2088:
2011:
211:
Air at the top of a mountain is usually colder than the air in the valley below, but the arrangement is not unstable: if a parcel of air from the valley were somehow lifted up to the top of the mountain, when it arrived it would be even colder than the air already there, due to adiabatic cooling; it
869:
A number of approximate formulations are used for calculating equivalent potential temperature, since it is not easy to compute integrations along motion of the parcel. Bolton (1980) gives review of such procedures with estimates of error. His best approximation formula is used when accuracy is
212:
would be heavier than the ambient air, and would sink back toward its original position. Similarly, if a parcel of cold mountain-top air were to make the trip down to the valley, it would arrive warmer and lighter than the valley air, and would float back up the mountain.
198:
To understand this, consider dry convection in the atmosphere, where the vertical variation in pressure is substantial and adiabatic temperature change is important: As a parcel of air moves upward, the ambient pressure drops, causing the parcel to expand. Some of the
531:
1101:
257:, and thus accelerate further upward, a runaway condition (instability) even if potential temperature increases with height. The sufficient condition for an air column to be absolutely stable, even with respect to saturated convective motions, is that the
223:—the temperature the air would have if it were brought adiabatically to a reference pressure. The air around the mountain is stable because the air at the top, due to its lower pressure, has a higher potential temperature than the warmer air below.
1834:
1221:
207:
required to expand against the atmospheric pressure, so the temperature of the parcel drops, even though it has not lost any heat. Conversely, a sinking parcel is compressed and becomes warmer even though no heat is added.
2122:) have demonstrated that the air masses involved originated from high Arctic at an altitude of 300 to 400 hPa the previous week, went down toward the surface as they moved to the Tropics, then moved back up along the
2137:, equivalent potential temperature is also a useful measure of the static stability of the unsaturated atmosphere. Under normal, stably stratified conditions, the potential temperature increases with height,
2244:
2188:
1611:
274:
245:
to the surrounding air, partially offsetting the adiabatic cooling. A saturated parcel of air therefore cools less than a dry one would as it rises (its temperature changes with height at the
985:
991:
1445:
55:
2006:{\displaystyle \theta _{e}=T_{e}\left({\frac {p_{0}}{p}}\right)^{\kappa _{d}}\approx \left(T+{\frac {L_{v}}{c_{pd}}}r\right)\left({\frac {p_{0}}{p}}\right)^{\frac {R_{d}}{c_{pd}}}}
2510:
1732:
1660:
1385:
1254:
96:
1795:
720:
2076:
2044:
1826:
1763:
1687:
1316:
1287:
859:
800:
773:
684:
657:
606:
1107:
1467:
1358:
1336:
826:
740:
628:
577:
557:
2253:
is likely. Situations in which the equivalent potential temperature decreases with height, indicating instability in saturated air, are quite common.
2382:
2503:
1801:
Further more simplified formula is used (in, for example, Stull 1988 §13.1 p. 546) for simplicity, if it is desirable to avoid computing
2652:
2949:
2199:
2143:
2672:
2496:
2394:
2305:
2298:
2119:
2107:
2096:
1473:
A little more theoretical formula is commonly used in literature like Holton (1972) when theoretical explanation is important:
237:
1479:
2867:
2435:
526:{\displaystyle \theta _{e}=T\left({\frac {p_{0}}{p}}\right)^{R_{d}/(c_{pd}+r_{t}c)}H^{-r_{v}R_{v}/(c_{pd}+r_{t}c)}\exp \left}
162:) which is thus the observed condition almost all the time. The condition for stability of an incompressible fluid is that
2667:
2614:
876:
2928:
2087:
242:
57:, is a quantity that is conserved during changes to an air parcel's pressure (that is, during vertical motions in the
215:
So cool air lying on top of warm air can be stable, as long as the temperature decrease with height is less than the
2862:
2619:
2103:
1096:{\displaystyle \theta _{L}=T\left({\frac {p_{0}}{p-e}}\right)^{\kappa _{d}}\left({\frac {T}{T_{L}}}\right)^{0.28r}}
246:
2954:
2842:
2776:
2604:
1257:
232:
2476:
2449:
1469:
is mixing ratio of water vapor mass per mass (sometimes value is given in and that should be divided by 1000).
2709:
2561:
250:
1392:
25:
2910:
2832:
2699:
2764:
2724:
2677:
2662:
2644:
2454:
2250:
2047:
743:
159:
2811:
2704:
2694:
2657:
2272:
2134:
1447:
is the ratio of the specific gas constant to the specific heat of dry air at constant pressure (0.2854),
220:
190:
155:
66:
58:
2890:
2857:
2759:
2754:
2719:
2463:
216:
123:
2193:
and vertical motions are suppressed. If the equivalent potential temperature decreases with height,
2852:
2837:
2277:
2267:
2127:
1694:
1622:
2624:
2123:
1363:
1232:
74:
2340:
2905:
2801:
2689:
2531:
2431:
2301:
2294:
2111:
829:
179:
2130:. The back trajectories were evaluated using the constant equivalent potential temperatures.
1216:{\displaystyle T_{L}={\frac {1}{{\frac {1}{T_{d}-56}}+{\frac {\log _{e}(T/T_{d})}{800}}}}+56}
2471:
1770:
695:
2054:
2022:
1804:
1741:
1665:
1294:
1265:
837:
778:
751:
662:
635:
584:
2556:
200:
154:) can lower the center of gravity, and thus will occur spontaneously, rapidly producing a
2467:
2847:
1452:
1343:
1321:
811:
725:
613:
562:
542:
204:
2943:
2629:
2488:
2806:
2781:
2714:
2591:
803:
687:
241:). If the parcel of air continues to rise, water vapor condenses and releases its
231:
A rising parcel of air containing water vapor, if it rises far enough, reaches its
175:
69:, which remains constant only for unsaturated vertical motions (pressure changes).
182:, the density of the fluid at a fixed reference pressure. For an ideal gas (see
150:
lying above less dense fluid would be dynamically unstable: overturning motions (
2895:
2734:
2634:
2262:
1735:
862:
115:
107:
99:
2900:
2872:
2786:
2581:
2566:
2546:
2378:
151:
65:
during that pressure change. It is therefore more conserved than the ordinary
2742:
2571:
2551:
2536:
127:
111:
2920:
2882:
2796:
2541:
2115:
2092:
259:
equivalent potential temperature must increase monotonically with height.
254:
184:
119:
103:
102:
a parcel of air would reach if all the water vapor in the parcel were to
62:
2791:
144:
219:; the dynamically important quantity is not the temperature, but the
2106:
for characterisation of air masses. For instance, in a study of the
1797:
is specific heat of dry air at constant pressure (1005.7 J/(kg·K)).
2599:
2388:
2293:, published by Butterworth-Heinemann, January 1, 1989, 304 pages.
2086:
147:
2576:
2492:
2239:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \theta _{e}}{\partial z}}<0}
2183:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \theta _{e}}{\partial z}}>0}
227:
Effects of water condensation: equivalent potential temperature
178:
like air, the criterion for dynamic stability instead involves
2609:
1765:(2406 kJ/kg {at 40 °C} to 2501 kJ/kg {at 0 °C}), and
2095:
between
December 31, 1997, and January 1998 which caused the
2477:
10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<2983:TISAOA>2.0.CO;2
268:
The definition of the equivalent potential temperature is:
2450:"The 1998 Ice Storm, Analysis of a Planetary-Scale Event"
1606:{\displaystyle \theta _{e}\approx \theta _{L}\exp \left}
2202:
2146:
2057:
2025:
1837:
1807:
1773:
1744:
1697:
1689:, the temperature at the saturation level of the air,
1668:
1625:
1482:
1455:
1395:
1366:
1346:
1324:
1297:
1268:
1235:
1110:
994:
879:
840:
814:
781:
754:
728:
698:
665:
638:
616:
587:
565:
545:
277:
188:), the stability criterion for an air column is that
77:
28:
2249:
the atmosphere is unstable to vertical motions, and
170:
Stability of compressible air: potential temperature
2919:
2881:
2733:
2643:
2590:
2524:
2448:Gyakum, John R.; Roebber, Paul J. (December 2001).
2366:
2462:(12). American Meteorological Society: 2983–2997.
2238:
2182:
2070:
2038:
2005:
1820:
1789:
1757:
1726:
1681:
1662:is saturated mixing ratio of water at temperature
1654:
1605:
1461:
1439:
1379:
1352:
1330:
1310:
1281:
1248:
1215:
1095:
979:
853:
820:
794:
767:
734:
714:
678:
651:
622:
608:is a reference pressure that is taken as 1000 hPa,
600:
571:
551:
525:
90:
49:
2078:= specific gas constant for air (287.04 J/(kg·K))
980:{\displaystyle \theta _{e}=\theta _{L}\exp \left}
114:to a standard reference pressure, usually 1000
253:). Such a saturated parcel of air can achieve
2504:
2428:An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology
746:of dry air and of liquid water, respectively,
690:of dry air and of water vapour, respectively,
235:: it becomes saturated with water vapor (see
8:
2653:Convective available potential energy (CAPE)
2291:Short Course in Cloud Physics, Third Edition
164:density decreases monotonically with height
134:Its use in estimating atmospheric stability
2511:
2497:
2489:
2368:. Mon. Wea. Rev., Vol. 108, pp.1046-1053.
2475:
2213:
2203:
2201:
2157:
2147:
2145:
2062:
2056:
2030:
2024:
1991:
1981:
1975:
1960:
1954:
1930:
1920:
1914:
1892:
1887:
1872:
1866:
1855:
1842:
1836:
1812:
1806:
1778:
1772:
1749:
1743:
1715:
1702:
1696:
1673:
1667:
1643:
1630:
1624:
1590:
1577:
1562:
1549:
1536:
1523:
1516:
1500:
1487:
1481:
1454:
1428:
1419:
1413:
1400:
1394:
1371:
1365:
1345:
1323:
1302:
1296:
1273:
1267:
1240:
1234:
1189:
1180:
1165:
1158:
1140:
1130:
1124:
1115:
1109:
1084:
1072:
1063:
1050:
1045:
1022:
1016:
999:
993:
928:
919:
897:
884:
878:
845:
839:
813:
786:
780:
759:
753:
727:
703:
697:
670:
664:
643:
637:
615:
592:
586:
564:
544:
501:
485:
470:
460:
453:
429:
413:
401:
395:
385:
377:
359:
343:
331:
325:
320:
305:
299:
282:
276:
82:
76:
37:
27:
2415:An Introduction to Dynamical Meteorology
1440:{\displaystyle \kappa _{d}=R_{d}/c_{pd}}
50:{\displaystyle \left(\theta _{e}\right)}
2317:
1360:is the water vapor pressure (to obtain
1256:is (dry) potential temperature at the
559:is the temperature of air at pressure
143:Like a ball balanced on top of a hill,
1289:is (approximated) temperature at LCL,
203:of the parcel is used up in doing the
1318:is dew point temperature at pressure
802:are the total water and water vapour
7:
2615:Convective condensation level (CCL)
2417:. Academic Press, 1972, 319 pages.
193:increases monotonically with height
2821:Equivalent potential temperature (
2341:"Equivalent potential temperature"
2221:
2206:
2165:
2150:
14:
2673:Conditional symmetric instability
2519:Meteorological data and variables
2395:World Meteorological Organisation
2347:. American Meteorological Society
2120:University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
139:Stability of incompressible fluid
2620:Lifting condensation level (LCL)
2108:North American Ice Storm of 1998
2097:North American Ice Storm of 1998
17:Equivalent potential temperature
2605:Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
2868:Wet-bulb potential temperature
2710:Level of free convection (LFC)
1738:of evaporation at temperature
1721:
1708:
1649:
1636:
1568:
1555:
1542:
1529:
1195:
1174:
510:
478:
438:
406:
368:
336:
1:
2911:Pressure-gradient force (PGF)
2833:Sea surface temperature (SST)
2668:Convective momentum transport
630:is the pressure at the point,
110:, and the parcel was brought
2725:Bulk Richardson number (BRN)
1727:{\displaystyle L_{v}(T_{L})}
1655:{\displaystyle r_{s}(T_{L})}
249:, which is smaller than the
122:) which is roughly equal to
2929:Maximum potential intensity
2695:Free convective layer (FCL)
2658:Convective inhibition (CIN)
2430:, Kluwer, 1988, 666 pages,
2383:"Data processing procedure"
2345:AMS Glossary of Meteorology
1380:{\displaystyle \theta _{L}}
1249:{\displaystyle \theta _{L}}
238:Clausius–Clapeyron relation
91:{\displaystyle \theta _{e}}
2971:
2950:Atmospheric thermodynamics
2863:Wet-bulb globe temperature
2720:Maximum parcel level (MPL)
2329:. Oxford University Press.
865:of vapourisation of water.
247:moist adiabatic lapse rate
19:, commonly referred to as
2843:Thermodynamic temperature
2777:Forest fire weather index
2289:M K Yau and R.R. Rogers,
1258:lifted condensation level
233:lifted condensation level
2765:Equivalent temperature (
2678:Convective temperature (
2562:Surface weather analysis
2325:Emmanuel, Kerry (1994).
744:specific heat capacities
251:dry adiabatic lapse rate
2812:Potential temperature (
2557:Surface solar radiation
61:), even if water vapor
2802:Relative humidity (RH)
2690:Equilibrium level (EL)
2663:Convective instability
2455:Monthly Weather Review
2327:Atmospheric Convection
2240:
2184:
2099:
2072:
2048:equivalent temperature
2040:
2007:
1822:
1791:
1790:{\displaystyle c_{pd}}
1759:
1728:
1683:
1656:
1607:
1463:
1441:
1381:
1354:
1332:
1312:
1283:
1250:
1217:
1097:
981:
855:
822:
796:
769:
736:
716:
715:{\displaystyle c_{pd}}
688:specific gas constants
680:
653:
624:
602:
573:
553:
527:
160:stratification (water)
92:
51:
2273:Potential temperature
2241:
2185:
2110:, professors Gyakum (
2091:Back trajectories of
2090:
2073:
2071:{\displaystyle R_{d}}
2041:
2039:{\displaystyle T_{e}}
2008:
1823:
1821:{\displaystyle T_{L}}
1792:
1760:
1758:{\displaystyle T_{L}}
1729:
1684:
1682:{\displaystyle T_{L}}
1657:
1608:
1464:
1442:
1382:
1355:
1333:
1313:
1311:{\displaystyle T_{d}}
1284:
1282:{\displaystyle T_{L}}
1251:
1218:
1098:
982:
856:
854:{\displaystyle L_{v}}
823:
797:
795:{\displaystyle r_{v}}
770:
768:{\displaystyle r_{t}}
737:
717:
681:
679:{\displaystyle R_{v}}
654:
652:{\displaystyle R_{d}}
625:
603:
601:{\displaystyle p_{0}}
574:
554:
528:
221:potential temperature
191:potential temperature
156:stable stratification
93:
67:potential temperature
52:
2891:Atmospheric pressure
2858:Wet-bulb temperature
2760:Dry-bulb temperature
2755:Dew point depression
2200:
2144:
2102:This applies on the
2055:
2023:
1835:
1805:
1771:
1742:
1695:
1666:
1623:
1480:
1453:
1393:
1364:
1344:
1322:
1295:
1266:
1233:
1108:
992:
877:
838:
812:
779:
752:
726:
696:
663:
636:
614:
585:
563:
543:
275:
217:adiabatic lapse rate
124:atmospheric pressure
75:
26:
2853:Virtual temperature
2838:Temperature anomaly
2532:Adiabatic processes
2468:2001MWRv..129.2983G
2278:Weather forecasting
2268:Moist static energy
2128:St. Lawrence Valley
2625:Precipitable water
2236:
2180:
2124:Mississippi Valley
2100:
2068:
2036:
2003:
1818:
1787:
1755:
1724:
1679:
1652:
1603:
1459:
1437:
1377:
1350:
1328:
1308:
1279:
1246:
1213:
1093:
977:
851:
818:
792:
765:
732:
712:
676:
649:
620:
598:
569:
549:
523:
88:
47:
2937:
2936:
2906:Pressure gradient
2715:Lifted index (LI)
2228:
2172:
2112:McGill University
2000:
1969:
1939:
1881:
1597:
1462:{\displaystyle r}
1353:{\displaystyle e}
1331:{\displaystyle p}
1205:
1202:
1153:
1078:
1039:
934:
830:relative humidity
821:{\displaystyle H}
735:{\displaystyle c}
623:{\displaystyle p}
572:{\displaystyle p}
552:{\displaystyle T}
517:
314:
180:potential density
2962:
2955:Equivalent units
2513:
2506:
2499:
2490:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2445:
2439:
2424:
2418:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2401:
2375:
2369:
2364:D Bolton, 1980:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2322:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2229:
2227:
2219:
2218:
2217:
2204:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2181:
2173:
2171:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2148:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2066:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2012:
2010:
2009:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1986:
1985:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1964:
1955:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1925:
1924:
1915:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1876:
1867:
1860:
1859:
1847:
1846:
1827:
1825:
1824:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1764:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1753:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1719:
1707:
1706:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1677:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1647:
1635:
1634:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1594:
1585:
1584:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1554:
1553:
1541:
1540:
1528:
1527:
1517:
1505:
1504:
1492:
1491:
1468:
1466:
1465:
1460:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1423:
1418:
1417:
1405:
1404:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1317:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1307:
1306:
1288:
1286:
1285:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1206:
1204:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1184:
1170:
1169:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1145:
1144:
1131:
1125:
1120:
1119:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1083:
1079:
1077:
1076:
1064:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1044:
1040:
1038:
1027:
1026:
1017:
1004:
1003:
986:
984:
983:
978:
976:
972:
971:
967:
946:
942:
935:
933:
932:
920:
902:
901:
889:
888:
860:
858:
857:
852:
850:
849:
827:
825:
824:
819:
801:
799:
798:
793:
791:
790:
774:
772:
771:
766:
764:
763:
741:
739:
738:
733:
721:
719:
718:
713:
711:
710:
685:
683:
682:
677:
675:
674:
658:
656:
655:
650:
648:
647:
629:
627:
626:
621:
607:
605:
604:
599:
597:
596:
578:
576:
575:
570:
558:
556:
555:
550:
532:
530:
529:
524:
522:
518:
516:
506:
505:
493:
492:
476:
475:
474:
465:
464:
454:
442:
441:
434:
433:
421:
420:
405:
400:
399:
390:
389:
372:
371:
364:
363:
351:
350:
335:
330:
329:
319:
315:
310:
309:
300:
287:
286:
106:, releasing its
97:
95:
94:
89:
87:
86:
56:
54:
53:
48:
46:
42:
41:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2960:
2959:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2915:
2877:
2827:
2771:
2749:
2729:
2684:
2639:
2586:
2520:
2517:
2487:
2486:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2425:
2421:
2412:
2408:
2399:
2397:
2377:
2376:
2372:
2363:
2359:
2350:
2348:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2286:
2259:
2220:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2197:
2164:
2153:
2149:
2142:
2141:
2118:) and Roebber (
2085:
2058:
2053:
2052:
2026:
2021:
2020:
1987:
1977:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1926:
1916:
1907:
1903:
1888:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1851:
1838:
1833:
1832:
1808:
1803:
1802:
1774:
1769:
1768:
1745:
1740:
1739:
1711:
1698:
1693:
1692:
1669:
1664:
1663:
1639:
1626:
1621:
1620:
1586:
1573:
1572:
1558:
1545:
1532:
1519:
1518:
1512:
1496:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1451:
1450:
1424:
1409:
1396:
1391:
1390:
1367:
1362:
1361:
1342:
1341:
1320:
1319:
1298:
1293:
1292:
1269:
1264:
1263:
1236:
1231:
1230:
1185:
1161:
1160:
1136:
1135:
1129:
1111:
1106:
1105:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1046:
1028:
1018:
1012:
1011:
995:
990:
989:
954:
950:
924:
918:
914:
913:
909:
893:
880:
875:
874:
841:
836:
835:
810:
809:
806:, respectively,
782:
777:
776:
755:
750:
749:
724:
723:
699:
694:
693:
666:
661:
660:
639:
634:
633:
612:
611:
588:
583:
582:
561:
560:
541:
540:
497:
481:
477:
466:
456:
455:
449:
425:
409:
391:
381:
373:
355:
339:
321:
301:
295:
294:
278:
273:
272:
266:
229:
201:internal energy
172:
141:
136:
78:
73:
72:
33:
29:
24:
23:
12:
11:
5:
2968:
2966:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2942:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2931:
2925:
2923:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2887:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2848:Vapor pressure
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2818:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2739:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2649:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2508:
2501:
2493:
2485:
2484:
2440:
2419:
2406:
2370:
2357:
2332:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2285:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2258:
2255:
2247:
2246:
2235:
2232:
2226:
2223:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2191:
2190:
2179:
2176:
2170:
2167:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2104:synoptic scale
2084:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2065:
2061:
2050:
2033:
2029:
2014:
2013:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1865:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1815:
1811:
1799:
1798:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1766:
1752:
1748:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1690:
1676:
1672:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1614:
1613:
1601:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1580:
1576:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1471:
1470:
1458:
1448:
1434:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1388:
1374:
1370:
1349:
1339:
1327:
1305:
1301:
1290:
1276:
1272:
1261:
1243:
1239:
1224:
1223:
1212:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1151:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1103:
1090:
1087:
1082:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1025:
1021:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1002:
998:
987:
975:
970:
966:
963:
960:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
938:
931:
927:
923:
917:
912:
908:
905:
900:
896:
892:
887:
883:
867:
866:
848:
844:
833:
817:
807:
789:
785:
762:
758:
747:
731:
709:
706:
702:
691:
673:
669:
646:
642:
631:
619:
609:
595:
591:
580:
568:
548:
534:
533:
521:
515:
512:
509:
504:
500:
496:
491:
488:
484:
480:
473:
469:
463:
459:
452:
448:
445:
440:
437:
432:
428:
424:
419:
416:
412:
408:
404:
398:
394:
388:
384:
380:
376:
370:
367:
362:
358:
354:
349:
346:
342:
338:
334:
328:
324:
318:
313:
308:
304:
298:
293:
290:
285:
281:
265:
262:
228:
225:
174:If a fluid is
171:
168:
140:
137:
135:
132:
85:
81:
45:
40:
36:
32:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2967:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2901:Barotropicity
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2732:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2630:Precipitation
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2514:
2509:
2507:
2502:
2500:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2423:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2396:
2392:
2390:
2384:
2380:
2374:
2371:
2367:
2361:
2358:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2333:
2328:
2321:
2318:
2311:
2307:
2306:0-7506-3215-1
2303:
2300:
2299:9780750632157
2296:
2292:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2233:
2230:
2224:
2214:
2210:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2177:
2174:
2168:
2158:
2154:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2082:
2063:
2059:
2051:
2049:
2031:
2027:
2019:
2018:
2017:
1995:
1992:
1988:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1863:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1839:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1813:
1809:
1782:
1779:
1775:
1767:
1750:
1746:
1737:
1716:
1712:
1703:
1699:
1691:
1674:
1670:
1644:
1640:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1599:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1563:
1559:
1550:
1546:
1537:
1533:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1456:
1449:
1432:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1389:
1387:for dry air),
1372:
1368:
1347:
1340:
1325:
1303:
1299:
1291:
1274:
1270:
1262:
1259:
1241:
1237:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1210:
1207:
1199:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1149:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1104:
1088:
1085:
1080:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1051:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1023:
1019:
1013:
1008:
1005:
1000:
996:
988:
973:
968:
964:
961:
958:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
936:
929:
925:
921:
915:
910:
906:
903:
898:
894:
890:
885:
881:
873:
872:
871:
864:
846:
842:
834:
831:
815:
808:
805:
804:mixing ratios
787:
783:
760:
756:
748:
745:
729:
707:
704:
700:
692:
689:
671:
667:
644:
640:
632:
617:
610:
593:
589:
581:
566:
546:
539:
538:
537:
519:
513:
507:
502:
498:
494:
489:
486:
482:
471:
467:
461:
457:
450:
446:
443:
435:
430:
426:
422:
417:
414:
410:
402:
396:
392:
386:
382:
378:
374:
365:
360:
356:
352:
347:
344:
340:
332:
326:
322:
316:
311:
306:
302:
296:
291:
288:
283:
279:
271:
270:
269:
263:
261:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
239:
234:
226:
224:
222:
218:
213:
209:
206:
202:
196:
194:
192:
187:
186:
181:
177:
169:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
146:
138:
133:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
112:adiabatically
109:
105:
101:
83:
79:
70:
68:
64:
60:
43:
38:
34:
30:
22:
18:
2822:
2820:
2813:
2807:Mixing ratio
2782:Haines Index
2766:
2744:
2679:
2592:Condensation
2459:
2453:
2443:
2427:
2422:
2414:
2413:J R Holton,
2409:
2398:. Retrieved
2386:
2373:
2365:
2360:
2349:. Retrieved
2344:
2335:
2326:
2320:
2290:
2284:Bibliography
2248:
2192:
2132:
2101:
2015:
1800:
1615:
1472:
1225:
868:
535:
267:
258:
236:
230:
214:
210:
197:
189:
183:
176:compressible
173:
163:
142:
71:
20:
16:
15:
2896:Baroclinity
2743:Dew point (
2735:Temperature
2635:Water vapor
2426:R B Stull,
2263:Meteorology
2126:toward the
1736:latent heat
863:latent heat
243:latent heat
108:latent heat
100:temperature
2944:Categories
2873:Wind chill
2787:Heat index
2645:Convection
2582:Wind shear
2567:Visibility
2547:Lapse rate
2436:9027727694
2400:2009-08-02
2391:Evaluation
2379:Met Office
2351:2020-11-03
2312:References
2251:convection
2093:air masses
158:(see also
152:convection
59:atmosphere
2572:Vorticity
2552:Lightning
2537:Advection
2222:∂
2211:θ
2207:∂
2166:∂
2155:θ
2151:∂
2135:mesoscale
1901:≈
1890:κ
1840:θ
1510:
1498:θ
1494:≈
1485:θ
1398:κ
1369:θ
1238:θ
1172:
1147:−
1048:κ
1033:−
997:θ
937:−
907:
895:θ
882:θ
447:
379:−
280:θ
128:sea level
80:θ
63:condenses
35:θ
2921:Velocity
2883:Pressure
2797:Humidity
2700:Helicity
2542:Buoyancy
2257:See also
2116:Montreal
870:needed:
742:are the
686:are the
255:buoyancy
185:gas laws
104:condense
2792:Humidex
2705:K Index
2525:General
2464:Bibcode
2133:In the
2016:Where:
1616:Where:
1226:Where:
861:is the
828:is the
536:Where:
264:Formula
98:is the
21:theta-e
2434:
2304:
2297:
1260:(LCL),
145:denser
118:(1000
2600:Cloud
2389:AMDAR
2083:Usage
962:0.448
148:fluid
2577:Wind
2432:ISBN
2302:ISBN
2295:ISBN
2231:<
2175:>
1086:0.28
940:1.78
922:3036
775:and
722:and
659:and
205:work
120:mbar
2610:Fog
2472:doi
2460:129
1734:is
1507:exp
1200:800
1163:log
904:exp
444:exp
126:at
116:hPa
2946::
2470:.
2458:.
2452:.
2393:.
2387:E-
2385:.
2381:.
2343:.
2114:,
2046:=
1828::
1211:56
1150:56
195:.
166:.
130:.
2828:)
2826:e
2823:θ
2816:)
2814:θ
2772:)
2770:e
2767:T
2750:)
2748:d
2745:T
2685:)
2683:c
2680:T
2512:e
2505:t
2498:v
2482:.
2480:.
2474::
2466::
2438:.
2403:.
2354:.
2234:0
2225:z
2215:e
2178:0
2169:z
2159:e
2064:d
2060:R
2032:e
2028:T
1996:d
1993:p
1989:c
1983:d
1979:R
1972:)
1967:p
1962:0
1958:p
1952:(
1946:)
1942:r
1935:d
1932:p
1928:c
1922:v
1918:L
1912:+
1909:T
1905:(
1894:d
1884:)
1879:p
1874:0
1870:p
1864:(
1857:e
1853:T
1849:=
1844:e
1814:L
1810:T
1783:d
1780:p
1776:c
1751:L
1747:T
1722:)
1717:L
1713:T
1709:(
1704:v
1700:L
1675:L
1671:T
1650:)
1645:L
1641:T
1637:(
1632:s
1628:r
1600:]
1592:L
1588:T
1582:d
1579:p
1575:c
1569:)
1564:L
1560:T
1556:(
1551:v
1547:L
1543:)
1538:L
1534:T
1530:(
1525:s
1521:r
1514:[
1502:L
1489:e
1457:r
1433:d
1430:p
1426:c
1421:/
1415:d
1411:R
1407:=
1402:d
1373:L
1348:e
1338:,
1326:p
1304:d
1300:T
1275:L
1271:T
1242:L
1208:+
1196:)
1191:d
1187:T
1182:/
1178:T
1175:(
1167:e
1156:+
1142:d
1138:T
1133:1
1127:1
1122:=
1117:L
1113:T
1089:r
1081:)
1074:L
1070:T
1066:T
1061:(
1052:d
1042:)
1036:e
1030:p
1024:0
1020:p
1014:(
1009:T
1006:=
1001:L
974:]
969:)
965:r
959:+
956:1
952:(
948:r
944:)
930:L
926:T
916:(
911:[
899:L
891:=
886:e
847:v
843:L
832:,
816:H
788:v
784:r
761:t
757:r
730:c
708:d
705:p
701:c
672:v
668:R
645:d
641:R
618:p
594:0
590:p
579:,
567:p
547:T
520:]
514:T
511:)
508:c
503:t
499:r
495:+
490:d
487:p
483:c
479:(
472:v
468:r
462:v
458:L
451:[
439:)
436:c
431:t
427:r
423:+
418:d
415:p
411:c
407:(
403:/
397:v
393:R
387:v
383:r
375:H
369:)
366:c
361:t
357:r
353:+
348:d
345:p
341:c
337:(
333:/
327:d
323:R
317:)
312:p
307:0
303:p
297:(
292:T
289:=
284:e
84:e
44:)
39:e
31:(
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