450:
lack of tools and know-how on the part of the very early practitioners, who did have access to more experienced stonemasons. This explains in part why it remained in some areas later than others; with craftsmen in some areas developing their skills quicker than in others. A further reason may be that the early
Puritans, due to their feelings of humility and lack of regard for adornments, deliberately kept their headstones simple and minimalist. Hijiya goes on to say that the lack of decoration may have reflected that they viewed death as simply an "ordinary, unremarkable aspect of the human condition", absent from any notion of either oblivion or passing on to ethereal life.
528:
304:, expressed in a vernacular style. In this, their output reflects a general move towards a more vernacular and direct mode of expression, but practically, the style allowed the production of a far greater number of stylized headstones by removing the need for the carvers having deep workshop experience. Although the New England style was heavily influenced by contemporary or slightly earlier trends in rural England and Scotland, this was more in terms of iconography and symbols than style. New England art of the time avoided Biblical allegories and depictions of the
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145:. The Boston region was increasing rapidly in population in the mid to late 17th century, leading to the need for a full-time grave carver. While the identity of the carver is unknown, the earliest carver in the region worked from 1665 until the turn of the century and is known by the names of the "Old Stone Cutter", “Charlestown Master”, or "Old Stone Cutter of Charlestown". Two of his known apprentices, William Mumford and Joseph Lamson, later became successful carvers in the region.
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to indicate their "outlook on life and death." A significant scholar in the field, Hijiya argued that any reading into the meaning of any stone has to consider "information extraneous to the stones themselves", such as "writings produced at the same time as the carvings, though by different hands aesthetic or anthropological theory which purports to illuminate human behavior at any time". He suggested an approach similar to the art historian
415:", the earliest settlers sought to avoid the worship of ancestors through stone images. In addition, they sought to avoid the use of the traditional Catholic cross, while table-type tombs were seen as too elaborate, practically and aesthetically. The graves had little order to their plotting, and were either unmarked or were marked by a wooden sign or an uncut rock, with only very few having simple greenstone or carved
312:
459:
659:, and statues, while the use of slate, brownstone and schist was largely phased out in favor of marble, In addition, disease and odor concerns in urbanized areas pushed graveyards toward the outskirts of towns and cities, no longer an integral part of the central landscape. It is at this point that the Puritan traditions in funerary art end.
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Modern scholars take a more circumspect view, in that most of the early carvers were often amateurs, and although they had basic understandings of iconography, their style and language evolved in a setting cut off from
European trends, or a coherent, internal, written discourse. The historian Richard
699:
These early examples reflect the pessimistic
Puritan outlook of the time in that they do not mention an afterlife or the resurrection of the dead, and the text often includes imagery of worms, decay and dust. It is only on the much later cherub stones that more personalized goodbyes to loved ones, or
662:
The historian Karen
Wenhworth Batignani describes New England headstones from 1900 as "far less interesting than their predecessors. Polished granite blocks that offer names and dates but few clues as to who the deceased were." She, like other historians, attributes this to a culture of the denial of
494:
Extra imagery such as foliage, grapes and vines, and hearts suggest new life through sacraments and resurrection. This transition cannot be clearly or easily seen through the gravestones. The changes are very minute and gradual leaving some stones with a disturbing image in between an empty skull and
437:
around 1640. Matthew carved the oldest known grave marker in the New World, a table monument made of
Windsor brownstone for the Rev. Ephriam Huit dated 1644 which stands in the Palisado Cemetery in Windsor today. Both Matthew and George Griswold would continue carving both walled tomb-style markers
343:
In 1983, the historian James Hijiya raised concerns about the prevailing academic approach and methodology. Noting how early carvers left no account record of their intentions, and thus their motives could not be interpreted, he observed that there is no remaining instance of any articulated evidence
737:
Meyer largely agrees with Mather's claim and notes how the path of study of these early graveyards understood that such artifacts, "through a variety of complex and often interrelated manifestations, establish patterns of communication (and even dynamic interaction) with those who use or view them".
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uniformity and simplicity; up until that point, all headstones were of similar size and plots were grouped together. Plots in certain areas of existing graveyards became more expensive as a marked difference emerged between cemeteries in well-off as compared to less affluent areas. The graveyards of
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style. So began the decline in
Puritan influence. During the first two decades of the 19th century, elaborate borders on headstones were rapidly replaced by simple lines and sometimes abstract designs. Often borders resembling pillars were used, further exemplifying the neoclassical influence during
486:
Before the
English colonies were fully established and had fully functioning economies, burial rituals were expensive; a relatively elaborate funeral in Boston in the 1720s would have cost around ÂŁ100. The headstones were a relatively small part of the overall expense; in the 1720s headstones ranged
449:
The Plain Style is characterized by smaller headstone markers with unornamented, and bluntly factual inscriptions. It begins in the very early
Colonial period, and lasts until roughly the first decade of the Eighteenth century. In most scholarly overviews, the amateurish carvings are attributed to a
445:
The headstones became increasingly elaborate during the mid-17th century, and characterized by stonework imagery describing the nature and frequency of death in dark, bleak and often bitter imagery. In 1980, the historian Peter Benes described the imagery in a
Plymouth County graveyard as containing
330:
that were, as the historian
Richard Meyer observed, distant "outdoor, spatially delineated repositories of cultural artifacts". Modern historians see them as unique artifacts which provide insight into understanding the thoughts and beliefs of the people buried within. Expanding on this thought, the
271:
shapes and, at times abstract patterns. They show an unstyled "primitive" approach that tended towards simplicity and naturalism. As the approach is not detectable in later American art, the historian Allan Ludwig described it as a "half-finished experiment in form making. Its place...must therefore
538:
Continuing the evolution of winged death heads, cherubs (or "soul effigies") are skull-shaped effigies with distinctly human faces intended to represent the deceased's soul. Some are placed in an enclosing motif, such as a solar symbol or a tree. Others retain the angel's wings commonly seen in the
466:
The death's head is the earliest and most frequently occurring motif in colonial-era American headstones. The head usually is winged, and accompanied by imagery such as hourglasses, bones and coffins. Though seemingly frightening to modern viewers, the image of a skull was then less about inspiring
406:
The first generation of settlers did not build communal burial grounds, instead they buried their dead on the highest point on their property, and marked individual graves with wooden slabs or field-stones. The earliest New England Puritan burying grounds date from the 1630s, and were, according to
365:
wrote that death was "a little wicket or doore whereby we passe out of this world and enter into heaven." This belief is also evident in some of the inscriptions, where the date of death is prefaced by terms such as "translated" or "exchanged" rather than "died". The phrase "Here Lies the Body" (or
542:
The use of cherubs became commonplace in the Boston area in the mid-18th century. They are more commonly found in southern rather than northern parts of New England, especially in Rhode Island and Connecticut, where from the beginning of the 18th century, the majority of headstone designs were of
744:
Reflecting the number of surviving examples, in 2006, the art historian James Blachowicz produced a catalog of 8000 stones and 713 individual burial grounds. He lists some 1300 stones that are signed or have been documented and made a significant contribution to the methodology used to attribute
239:
in particular had one of the largest brownstone quarries, and many carvers were based in the region due to the ample supply of material. Families such as the Stanclift and Thomas Johnson families would emerge with generations of tradesmen perfecting the art of carving from the soft and malleable
280:
Although modern western culture tends to avoid the reality of the disposal of its dead, in puritan society it was a common fact of life. Thus, their art reflects a pragmatic approach, embracing realistic imagery that evokes human decay into skulls and bones. Their use of simplistic, line-drawn
56:
conveys a practical attitude towards 17th-century mortality; death was an ever-present reality of life, and their funerary traditions and grave art provide a unique insight into their views on death. The minimalist decoration and lack of embellishment of the early headstone designs reflect the
163:
documentation, newspaper announcements and inscribed signatures, researchers have been able to associate more carvers behind particular headstones with identifiable historical people. Although some 300 individual carvers working in New England have been identified, not much is known about the
335:
said that, given the artifact's density and state of preservation in New England, "nowhere else is it possible to look so deeply into our people's past". Meyer's takes this further, writing that the grave art of this period "exhibit patterns of change over temporal spans...and...can in many
490:
By the mid-18th century, death's head image had become less stern and menacing. The figure was often crowned, the lower jaw eliminated, and serrations of teeth appeared on the upper row. Particularly, the eyes became more animated, sometimes almond-shaped and with pupils, giving it a more
467:
dread in the viewer, and more about acknowledging a normal, everyday fact of human life. In their belief system, death was when the flesh passed away to make way for renewal in the afterlife. The skulls reflect Puritan funeral rituals in total, including their approach to
543:
Cherub or Winged Soul effigies. Some of these cherubs have individualized faces that may contain elements of portraiture. In Eastern Massachusetts, those on male graves tend to have hair with a downward curl, while those marking female graves show an upward curl.
100:
stones containing factual but often inelegant and blunt inscriptions. Later generations decorated their headstones with carvings, most dramatically in the late 17th century with depictions of death's head, a stylized skull, sometimes with wings or crossed bones.
475:. Commonly, the horses carrying the remains of the deceased to the graveyard were draped with robes containing painted coffins and death's heads. Burial usually took place three to eight days after death, with the headstone erected up to eight months later.
360:
resembling the semi-circular half stones often found above the main doorway entrances into churches. The tympanum thus has symbolic meaning, reflecting the belief that through death, the soul moves from one world into the next. The theologian and minister
136:
or itinerant carvers producing across a wide geographical area. Many surviving headstones share decorative traditions, with some variation between regions. The oldest known full-time grave carver in the Colonies was George Griswold (1633-1704) of
442:(raised period), between each word. Full names, kinship, age at death and the year of death are given, while the dating of placement of the stone itself is also present; typically they were commissioned and erected within a year of the burial.
740:
The next major publication was Allen Ludwig's 1966 book Graven Images: New England Stone Carving and its Symbols, 1650-1815, although it tended to focus on describing specific examples rather than presenting broad overviews or analyses.
725:, working with the historian Ernest Caulfield in Massachusetts during the 1920s, was the first to study the subject. They amassed the first significant library of photographs and an expansive catalogue of 16th-century graves. Her book
369:
Hijiya divides Northeastern American gravestones into six broad and overlapping styles reflective of "six different attitudes toward death". Of these, the first three are strictly "Puritan", made before the style softened into
651:, while the latter are characterized by crowded rows of simple headstones. The change was especially seen from the 1840s onwards, when a trend towards integrating nature and landscape emerged, leading to the use of
446:"menacing stares, impish smiles, and enigmatic facial contortions combine with totally abstract effigies to stop the modern viewer in his tracks, while revealing little of their significance".
438:
and normal headstones until the end of the 17th century. When inscriptions began to be used, they were at first brief, factual and typically carved with "interruptive punctuation", that is an
679:
become common from the later 17th century. From these, it becomes possible to tell something of the attitudes and outlook of both the masons and the deceased. They often take the format of
729:
classified and interprets the artifacts in the context of the dominant religious and cultural influences of their times. The influential Puritan minister, author, and pamphleteer
427:
132:
The craftsmen who built the early headstones were generalist tradesmen who also worked as smiths, leather-workers or printers. They tended to work locally; there are no known
581:
began adopting soul effigies and other designs inspired by Hartshorne's work. This is just one example of how regional designs spread among carvers during the colonial era.
104:
Other examples show the deceased carried by the wings, which supposedly took the soul to heaven. From the 1690s, the imagery became less severe and began to include winged
557:
The Boston cherubs mostly date from the mid-18th century to around 1810 and have direct lineage to earlier funerary art, often showing a living human arched by wings.
1606:
629:
A late-period slate urn and willow marker dated 1857. Slate was still commonly used in some areas of Massachusetts and Rhode Island until late in the 19th century.
412:
219:, stone crafting required skill and knowledge, including selecting fine stone from rock outcroppings, shaping them, preparing their faces and carving the
141:, active between the 1640s and 1690s. The earliest surviving example of his work is an enclosed 1644 table marker for the Reverend Ephraim Huit of the
366:"Here lyes Buried the Body") makes this more explicit, implying that while the remains are present in the ground below, the soul has gone elsewhere.
336:
instances yield valuable cultural insights to a number of discrete time periods, including the present." Following Forbes work, researchers applied
356:
In contrast to contemporary US headstones, the remaining early Puritan examples are low sized and wide. They were typically capped with a rounded
1542:
Wood, Mary Catherine. "Book Review: James Blachowicz. From Slate to Marble: Gravestone Carving Traditions in Eastern Massachusetts, 1770–1870".
749:
and provids a detailed overview of how styles of representing letters, numbers and symbols could be used to group headstones by their carvers.
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type. Because its first-generation craftsmen developed their craft isolated in the new world, as self-taught, their works can be described as
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By the mid-18th century, stone-carving had become an industry with its own system of apprenticeships and workshops. Although not considered a
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this time. Along with Urns and Willows, sometimes designs featuring sunsets were used instead, particularly by Rhode Island stonecutters.
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and continued carving until his death in 1737, thus introducing the cherub design to the region. Soon carvers such as Obadiah Wheeler of
293:, images created for funeral rites and headstones themselves were among the few artworks most people in this period would be exposed to.
1567:
316:
1557:
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be described as one of quiet isolation. Nothing of the older tradition remained after 1815 but the silence of a forgotten epoch."
1601:
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108:(known as "soul effigies") who had fuller faces and rounder and more life-sized eyes and mouths. In headstones dating from the
88:, were usually dug without planning, in designated local burial grounds. They were mostly unmarked but sometimes given upright
1328:
Dethlefsen, Edwin; Deetz, James. "Death's Heads, Cherubs, and Willow Trees: Experimental Archaeology in Colonial Cemeteries",
197:
1494:
252:, though ironically, these characteristics made the stone more prone to weathering and erosion than the latter materials.
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soul-than-deathlike appearance. Death's head designs started becoming less common by the 1780s and died out around 1805.
362:
227:
in Newport, and the Rhode Island carvers Gabriel Allen and Charles Hartshorn, most of whom worked from local slate. The
1586:
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death, in which large sums of money are spent on "steel lined, gorgeously cushioned caskets air-conditioned tombs".
618:
263:
became fashionable in the early 19th century. Early puritan era carvers were especially preoccupied by economy of
189:
721:
Serious academic study of early Puritan funerary art is a relatively new field. The historian and photographer
642:
By the early 19th century, as social classes emerged and became more important, graveyards lost their earlier
1571:
613:
in New England headstones. During this period, the imagery turned away from English influences in favour of
462:
Winged death headstone carved by the unknown "Old Stone Cutter of Charlestown" Granary, Boston. 17th century
357:
332:
201:
142:
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was prized due to its manipulative properties making it easier to carve elaborate designs when compared to
148:
1611:
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To put in context, in the 1720s a well-to-do family would spend c. ÂŁ300 per year. See Ludwig (2009), p. 59
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23:
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570:
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558:
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Winged Cherub effigy featured on this schist marker carved by Obadiah Wheeler in 1742, Plains Cemetery,
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The earliest known New England stonecutters were George Griswold and his uncle Matthew, who settled in
422:
236:
224:
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177:
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630:
574:
532:
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320:
181:
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625:
482:
Skull and cross-bones, gravestone of Elizabeth Hurd (d. 1779), carved by John Homer, Granary, Boston
478:
33:
1410:
500:
173:
153:
1497:". The Hebron Historic Properties Commission & The Hebron Historical Society, October 27, 2013
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region were using soul/cherub designs starting in the 1680s. One such carver, John Hartshorne of
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writer Meg Greene, "simply places to deposit the remains of the dead". In adherence to the second
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1354:
1329:
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1533:
1519:
1505:
1484:
1470:
1442:
1428:
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1382:
1340:
1322:
228:
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Individual plots were often dug in random spots in the burial ground. See Green (2017), p. 13
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observed in 1693 how "the stones in this wilderness are already grown so witty as to speak".
834:
562:
546:
408:
205:
169:
52:, founders of the first American colonies, and their descendants. Early New England Puritan
18:
1516:
The American Resting Place: 400 Years of History Through Our Cemeteries and Burial Grounds
337:
305:
593:
Urn and willow, on the gravestone of Lois Witham (d.1800). Old Burial Ground, Rockport MA
426:
Example of the early plain style on this tombstone carved by George Griswold dated 1675.
495:
a lively soul. Other motifs from this era include imps of death depicted as small evil
1495:
The Cemeteries of Hebron, Connecticut: Their Historic Monuments, Stone Carvers and Care
602:
345:
109:
311:
1580:
730:
648:
614:
286:
77:
73:
27:
1391:
Hijiya, James. "American Gravestones and Attitudes Toward Death: A Brief History".
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began carving graves around 1680 in the region, until around 1710 when he moved to
551:
371:
85:
53:
348:; that there is no reason to assume that any decoration is "uniquely determined."
285:, a choice also reflected in the design of their churches, portrait paintings and
1502:
Memorials for Children of Change: The Art of Early New England Gravestone Carving
643:
282:
81:
61:
598:
508:
439:
241:
232:
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113:
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of Newport began using Cherub effigies as early as 1705, and carvers in the
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458:
416:
375:
185:
93:
45:
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headstones to individual carvers. In particular, he identifies 60 sets of
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Late 19th century academics tended to view older graveyards as basically
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264:
216:
49:
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bearing the arrows of death. They are particularly associated with the
297:
160:
105:
97:
69:
1400:
1358:
1458:
Prioli, Carmine. "Review: Early New England Gravestone Scholarship".
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Gravestones of Early New England and the Men Who Made Them, 1653-1800
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Gravestones of Early New England and the Men Who Made Them, 1653-1800
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610:
512:
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327:
260:
245:
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121:
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Puritan grave art reflects a deliberate move away from the European
152:
Brownstone marker carved by Thomas Johnson II, Old Hebron Cemetery,
1407:
Graven Images: New England Stone Carving and its Symbols, 1650-1815
624:
588:
545:
526:
496:
477:
468:
457:
421:
319:, Carved by "Old Stone Cutter of Charlestown". The Burying Point,
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256:
249:
223:. Different carving schools emerged across New England, including
147:
89:
65:
32:
17:
164:
majority of them, with some exceptions including John Lamson of
235:
quarries, which were often used by the region's grave carvers.
606:
504:
117:
289:. However, in a society that largely rejected visual art as
605:, roughly lasting from 1790 to 1820, saw the prominence of
204:
among others. Other successful early stone carvers include
1564:
New England Gravestone Imagery 1650-1815, 1957-1959, 1963
1337:
Our History In Stone: The New England Cemetery Dictionary
48:
carved between c. 1640 and the late 18th century by the
37:
Stone carving by William Mumford, Granary Burying Ground
1439:
Cemeteries and Gravemarkers: Voices of American Culture
180:, Josiah Manning and his sons Fredrick and Rockwell of
378:
imagery. The six styles as described by Hijiya are:
57:
British Puritan and Anglo-Saxon religious cultures.
511:or adorned with imagery of death and decay such as
1393:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
1451:Neal, Avon. "Graven Images: Sermons in Stones".
1379:Rest in Peace: A History of American Cemeteries
1349:Garvan, Anthony. "The New England Plain Style".
419:, usually with no decorations or ornamentation.
702:
685:
281:imagery was a deliberate rejection of Catholic
413:Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image
1558:Iconography of Gravestones at Burying Grounds
831:Iconography of Gravestones at Burying Grounds
315:Gravestone of Christian Hunter More, wife of
8:
837:, October 25, 2019. Retrieved April 11, 2020
1483:. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019.
1351:Comparative Studies in Society and History
700:mention of an afterlife, begin to appear:
647:the former tended towards grandiosity and
1381:. CT: Twenty-First Century Books, 2007.
259:tablets were the preferred medium until
1607:Outdoor sculptures in the United States
1481:Speaking with the Dead in Early America
1469:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003.
1278:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1221:
1219:
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1150:
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1111:
1046:
1044:
1020:
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503:grave carver Joseph Lamson, who carved
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856:
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823:
821:
819:
817:
807:
805:
1462:, Volume 14, no. 3, Winter, 1979/1980
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1288:
999:
997:
987:
985:
983:
7:
1532:. Lanham MD: Down East Books, 2003.
1317:Benes, Peter; Montague Benes; Jane.
1568:National Museum of American History
1518:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008.
1395:, vol. 127, No. 5 (Oct. 14, 1983).
60:The earliest Puritan graves in the
42:Funerary art in Puritan New England
22:Death's head carved by John Homer,
1500:Tashjian, Dickran; Tashjian, Ann.
846:Wenhworth Batignani (2003), p. 206
705:Farewell my wife and children dear
14:
531:Cherub, 1777. The Burying Point,
1455:, Volume XXI, no. 5, August 1970
1441:. MI: Umi Research Press, 1989.
1363:Gilson, William. "Stone Faces".
1282:Dethlefsen; Deetz (1966), p. 506
1266:Wenhworth Batignani (2003), p. 6
1252:Wenhworth Batignani (2003), p. 5
1243:Dethlefsen; Deetz (1966), p. 505
1234:Dethlefsen; Deetz (1966), p. 504
1156:Dethlefsen; Deetz (1966), p. 503
1073:Wenhworth Batignani (2003), p. 3
1059:Dethlefsen; Deetz (1966), p. 508
860:Dethlefsen; Deetz (1966), p. 502
709:For God has called and I must go
694:Prepare for death and follow me
397:"Modern Plain Style" (1900–2001)
388:"Cherubs" / "Angels" (1740–1820)
1423:Merrifield Forbes, Harriette .
428:Hartford Ancient Burying Ground
340:techniques in interpretation.
1:
1367:, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2009/2010.
1294:Meyer (1989), chapter 1, p. 1
1003:Meyer (1989), chapter 1, p. 3
991:Meyer (1989), chapter 1, p. 2
188:, the James Foster family of
1528:Wenhworth Batignani, Karen.
692:As I am now you soon must be
690:As you are now so once was I
391:"Urn and Willow" (1780–1850)
1467:Artists of Colonial America
633:, Providence, Rhode Island.
394:"Monumentalism" (1840–1920)
1628:
1530:Maine's Coastal Cemeteries
1135:Hijiya (1983), pp. 341–342
1012:Hijiya (1983), pp. 339-340
711:And leave you all behind.
688:Remember me as you pass by
385:"Death's Head" (1670–1770)
231:valley was prized for its
1460:Early American Literature
1353:, volume 3, no. 1, 1960.
1319:Puritan Gravestone Art II
382:"Plain Style" (1640–1710)
1493:Shapleigh-Brown, Ruth. "
1332:, 1966. pp. 502–510
811:Prioli (1979/80), p. 328
577:and Benjamin Collins of
192:, The Stevens Family of
707:I leave you for a while
143:First Church of Windsor
1602:New England Puritanism
1546:42, no. 4, Winter 2008
714:
697:
634:
594:
554:
535:
483:
463:
430:
323:
276:Attitude towards death
156:
116:saw the prominence of
44:encompasses graveyard
38:
30:
24:Granary Burying Ground
1225:Ludwig (2000), p. 168
1213:Ludwig (2000), p. 100
1174:Prioli (1980), p. 334
1144:Hijiya (1983), p. 343
1126:Prioli (1980), p. 335
1117:Hijiya (1983), p. 342
1105:Garvan (1960), p. 112
1050:Hijiya (1983), p. 341
1024:Hijiya (1983), p. 340
977:Ludwig (2000), p. 258
965:Ludwig (2000), p. 249
944:Ludwig (2000), p. 244
935:Garvan (1960), p. 108
887:Shapleigh-Brown, 2013
628:
592:
571:Franklin, Connecticut
567:Rowley, Massachusetts
559:The John Stevens Shop
549:
530:
487:from ÂŁ2 to over ÂŁ40.
481:
471:, funerals rites and
461:
425:
314:
237:Portland, Connecticut
225:The John Stevens Shop
176:, William Mumford of
151:
36:
21:
1544:Winterthur Portfolio
1427:. Pyne Press, 1973.
1335:Eriquez, Christina.
1204:Ludwig (2000), p. 59
1186:Ludwig (2000), p. 58
1165:Ludwig (2000), p. 77
1087:Greene (2007), p. 13
953:Ludwig (2000), p. 65
926:Ludwig (2000), p.428
917:Ludwig (2000), p.431
799:Ludwig (2000), p. 52
631:Little Neck Cemetery
533:Salem, Massachusetts
453:
435:Windsor, Connecticut
409:biblical commandment
321:Salem, Massachusetts
200:(active c. 1805) of
139:Windsor, Connecticut
1411:Wesleyan University
1303:Wood (2008), p. 195
1195:Roark (2003), p. 55
1096:Roark (2003), p, 53
1038:Roark (2003), p. 59
908:Wood (2008), p. 194
896:Roark (2003), p, 55
869:Roark (2003), p, 54
184:, John Zuricher of
154:Hebron, Connecticut
1587:American sculpture
1560:, Boston City Hall
1504:. Wesleyan, 1974.
1465:Roark, Elisabeth.
1365:New England Review
1330:American Antiquity
635:
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210:Zerubbabel Collins
208:(1723 – 1798) and
157:
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1538:978-0-8927-2604-2
1524:978-0-6186-2427-0
1514:Yal-om, Marilyn.
1489:978-0-8122-5153-1
1475:978-0-3133-2023-1
1453:Americal Heritage
1447:978-0-8357-1903-2
1433:978-0-8786-1049-5
1419:978-0-8195-6040-7
1387:978-0-8225-3414-3
1345:978-0-5572-4169-9
1323:Boston University
878:Blachowicz (2006)
229:Connecticut River
1619:
1510:978-0819-5406-14
1437:Meyer, Richard.
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563:Merrimack Valley
206:Gershom Bartlett
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649:monumentalism
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28:Massachusetts
25:
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1597:Funerary art
1592:Cemetery art
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667:Inscriptions
661:
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597:The rise of
596:
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552:Franklin, CT
541:
539:death head.
537:
493:
489:
485:
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454:Death's head
448:
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372:Unitarianism
368:
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317:Richard More
298:High Baroque
295:
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128:Stonecarvers
103:
86:Rhode Island
59:
54:funerary art
41:
40:
15:
1572:Smithsonian
644:egalitarian
601:during the
517:hourglasses
509:pallbearing
501:Charlestown
402:Plain Style
283:iconography
82:Connecticut
62:New England
1581:Categories
1570:, via the
782:References
599:secularism
440:interpunct
331:historian
302:folk style
242:Brownstone
233:brownstone
190:Dorchester
134:journeyman
114:secularism
64:states of
46:headstones
26:, Boston,
787:Citations
753:Footnotes
747:typefaces
417:headstone
376:Methodism
269:geometric
186:Manhattan
124:imagery.
94:sandstone
1373:25656088
677:Epitaphs
672:Epitaphs
653:obelisks
579:Columbia
358:tympanum
291:idolatry
217:fine art
202:Plymouth
159:Through
50:Puritans
1311:Sources
657:columns
575:Lebanon
523:Cherubs
513:scythes
507:either
473:sermons
469:elegies
328:museums
240:stone.
221:reliefs
194:Newport
182:Windham
166:Ipswich
161:probate
106:cherubs
98:granite
70:Vermont
1536:
1522:
1508:
1487:
1473:
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1417:
1409:. CT:
1401:986503
1399:
1385:
1371:
1359:177900
1357:
1343:
1325:, 1978
611:willow
497:demons
261:marble
196:, and
178:Boston
174:Bolton
122:willow
1397:JSTOR
1369:JSTOR
1355:JSTOR
717:Study
352:Style
257:slate
255:Flat
250:Slate
90:slate
66:Maine
1534:ISBN
1520:ISBN
1506:ISBN
1485:ISBN
1471:ISBN
1443:ISBN
1429:ISBN
1415:ISBN
1383:ISBN
1341:ISBN
617:and
609:and
515:and
505:imps
374:and
265:line
120:and
84:and
833:".
607:urn
411:, "
248:or
172:of
118:urn
96:or
1583::
1566:,
1287:^
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683::
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519:.
308:.
267:,
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