sparta
2660:
2653:
2636:
2619:
2600:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2574:
2562:
2552:
2540:
2534:
2522:
2508:Bibliography
2482:
2476:
2457:
2451:
2443:
2438:
2428:
2423:
2412:. Retrieved
2408:
2399:
2388:
2380:
2375:
2367:
2362:
2354:
2349:
2341:
2336:
2328:
2323:
2315:
2310:
2301:
2295:
2287:
2282:
2273:
2267:
2259:
2254:
2246:
2241:
2233:
2228:
2219:
2210:
2202:
2197:
2189:
2184:
2176:
2171:
2162:
2154:
2146:
2138:
2133:
2122:. Retrieved
2118:
2109:
2100:
2094:
2087:
2082:
2071:. Retrieved
2067:
2058:
2047:. Retrieved
2043:
2034:
2023:. Retrieved
2019:
2010:
2002:
2001:Ste. Croix,
1997:
1988:
1982:
1963:
1959:
1935:
1930:Thuc. 1.67.3
1926:
1918:
1913:
1904:
1898:
1889:
1883:
1876:
1873:The Politics
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1843:
1839:
1828:
1823:
1808:
1805:
1800:
1775:
1771:
1754:
1749:
1741:
1736:
1728:
1723:
1715:
1710:
1702:
1697:
1689:
1684:
1676:
1671:
1663:
1658:
1650:
1645:
1637:
1632:
1623:
1617:
1608:
1602:
1591:. Retrieved
1587:
1578:
1556:(1): 45–71.
1553:
1549:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1522:
1489:
1482:
1471:. Retrieved
1467:
1458:
1449:
1443:
1432:. Retrieved
1428:
1419:
1411:
1406:
1399:Early Sparta
1398:
1393:
1385:
1380:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1349:
1345:
1337:
1329:
1324:
1319:, pp. 21–24.
1316:
1311:
1303:
1298:
1288:
1283:
1273:
1268:
1252:
1249:Donald Kagan
1244:
1234:
1226:
1213:
1191:
1182:
1170:
1168:
1149:
1147:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1112:
1106:
1099:
1037:
1036:Other Greek
1004:Agesilaus II
983:Sthenelaidas
942:
930:
923:
918:
912:
904:
900:
895:
891:
884:
880:
876:
872:
870:
863:
860:Other duties
831:
809:
800:Great Rhetra
796:
792:
776:
766:
759:
731:
723:
696:race at the
689:Agesilaus II
677:
673:voice voting
669:
662:
655:
623:
618:
616:in 420 BCE.
595:
577:
567:
558:
534:
504:
478:
476:
455:
451:
446:
435:
424:
413:
399:
397:
388:
386:
339:Laconophilia
211:Spartan army
118:
55:Legislators
51:Great Rhetra
2286:Pausanias.
2166:Thuc. 8.6.3
1939:Hdt. 5.40.1
1917:Pausanias.
1755:Les éphores
1742:Les éphores
1729:Les éphores
1716:Les éphores
1703:Les éphores
1690:Les éphores
1677:Les éphores
1664:Les éphores
1651:Les éphores
1638:Les éphores
1410:Cartledge,
1386:Les éphores
1328:Aristotle,
1317:Les éphores
1306:, 153, 154.
1302:Isocrates,
1160:Leotychidas
1133:Zack Snyder
1083:Archaic Era
1046:Euesperides
1040:with ephors
989:Cleandridas
877:hippagretes
873:hippagretai
812:Leotychidas
748:Legal power
734:Apollodoros
685:Cleomenes I
313:Gymnopaedia
107:Eurypontids
2692:Categories
2542:De Legibus
2414:2021-12-08
2344:, p. 1245.
2318:, p. 1243.
2258:Plutarch.
2245:Xenophon,
2232:Plutarch.
2201:Plutarch.
2188:Xenophon.
2177:Hellenica.
2175:Xenophon,
2124:2021-12-07
2086:Xenophon,
2073:2021-12-07
2049:2021-12-08
2025:2021-12-08
1855:Xenophon,
1846:, 28, 3–7.
1827:Xenophon,
1593:2021-11-14
1473:2021-11-14
1434:2021-12-08
1363:Plutarch,
1351:De Legibus
1272:Xenophon,
1205:References
977:Antalcidas
909:magistrate
905:paidonomos
883:to form a
738:Sosicrates
702:Antalkidas
633:after the
624:patronomos
608:'s use of
606:Alcibiades
515:Theopompos
398:The word "
318:Hyacinthia
247:Ambologera
185:Partheniae
160:Neodamodes
145:Spartiates
89:Government
2581:Cleomenes
2549:Isocrates
2519:Aristotle
2491:cite book
2383:, p. 783.
2357:, p. 563.
2247:Hellenica
2190:Hellenica
2005:, p. 111.
1861:Hellenica
1830:Hellenica
1792:170346238
1744:, p. 317.
1653:, p. 296.
1570:145098635
1536:Pol. 1270
1371:, 7, 29;
1365:Cleomenes
1056:Herakleia
1025:Agesilaos
1013:Epitadeus
778:pro forma
598:Pausanias
531:Pausanias
511:Aristotle
501:Isocrates
485:Herodotus
480:Histories
300:Festivals
292:Menelaion
242:Aphrodite
221:Xenelasia
180:Epeunacti
165:Trophimoi
69:Epitadeus
2597:Xenophon
2585:Lycurgus
2571:Plutarch
2564:Epistles
2524:Politics
2430:AllMovie
2249:. 3.4.10
2192:. 2.3.10
1753:Richer,
1740:Richer,
1727:Richer,
1714:Richer,
1701:Richer,
1688:Richer,
1675:Richer,
1662:Richer,
1649:Richer,
1636:Richer,
1397:Huxley,
1384:Richer,
1369:Lycurgus
1330:Politics
1315:Richer,
1290:Epistles
1278:, 8, 11.
1231:Xenophon
1198:Krypteia
1143:Xerxes I
1050:Benghazi
997:absentia
968:Brasidas
960:Brasidas
933:syssitia
919:hebontes
901:hebontes
881:hebontes
854:Perioeci
846:Crypteia
842:Perioeci
840:and the
834:Gerousia
816:Thessaly
773:crypteia
769:Plutarch
762:Lycurgus
710:Brasidas
694:quadriga
665:eromenos
652:Election
555:ekklesia
551:gerousia
523:Plutarch
506:Politics
493:Xenophon
489:Lycurgus
473:Creation
344:Laconism
323:Xanthika
287:Hyacinth
269:Caryatis
216:Syssitia
206:Crypteia
175:Sciritae
150:Perioeci
129:Navarchy
124:Ekklesia
119:Ephorate
114:Gerousia
59:Lycurgus
2718:Hadrian
2590:Moralia
2262:. 5.3-5
1375:, 779E.
1373:Moralia
1287:Plato,
1237:. 15.7.
1164:Carneia
1127:eforato
1079:Taranto
1077:Taras (
1072:Messene
1060:Lucania
1029:Agis IV
896:erastes
886:hippeis
714:Methone
681:Agis IV
642:Hadrian
590:despots
586:tyrants
468:History
425:éphoros
414:éphoroi
308:Carneia
264:Artemis
193:Society
74:Agis IV
2681:
2667:
2643:
2626:
2531:Cicero
2464:
2290:3.16.4
2179:2.3.10
1877:Sparta
1834:2.3.34
1790:
1568:
1538:b 7-10
1501:
1367:, 10;
1342:Cicero
1259:
1125:, the
1066:Cyrene
1038:poleis
1019:Chilon
958:Ephor
948:Endius
926:Aelian
850:Helots
838:Helots
706:Persia
614:Athens
610:Endius
602:Attica
539:Rhetra
519:Cicero
462:Cyrene
420:ἔφορος
409:ἔφοροι
400:ephors
393:Sparta
389:ephors
331:Legacy
279:Orthia
257:Temple
170:Mothax
155:Helots
102:Agiads
64:Chilon
35:Sparta
2559:Plato
2483:Three
2203:Ages.
1921:3.5.2
1788:S2CID
1566:S2CID
1193:Three
1089:Thera
993:exile
914:agoge
783:helot
582:Plato
578:damos
559:logos
547:kings
535:logos
529:king
527:Agiad
499:, or
497:Plato
458:Taras
447:horaō
274:Isora
252:Areia
234:Cults
226:Women
201:Agoge
2679:ISBN
2665:ISBN
2641:ISBN
2624:ISBN
2497:link
2462:ISBN
2260:Agis
2234:Per.
2205:32.1
2155:Dike
1869:Laws
1865:Agis
1499:ISBN
1257:ISBN
1113:The
907:, a
736:and
442:ὁράω
387:The
2587:),
1968:doi
1813:doi
1780:doi
1558:doi
1187:'s
1183:In
1176:an
1138:300
687:or
483:of
460:or
436:epi
431:ἐπί
402:" (
2694::
2635:,
2618:,
2599:,
2583:,
2573:,
2561:,
2551:,
2539:,
2533:,
2521:,
2493:}}
2489:{{
2407:.
2236:22
2117:.
2066:.
2042:.
2018:.
1964:67
1962:.
1958:.
1944:^
1809:20
1786:.
1774:.
1762:^
1586:.
1564:.
1554:62
1552:.
1513:^
1493:.
1466:.
1427:.
1344:,
1251:,
1233:,
818:.
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667:.
648:.
565:.
553:,
549:,
495:,
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2579:(
2567:.
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2526:.
2499:)
2470:.
2417:.
2127:.
2076:.
2052:.
2028:.
1976:.
1970::
1832:.
1815::
1794:.
1782::
1776:1
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1476:.
1437:.
1263:.
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