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the pisiform is the back of the knee. Below the knee is the cannon bone which is also known as the 3rd metacarpal. 55 million years ago when the
Eohippus existed, the cannon bone used to be the 3rd metacarpal of the foot. Its current enlargement took place in order to increase the height of the limb, which helps increase stride length. Behind the cannon bone are the splint bones. The splint bones are also known as the 2nd and 4th metacarpal and regressed 25 - 35 million years ago during the time of the Miohippus. Below the cannon bone is the fetlock joint in which lays a structure of many bones. Firstly are the sesamoid bones that act as part of the system that allows the leg to drop as pressure is applied and spring back up as pressure is released. Below this is the proximal phalanx also known as the long pastern which is followed by the middle phalanx (short pastern). Below these bones are the navicular bone and the distal phalanx. Below the navicular bone is the navicular bursa. There are three main muscle groups of the forelimb. The
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does not usually cause lameness or other problems, prolonged periods of stocking up can lead to other skin issues. Older horses and horse with heavy muscling are more prone to this condition. A shoe boil is an injury that occurs when there is trauma to the bursal sac of the elbow, causing inflammation and swelling. Multiple occurrences can cause a cosmetic sore and scar tissue, called a capped elbow, or infections. Shoe boils generally occur when a horse hits its elbow with a hoof or shoe when lying down. Windpuffs, or swelling to the back of the fetlock caused by inflammation of the sheaths of the deep digital flexor tendon, appear most often in the rear legs. Soft and fluid-filled, the swelling may initially be accompanied by heat and pain, but can remain long after the initial injury has healed without accompanying lameness. Repeated injuries to the tendon sheath, often caused by excessive training or work on hard surfaces, can cause larger problems and lameness.
143:
toes gradually disappeared into the tiny vestigial remnants that are found today on the lower leg bones. Prairie-dwelling equine species developed hooves and longer legs that were both sturdy and light weight to help them evade predators and cover longer distances in search of food. Forest-dwelling species retained shorter legs and three toes, which helped them on softer ground. Approximately 35 million years ago, a global drop in temperature created a major habitat change, leading to the transition of many forests to grasslands. This led to a die-out among forest-dwelling equine species, eventually leaving the long-legged, one-toed
410:
legs perform the functions of absorbing impact, bearing weight, and providing thrust. Good movement is sound, symmetrical, straight, free and coordinated, all of which depend on many factors, including conformation, soundness, care and training of the horse, and terrain and footing. The proportions and length of the bones and muscles in the legs can significantly impact the way an individual horse moves. The angles of certain bones, especially in the hind leg, shoulders, and pasterns, also affect movement.
430:, where the forehand then acts to control speed, balance and turning. The range of motion and propulsion power in horses varies significantly, based on the placement of muscle attachment to bone. The muscles are attached to bone relatively high in the body, which results in small differences in attachment making large differences in movement. A change of .5 inches (1.3 cm) in muscle attachment can affect range of motion by 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) and propulsion power by 20 percent.
320:
while moving, and prevents the fetlock joint from hyperextending, especially when the joint is bearing weight. During movement, the apparatus stores and releases energy in the manner of a spring: stretching while the joint is extended and contracting (and thus releasing energy) when the joint flexes. This provides a rebound effect, assisting the foot in leaving the ground. This ability to use stored energy makes horses' gaits more efficient than other large animals, including
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91:, or movement at an abnormal gait. Injuries to and problems with horse legs can be relatively minor, such as stocking up, which causes swelling without lameness, or quite serious. Even leg injuries that are not immediately fatal may still be life-threatening to horses, as their bodies are adapted to bear weight on all four legs and serious problems can result if this is not possible.
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33:
71:, which locks major joints in the limbs, allowing horses to remain standing while relaxed or asleep. The limbs play a major part in the movement of the horse, with the legs performing the functions of absorbing impact, bearing weight, and providing thrust. In general, the majority of the weight is borne by the front legs, while the rear legs provide propulsion. The
426:. While the forelimbs carry the weight the hind limbs provide propulsion, due to the angle between the stifle and hock. This angle allows the hind legs to flex as weight is applied during the stride, then release as a spring to create forward or upward movement. The propulsion is then transmitted to the forehand through the structures of the
256:(cannon) and small metatarsal (splint) bones. Below these, the arrangement of sesamoid and phalanx bones and joints is the same as in the forelimbs. When the horse is moving, the distal interphalangeal joint (coffin joint) has the highest amount of stresses applied to it of any joint in the body, and it can be significantly affected by
530:(calf knees), inside (knock knees) or outside (bowleg); short or long pasterns; and many problems with the feet. Common defects of the hind limbs include the same base-wide and base-narrow stances and problems with the feet as the fore limbs, as well as multiple issues with the angle formed by the hock joint being too angled (
597:, and other infections. If a horse loses the use of one leg temporarily, there is the risk that other legs will break down during the recovery period because they are carrying an abnormal weight load. While horses periodically lie down for brief periods of time, a horse cannot remain lying in the equivalent of a human's "
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Horses use a group of ligaments, tendons and muscles known as the stay apparatus to "lock" major joints in the limbs, allowing them to remain standing while relaxed or asleep. The lower part of the stay apparatus consists of the suspensory apparatus, which is the same in both sets of limbs, while the
585:
There are numerous issues that can occur with horses' legs that may not necessarily cause lameness. Stocking up is an issue that occurs in horses that are held in stalls for multiple days after periods of activity. Fluid collects in the lower legs, producing swelling and often stiffness. Although it
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The ideal horse has legs which are straight, correctly set and symmetrical. Correct angles of major bones, clean, well-developed joints and tendons, and well-shaped, properly-proportioned hooves are also necessary for ideal conformation. "No legs, no horse" and "no hoof, no horse" are common sayings
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The anatomy of the forelegs begins at the scapula. This is the shoulder where the scapula contributes to the movement of the limb. The next bone is the humerus which leads onto the radius below. The radius is then connected to the bones of the knee. The carpus is located at the front of the knee and
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in the limbs leads to improved movement and decreased likelihood of injuries. Large differences in bone structure and size can be found in horses used for different activities, but correct conformation remains relatively similar across the spectrum. Structural defects, as well as other problems such
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The final structures are the lateral cartilages, connected to the upper coffin bone, which act as the flexible heels, allowing hoof expansion. These structures allow the hoof to perform many functions. It acts as a support and traction point, shock absorber and system for pumping blood back through
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are seldom found with serious conformation problems in the leg, as foals with these defects are generally easy prey for predators. Foals raised by humans have a better chance for survival, as there are therapeutic treatments that can improve even major conformation problems. However, some of these
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A sequence of movements in which a horse takes a step with all four legs is called a stride. During each step, with each leg, a horse completes four movements: the swing phase, the grounding or impact, the support period and the thrust. While the horse uses muscles throughout its body to move, the
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The digital cushion is a blood vessel-filled structure located in the rear of the hoof, which assists with blood flow throughout the leg. At the top of the hoof wall is the corium, tissue which continually produces the horn of the outer hoof wall, which is in turn protected by the periople, a thin
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Common defects of the forelegs include base-wide and base-narrow, where the legs are farther apart or closer together on the ground then they are when they originate in the chest; toeing-in and toeing-out, where the hooves point inwards or outwards; knee deviations to the front (buck knees), rear
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The main tendon in the hoof is the deep digital flexor tendon, which connects to the bottom of the coffin bone. The impact zone on the bottom of the hoof includes the sole, which has an outer, insensitive layer and a sensitive inner layer, and the frog, which lies between the heels and assists in
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According to evolutionary theory, equine hooves and legs have evolved over millions of years to the form in which they are found today. The original ancestors of horses had shorter legs, terminating in five-toed feet. Over millennia, a single hard hoof evolved from the middle toe, while the other
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There are two apparatus in the limbs of the horse - the suspensory apparatus and the stay apparatus. The fetlock joint is supported by group of lower leg ligaments, tendons and bones known as the suspensory apparatus. This apparatus carries much of the weight of the horse, both when standing and
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animal (one whose main form of defense is running), its bones evolved to facilitate speed in a forward direction over hard ground, without the need for grasping, lifting or swinging. The ulna shrank in size and its top portion became the point of the elbow, while the bottom fused with the radius
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techniques. Although having a small range of movement, the proximal interphalangeal joint (pastern joint) is also influential to the movement of the horse, and can change the way that various shoeing techniques affect tendons and ligaments in the legs. Due to the horse's development as a
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upper portion differs between the fore and hind limbs. The upper portion of the stay apparatus in the forelimbs includes the major attachment, extensor and flexor muscles and tendons. The same portion in the hind limbs consists of the major muscles, ligaments and tendons, as well as the
515:. Although certain defects and blemishes may not directly cause lameness, they can often put stress on other parts of the body, which can then cause lameness or injuries. Poor conformation and structural defects do not always cause lameness, however, as was shown by the champion
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The forelegs carry the majority of the weight, usually around 60 percent, with exact percentages depending on speed and gait. Movement adds concussive force to weight, increasing the likelihood that a poorly built leg will buckle under the strain. At different points in the
573:. While horses with poor conformation and congenital conditions are more likely to develop lameness, trauma, infection and acquired abnormalities are also causes. The largest cause of poor performance in equine athletes is lameness caused by abnormalities in the
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systems. The majority of lameness is found in the forelimbs, with at least 95 percent of these cases stemming from problems in the structures from the knee down. Lameness in the hind limbs is caused by problems in the hock and/or stifle 80 percent of the time.
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324:. The suspensory apparatus consists of the suspensory ligament, the check ligament, the deep digital flexor tendon, the superficial flexor tendon, the common digital extensor tendon and the sesamoid bones.
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outer layer which prevents the interior structures from drying out. The wall is connected to the coffin bone by laminar attachments, a flexible layer which helps to suspend and protect the coffin bone.
433:"Form to function" is a term used in the equestrian world to mean that the "correct" form or structure of a horse is determined by the function for which it will be used. The legs of a horse used for
67:
that support the weight of the equine body. They include two apparatuses: the suspensory apparatus, which carries much of the weight, prevents overextension of the joint and absorbs shock, and the
569:
Lameness in horses is movement at an abnormal gait due to pain in any part of the body. It is most commonly caused by pain to the legs or feet. Lameness can also be caused by abnormalities in the
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are also important structures, providing support, traction and shock absorption, and containing structures that provide blood flow through the lower leg. As the horse developed as a
444:, where forward speed is most important. However, despite the differences in bone structure needed for various uses, correct conformation of the leg remains relatively similar.
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119:, and many extinct families and species. Members of this order walk on either one toe (like horses) or three toes (like rhinos and tapirs). This is in contrast to
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animal, with a primary defense mechanism of running over hard ground, its legs evolved to the long, sturdy, light-weight, one-toed form seen today.
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Leg injuries that are not immediately fatal still may be life-threatening because a horse's weight must be distributed on all four legs to prevent
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straightens the elbow and foreleg, running from the elbow to the bottom of the shoulder blade. The muscles which extend the lower leg are called
703:
1391:
1370:
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Solounias, Nikos; Danowitz, Melinda; Stachtiaris, Elizabeth; Khurana, Abhilasha; Araim, Marwan; Sayegh, Marc; Natale, Jessica (2018).
803:
304:, the large muscles in the hip, extend the femur. Forward motion and flexion of the hind legs is achieved through the movement of the
745:"Effect of toe and heel elevation on calculated tendon strains in the horse and the influence of the proximal interphalangeal joint"
793:
422:, horses are encouraged to shift their weight more to their hindquarters, which enables lightness of the forehand and increased
123:, members of the order Artiodactyla, which walk on cloven hooves, or two toes. This order includes many species associated with
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group, provide forward motion of the body and rearward extension of the hind limbs. Extension of the hock is achieved by the
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The hoof of the horse contains over a dozen different structures, including bones, cartilage, tendons and tissues. The
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in humans. A similar change occurred in the fibula bone of the hind limbs. These changes were first seen in the genus
909:
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Lawson, Sian E. M.; Chateau, Henry; Pourcelot, Philippe; Denoix, Jean-Marie; Crevier-Denoix, Nathalie (May 2007).
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conformation problems can be transmitted to offspring, and so these horses are a poor choice for breeding stock.
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437:, in which quick starts, stops and turns are required, will be shorter and more thickly built than those of a
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in the equine world. Individual horses may have structural defects, some of which lead to poor movement or
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or pedal bone is the major hoof bone, supporting the majority of the weight. Behind the coffin bone is the
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group of muscles on the front of the femur, while the muscles at the back of the hindquarters, called the
224:, and coffin joint, outwardly evidenced by the coronary band. Each hind limb of the horse runs from the
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The United States Pony Club Manual of
Horsemanship: Advanced Horsemanship – B, HA, A Levels
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947:"The evolution and anatomy of the horse manus with an emphasis on digit reduction"
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Remnants of the "lost" digits of the horse are theorized to be found on the hoof.
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292:, while the flexion of the lower leg joints is achieved through movement of the
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601:" because of the risk of developing sores, internal damage, and congestion.
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296:. There are five main muscles and muscle groups in the hind legs. The
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Structures made of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments
1172:. Middle California Region - United States Pony Clubs. p. 1
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136:
48:
882:. Davis: University of California. pp. 6–7. Archived from
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above the radiocarpal (knee) joint, which corresponds to the
875:
Ferraro, Gregory L.; Stover, Susan M.; Whitcomb, Mary Beth.
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flexes the hind leg and runs from stifle to hip, while the
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of today, which includes the horse, as the sole surviving
704:"Functional Anatomy of the Equine Interphalangeal Joints"
826:. Carnegie Mellon University. p. 7. Archived from
522:, who was considered undersized and knobby-kneed for a
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Comparison of the size and structure of the legs of a
216:(long pastern), pastern joint, second phalanx (short
798:. The Russell Meerdink Company Ltd. pp. 9–10.
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643:. University of California Museum of Paleontology
621:. University of California Museum of Paleontology
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1045:
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1078:Hansen, D. Karen; Schafer, Stephen R. (2007).
228:to the coffin bone. After the pelvis come the
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184:(coffin or pedal) bones. In between are the
1413:Equine Anatomy and Physiology: The Forelimb
910:"Horses' Physiologic Responses to Exercise"
1167:"Movement and Conformational Unsoundness"
970:
768:
176:Each forelimb of the horse runs from the
877:"Suspensory Ligament Injuries in Horses"
1304:Smith Thomas, Heather (March 1, 2009).
610:
1365:(Second ed.). Howell Book House.
280:, approximately 17 million years ago.
87:as injuries and infections, can cause
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1010:
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204:(cannon), small metacarpal (splint),
7:
1357:Giffin, James M.; Gore, Tom (1998).
665:. American Museum of Natural History
619:"Introduction to the Perissodactyla"
559:with its legs wrapped for protection
368:, itself cushioned by the navicular
1110:. United States Dressage Federation
1329:"State of the Art to Save Barbaro"
1281:Loving, Nancy S. (March 6, 2008).
641:"Introduction to the Artiodactyla"
380:shock absorption and blood flow.
25:
1361:Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook
47:are structures made of dozens of
1129:Clayton, Hilary (October 2007).
761:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00714.x
477:
462:
1019:"Horse Conformation Conundrums"
1017:Oke, Stacey (October 1, 2010).
908:Larson, Erica (July 16, 2012).
1327:Grady, Denise (May 23, 2006).
172:Skeleton of the lower forelimb
1:
1255:King, Marcia (July 1, 2007).
1052:Sellnow, Les (July 1, 1999).
1085:. University of Nevada, Reno
692:Giffin and Gore, pp. 262–263
454:Skeletal system of the horse
399:The pastern absorbing shock
36:Skeletal anatomy of a horse
1444:
1236:. Blood Horse Publications
1131:"Components of Collection"
951:Royal Society Open Science
562:
451:
402:
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316:, located above the hock.
1380:Harris, Susan E. (1996).
792:Rooney, James R. (1998).
180:or shoulder blade to the
332:of the hock and stifle.
200:(knee) bones and joint,
192:(forearm), elbow joint,
1408:Lameness from The Horse
372:, a fluid-filled sac.
252:(hock) bone and joint,
18:Equine forelimb anatomy
702:Denoix, J. M. (1999).
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400:
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104:
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1386:. Howell Book House.
1306:"Windpuffs in Horses"
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547:Lameness and injuries
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355:
346:Further information:
171:
102:
35:
1231:"Lameness in Horses"
1229:Oke, Stacey (2012).
1193:Harris, pp. 265–266.
1147:on February 13, 2013
1002:Harris, pp. 260–264.
993:Harris, pp. 256–258.
935:Harris, pp. 254–256.
865:Harris, pp. 251–253.
851:Harris, pp. 228–229.
500:(left) to that of a
1204:"No Hoof, No Horse"
963:10.1098/rsos.171782
121:even-toed ungulates
1333:The New York Times
1054:"Leg Conformation"
749:Journal of Anatomy
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448:Structural defects
401:
358:
348:Navicular syndrome
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109:odd-toed ungulates
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38:
833:on August 5, 2013
821:"Horse Evolution"
565:Lameness (equine)
330:reciprocal joints
103:Rear limb anatomy
16:(Redirected from
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1402:External links
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1285:. HorseChannel
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1210:. May 13, 2009
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1138:Dressage Today
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795:The Lame Horse
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755:(5): 583–591.
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663:"On Your Toes"
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563:Main article:
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486:Ardennes horse
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403:Main article:
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1336:. Retrieved
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1289:February 20,
1287:. Retrieved
1283:"Shoe Boils"
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1266:February 20,
1264:. Retrieved
1260:
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1240:November 16,
1238:. Retrieved
1224:
1214:November 16,
1212:. Retrieved
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1161:
1149:. Retrieved
1142:the original
1137:
1124:
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1083:(Powerpoint)
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1063:November 16,
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1028:November 16,
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884:the original
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828:the original
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719:the original
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623:. Retrieved
613:
588:
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540:Feral horses
528:
524:Thoroughbred
509:
495:Thoroughbred
471:Thoroughbred
439:Thoroughbred
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95:Limb anatomy
84:conformation
81:
41:
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29:
1338:January 12,
1308:. The Horse
1105:"Half Halt"
647:January 15,
625:January 15,
591:circulatory
502:draft horse
405:Horse gaits
277:Merychippus
107:Horses are
1351:References
593:problems,
536:cow-hocked
520:Seabiscuit
452:See also:
424:collection
342:Horse hoof
306:quadriceps
1261:The Horse
1208:The Horse
1058:The Horse
1023:The Horse
914:The Horse
595:laminitis
557:polo pony
517:racehorse
498:racehorse
442:racehorse
310:hamstring
267:cursorial
232:(thigh),
196:(elbow),
133:antelopes
125:livestock
77:cursorial
65:ligaments
1422:Category
981:29410871
779:17451533
599:bed rest
579:skeletal
575:muscular
513:lameness
420:dressage
391:Movement
258:trimming
206:sesamoid
129:giraffes
89:lameness
1312:May 31,
972:5792948
770:2375746
728:June 1,
504:(right)
435:cutting
262:shoeing
240:joint,
234:patella
218:pastern
212:joint,
210:fetlock
188:(arm),
186:humerus
178:scapula
155:Equidae
153:of the
61:tendons
57:muscles
1390:
1369:
979:
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802:
777:
767:
416:gallop
362:coffin
322:cattle
250:tarsal
246:fibula
238:stifle
226:pelvis
198:carpus
190:radius
158:family
117:tapirs
113:rhinos
73:hooves
63:, and
53:joints
1234:(PDF)
1170:(PDF)
1145:(PDF)
1134:(PDF)
1108:(PDF)
887:(PDF)
880:(PDF)
831:(PDF)
824:(PDF)
722:(PDF)
707:(PDF)
605:Notes
370:bursa
272:wrist
242:tibia
230:femur
151:genus
146:Equus
82:Good
49:bones
44:horse
1388:ISBN
1367:ISBN
1340:2013
1314:2013
1291:2013
1268:2013
1242:2012
1216:2012
1178:2013
1153:2013
1116:2013
1091:2013
1065:2012
1030:2012
977:PMID
895:2013
839:2013
800:ISBN
775:PMID
730:2013
671:2013
649:2013
627:2013
428:back
336:Hoof
260:and
194:ulna
164:Legs
137:deer
135:and
115:and
40:The
967:PMC
959:doi
765:PMC
757:doi
753:210
577:or
538:).
484:An
220:),
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20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
