1220:. Lenz notified YouTube immediately that her video was within the scope of fair use, and she demanded that it be restored. YouTube complied after six weeks, rather than the two weeks required by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Lenz then sued Universal Music in California for her legal costs, claiming the music company had acted in bad faith by ordering removal of a video that represented fair use of the song. On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that a copyright owner must affirmatively consider whether the complained of conduct constituted fair use before sending a takedown notice under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, rather than waiting for the alleged infringer to assert fair use. 801 F.3d 1126 (9th Cir. 2015). "Even if, as Universal urges, fair use is classified as an 'affirmative defense,' we hold—for the purposes of the DMCA—fair use is uniquely situated in copyright law so as to be treated differently than traditional affirmative defenses. We conclude that because 17 U.S.C. § 107 created a type of non-infringing use, fair use is "authorized by the law" and a copyright holder must consider the existence of fair use before sending a takedown notification under § 512(c)."
1076:
the
Android operating system to support the mobile device market. Oracle had sued Google in 2010 over both patent and copyright violations, but after two cycles, the case matter was narrowed down to whether Google's use of the definition and SSO of Oracle's Java APIs (determined to be copyrightable) was within fair use. The Federal Circuit Court of Appeals has ruled against Google, stating that while Google could defend its use in the nature of the copyrighted work, its use was not transformative, and more significantly, it commercially harmed Oracle as they were also seeking entry to the mobile market. However, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed this decision, deciding that Google's actions satisfy all four tests for fair use, and that granting Oracle exclusive rights to use Java APIs on mobile markets "would interfere with, not further, copyright's basic creativity objectives."
1178:
the original artwork was. Second, the photographs had already been published, diminishing the significance of their nature as creative works. Third, although normally making a "full" replication of a copyrighted work may appear to violate copyright, here it was found to be reasonable and necessary in light of the intended use. Lastly, the court found that the market for the original photographs would not be substantially diminished by the creation of the thumbnails. To the contrary, the thumbnail searches could increase the exposure of the originals. In looking at all these factors as a whole, the court found that the thumbnails were fair use and remanded the case to the lower court for trial after issuing a revised opinion on July 7, 2003. The remaining issues were resolved with a
1055:
uses cause few problems. A teacher who prints a few copies of a poem to illustrate a technique will have no problem on all four of the above factors (except possibly on amount and substantiality), but some cases are not so clear. All the factors are considered and balanced in each case: a book reviewer who quotes a paragraph as an example of the author's style will probably fall under fair use even though they may sell their review commercially; but a non-profit educational website that reproduces whole articles from technical magazines will probably be found to infringe if the publisher can demonstrate that the website affects the market for the magazine, even though the website itself is non-commercial.
1741:
eight
Australian government inquiries which have considered the question of whether fair use should be adopted in Australia. Six reviews have recommended Australia adopt a "Fair Use" model of copyright exceptions: two enquiries specifically into the Copyright Act (1998, 2014); and four broader reviews (both 2004, 2013, 2016). One review (2000) recommended against the introduction of fair use and another (2005) issued no final report. Two of the recommendations were specifically in response to the stricter copyright rules introduced as part of the
938:, the Supreme Court stated that "when a commercial use amounts to mere duplication of the entirety of the original, it clearly supersedes the object of the original and serves as a market replacement for it, making it likely that cognizable market harm to the original will occur". In one instance, a court ruled that this factor weighed against a defendant who had made unauthorized movie trailers for video retailers, since his trailers acted as direct substitutes for the copyright owner's official trailers.
51:
836:
protect. This is not to claim that unpublished works, or, more specifically, works not intended for publication, do not deserve legal protection, but that any such protection should come from laws about privacy, rather than laws about copyright. The statutory fair use provision was amended in response to these concerns by adding a final sentence: "The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors."
757:
1578:
the pictures constituted fair use, such that he did not need permission to use the pictures or to pay royalties for his use. One of the pieces sold for $ 90,000. With regard to the works presented by
Painter, the gallery where the pictures were showcased posted notices that "All images are subject to copyright." Several lawsuits were filed against Painter over the New Portraits exhibit. In 2024, Richard Prince and the galleries were ordered to pay $ 900,000 to the photographers.
524:, the fair use of a copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright. In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include:
845:
1098:. With the help of an intellectual property lawyer, the creators of Loose Change successfully argued that a majority of the footage used was for historical purposes and was significantly transformed in the context of the film. They agreed to remove a few shots that were used as B-roll and served no purpose to the greater discussion. The case was settled and a potential multimillion-dollar lawsuit was avoided.
625:" reviewer may fairly cite largely from the original work, if his design be really and truly to use the passages for the purposes of fair and reasonable criticism. On the other hand, it is as clear, that if he thus cites the most important parts of the work, with a view, not to criticise, but to supersede the use of the original work, and substitute the review for it, such a use will be deemed in law a
550:
1514:, a case involving mass digitisation of millions of books from research library collections. As part of the ruling that found the book digitisation project was fair use, the judge stated "Google Books is also transformative in the sense that it has transformed book text into data for purposes of substantive research, including data mining and text mining in new areas".
1866:
legislated in the abstract. It is the very foundation of the digital age and a cornerstone of our economy," said Ed Black, President and CEO of CCIA. "Much of the unprecedented economic growth of the past ten years can actually be credited to the doctrine of fair use, as the
Internet itself depends on the ability to use content in a limited and unlicensed manner."
4437:
1244:
protection. ... It is undisputed that Hoehn posted the entire work in his comment on the
Website. ... wholesale copying does not preclude a finding of fair use. ... there is no genuine issue of material fact that Hoehn's use of the Work was fair and summary judgment is appropriate." On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that
1892:
academia shared stories about the importance of fair use to their community. The first Fair Use Week was so successful that in 2015 ARL teamed up with
Courtney and helped organize the Second Annual Fair Use Week, with participation from many more institutions. ARL also launched an official Fair Use Week website, which was transferred from
740:
based on Prince's deposition testimony that he "don't really have a message," and that he was not "trying to create anything with a new meaning or a new message." However, the artist's intended message "is not dispositive." Instead, the focus of the transformative use inquiry is how the artworks will "reasonably be perceived".
827:, the aspect of whether the copied work has been previously published was considered crucial, assuming the right of the original author to control the circumstances of the publication of his work or preference not to publish at all. However, Judge Pierre N. Leval views this importation of certain aspects of France's
1372:
tried to justify his appropriation of Art Rogers' photograph "Puppies" in his sculpture "String of
Puppies" with the same parody defense. Koons lost because his work was not presented as a parody of Rogers' photograph in particular, but as a satire of society at large. This was insufficient to render
1269:
was created in 2005, it was nearly impossible to obtain errors and omissions insurance for copyright clearance work that relied in part on fair use. This meant documentarians had either to obtain a license for the material or to cut it from their films. In many cases, it was impossible to license the
1177:
found in favor of the defendant, Arriba Soft. In reaching its decision, the court utilized the statutory four-factor analysis. First, it found the purpose of creating the thumbnail images as previews to be sufficiently transformative, noting that they were not meant to be viewed at high resolution as
1054:
The practical effect of the fair use doctrine is that a number of conventional uses of copyrighted works are not considered infringing. For instance, quoting from a copyrighted work in order to criticize or comment upon it or teach students about it, is considered a fair use. Certain well-established
1046:
use of non-public domain material, even in situations where a fair use defense would likely succeed. The simple reason is that the license terms negotiated with the copyright owner may be much less expensive than defending against a copyright suit, or having the mere possibility of a lawsuit threaten
743:
The transformativeness inquiry is a deceptively simple test to determine whether a new work has a different purpose and character from an original work. However, courts have not been consistent in deciding whether something is transformative. For instance, in
Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc., 725 F.3d 1170
1773:
establishes fair dealing in Canada, which allows specific exceptions to copyright protection. In 1985, the Sub-Committee on the
Revision of Copyright rejected replacing fair dealing with an open-ended system, and in 1986 the Canadian government agreed that "the present fair dealing provisions should
971:
ideas. One can plagiarize even a work that is not protected by copyright, for example by passing off a line from
Shakespeare as one's own. Conversely, attribution prevents accusations of plagiarism, but it does not prevent infringement of copyright. For example, reprinting a copyrighted book without
898:
The fourth factor measures the effect that the allegedly infringing use has had on the copyright owner's ability to exploit his original work. The court not only investigates whether the defendant's specific use of the work has significantly harmed the copyright owner's market, but also whether such
351:. The fair use right is a general exception that applies to all different kinds of uses with all types of works. In the U.S., fair use right/exception is based on a flexible proportionality test that examines the purpose of the use, the amount used, and the impact on the market of the original work.
1740:
While Australian copyright exceptions are based on the Fair Dealing system, since 1998 a series of Australian government inquiries have examined, and in most cases recommended, the introduction of a "flexible and open" Fair Use system into Australian copyright law. From 1998 to 2017 there have been
1683:
Compared to the United States, Polish fair use distinguishes between private and public use. In Poland, when the use is public, its use risks fines. The defendant must also prove that his use was private when accused that it was not, or that other mitigating circumstances apply. Finally, Polish law
1075:
case revolves around the use of application programming interfaces (APIs) used to define functionality of the Java programming language, created by Sun Microsystems and now owned by Oracle Corporation. Google used the APIs' definition and their structure, sequence and organization (SSO) in creating
941:
Second, courts also consider whether potential market harm might exist beyond that of direct substitution, such as in the potential existence of a licensing market. This consideration has weighed against commercial copy shops that make copies of articles in course-packs for college students, when a
1709:
In determining whether art. 35-3(1) above applies to a use of copyrighted work, the following factors must be considered: the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is of a non profit nature; the type or purpose of the copyrighted work; the amount
1577:
in New York, entitled "New Portraits". His exhibit consisted of screenshots of Instagram users' pictures, which were largely unaltered, with Prince's commentary added beneath. Although no Instagram users authorized Prince to use their pictures, Prince argued that the addition of his own commentary
607:
The first factor is "the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes." To justify the use as fair, one must demonstrate how it either advances knowledge or the progress of the arts through the addition of something
354:
The doctrine of "fair use" originated in common law during the 18th and 19th centuries as a way of preventing copyright law from being too rigidly applied and "stifling the very creativity which law is designed to foster." Though originally a common law doctrine, it was enshrined in statutory law
1725:
Fair dealing allows specific exceptions to copyright protections. The open-ended concept of fair use is generally not observed in jurisdictions where fair dealing is in place, although this does vary. Fair dealing is established in legislation in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Singapore, India,
1243:
in a comment as part of an online discussion was unarguably fair use. Judge Pro noted that "Noncommercial, nonprofit use is presumptively fair. ... Hoehn posted the Work as part of an online discussion. ... This purpose is consistent with comment, for which 17 U.S.C. § 107 provides fair use
747:
Conversely, the Second Circuit came to the opposite conclusion in a similar situation in Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc. v. Goldsmith, 11 F.4th 26 (2d. Cir. 2021). In that case, the Warhol Foundation sought a declaratory judgment that Warhol's use of one of Goldsmith's celebrity
739:
shed light on how transformative use is determined. "What is critical is how the work in question appears to the reasonable observer, not simply what an artist might say about a particular piece or body of work." The district court's conclusion that Prince's work was not transformative is partly
1891:
in February 2014, with a full week of activities celebrating fair use. The first Fair Use Week included blog posts from national and international fair use experts, live fair use panels, fair use workshops, and a Fair Use Stories Tumblr blog, where people from the world of art, music, film, and
577:
reviewer may fairly cite largely from the original work, if his design be really and truly to use the passages for the purposes of fair and reasonable criticism. On the other hand, it is as clear, that if he thus cites the most important parts of the work, with a view, not to criticize, but to
1606:
published a compilation of portions of over 40 nations' laws that explicitly mention fair use or fair dealing, and asserts that some of the fair dealing laws, such as Canada's, have evolved (such as through judicial precedents) to be quite close to those of the United States. This compilation
835:
of the artist) into American copyright law as "bizarre and contradictory" because it sometimes grants greater protection to works that were created for private purposes that have little to do with the public goals of copyright law, than to those works that copyright was initially conceived to
1865:
The study found that fair use dependent industries are directly responsible for more than eighteen percent of US economic growth and nearly eleven million American jobs. "As the United States economy becomes increasingly knowledge-based, the concept of fair use can no longer be discussed and
1634:
passed a new copyright law that included a U.S.-style fair use exception. The law, which took effect in May 2008, permits the fair use of copyrighted works for purposes such as private study, research, criticism, review, news reporting, quotation, or instruction or testing by an educational
1050:
Fair use rights take precedence over the author's interest. Thus the copyright holder cannot use a non-binding disclaimer, or notification, to revoke the right of fair use on works. However, binding agreements such as contracts or licence agreements may take precedence over fair use rights.
418:
for teaching and library archiving in the U.S. are located in a different section of the statute. A similar-sounding principle, fair dealing, exists in some other common law jurisdictions but in fact it is more similar in principle to the enumerated exceptions found under civil law systems.
1256:
In addition to considering the four fair use factors, courts deciding fair use cases also look to the standards and practices of the professional community where the case comes from. Among the communities are documentarians, librarians, makers of Open Courseware, visual art educators, and
1106:
also relied on fair use to feature several clips from copyrighted Hollywood productions. The director had originally planned to license these clips from their studio owners but discovered that studio licensing agreements would have prohibited him from using this material to criticize the
598:
has written, the statute does not "define or explain contours or objectives." While it "leav open the possibility that other factors may bear on the question, the statute identifies none." That is, courts are entitled to consider other factors in addition to the four statutory factors.
338:
material without having to first acquire permission from the copyright holder. Fair use is one of the limitations to copyright intended to balance the interests of copyright holders with the public interest in the wider distribution and use of creative works by allowing as a defense to
1816:
Within the United Kingdom, fair dealing is a legal doctrine that provides an exception to the nation's copyright law in cases where the copyright infringement is for the purposes of non-commercial research or study, criticism or review, or for the reporting of current events.
1398:" in a mocking rap version with altered lyrics. The Supreme Court viewed 2 Live Crew's version as a ridiculing commentary on the earlier work, and ruled that when the parody was itself the product rather than mere advertising, commercial nature did not bar the defense. The
1874:
Fair Use Week is an international event that celebrates fair use and fair dealing. Fair Use Week was first proposed on a Fair Use Allies listserv, which was an outgrowth of the Library Code of Best Practices Capstone Event, celebrating the development and promulgation of
1710:
and importance of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; the effect of the use of the copyrighted work upon the current market or the current value of the copyrighted work or on the potential market or the potential value of the copyrighted work.
1342:
of a copyrighted work have been sued for infringement by the targets of their ridicule, even though such use may be protected as fair use. These fair use cases distinguish between parodies, which use a work in order to poke fun at or comment on the work itself, and
774:
Although the Supreme Court has ruled that the availability of copyright protection should not depend on the artistic quality or merit of a work, fair use analyses consider certain aspects of the work to be relevant, such as whether it is fictional or non-fictional.
1406:, which they described as a broader social critique not intrinsically tied to ridicule of a specific work and so not deserving of the same use exceptions as parody because the satirist's ideas are capable of expression without the use of the other particular work.
918:
the case regarding President Ford's memoirs, the Supreme Court labeled the fourth factor "the single most important element of fair use" and it has enjoyed some level of primacy in fair use analyses ever since. Yet the Supreme Court's more recent announcement in
581:
In short, we must often ... look to the nature and objects of the selections made, the quantity and value of the materials used, and the degree in which the use may prejudice the sale, or diminish the profits, or supersede the objects, of the original work.
966:
and copyright infringement are related matters, they are not identical. Plagiarism (using someone's words, ideas, images, etc. without acknowledgment) is a matter of professional ethics, while copyright is a matter of law, and protects exact expression,
1260:
Such codes of best practices have permitted communities of practice to make more informed risk assessments in employing fair use in their daily practice. For instance, broadcasters, cablecasters, and distributors typically require filmmakers to obtain
573:, in which the defendant had copied 353 pages from the plaintiff's 12-volume biography of George Washington in order to produce a separate two-volume work of his own. The court rejected the defendant's fair use defense with the following explanation:
744:(9th Cir. 2013), the court found that Green Day's use of Seltzer's copyrighted Scream Icon was transformative. The court held that Green Day's modifications to the original Scream Icon conveyed new information and aesthetics from the original piece.
1825:
A balanced copyright law provides an economic benefit to many high-tech businesses such as search engines and software developers. Fair use is also crucial to non-technology industries such as insurance, legal services, and newspaper publishers.
4724:
1853:
and other high-tech companies, released a study that found that fair use exceptions to US copyright laws were responsible for more than $ 4.5 trillion in annual revenue for the United States economy representing one-sixth of the total US
1586:
While U.S. fair use law has been influential in some countries, some countries have fair use criteria drastically different from those in the U.S., and some countries do not have a fair use framework at all. Some countries have the concept of
4311:
4894:
1347:, which comments on something else. Courts have been more willing to grant fair use protections to parodies than to satires, but the ultimate outcome in either circumstance will turn on the application of the four fair use factors.
4407:
950:
Courts recognize that certain kinds of market harm do not negate fair use, such as when a parody or negative review impairs the market of the original work. Copyright considerations may not shield a work against adverse criticism.
492:
granted to the author of a creative work by copyright law: "Fair use is therefore distinct from affirmative defenses where a use infringes a copyright, but there is no liability due to a valid excuse, e.g., misuse of a copyright."
667:
in a collage painting. Koons appropriated a central portion of an advertisement she had been commissioned to shoot for a magazine. Koons prevailed in part because his use was found transformative under the first fair use factor.
4181:
The Scope of Fair Use: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Intellectual Property, and the Internet of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, Second Session, January 28,
3707:
1642:
that fair use is a user right. The court also ruled that streaming of live soccer games on the Internet is fair use. In doing so, the court analyzed the four fair use factors adopted in 2007 and cited U.S. case law, including
4916:
4650:
879:
However, even the use of a small percentage of a work can make the third factor unfavorable to the defendant, because the "substantiality" of the portion used is considered in addition to the amount used. For instance, in
1663:
An amendment in 2012 to the section 13(2)(a) of the Copyright Act 1987 created an exception called 'fair dealing' which is not restricted in its purpose. The four factors for fair use as specified in US law are included.
782:—only their particular expression or fixation merits such protection. On the other hand, the social usefulness of freely available information can weigh against the appropriateness of copyright for certain fixations. The
1270:
material because the filmmaker sought to use it in a critical way. Soon after the best practices statement was released, all errors and omissions insurers in the U.S. shifted to begin offering routine fair use coverage.
488:(2015) (the "dancing baby" case), the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit concluded that fair use was not merely a defense to an infringement claim, but was an expressly authorized right, and an exception to the
3475:
899:
uses in general, if widespread, would harm the potential market of the original. The burden of proof here rests on the copyright owner, who must demonstrate the impact of the infringement on commercial use of the work.
4882:
4596:
3531:
1774:
not be replaced by the substantially wider 'fair use' concept". Since then, the Canadian fair dealing exception has broadened. It is now similar in effect to U.S. fair use, even though the frameworks are different.
1199:
that copyright holders cannot order a deletion of an online file without determining whether that posting reflected "fair use" of the copyrighted material. The case involved Stephanie Lenz, a writer and editor from
426:
In response to perceived over-expansion of copyrights, several electronic civil liberties and free expression organizations began in the 1990s to add fair use cases to their dockets and concerns. These include the
1190:
390:
established the doctrine of "fair abridgement", which permitted unauthorized abridgement of copyrighted works under certain circumstances. Over time, this doctrine evolved into the modern concepts of fair use and
1041:
Although fair use ostensibly permits certain uses without liability, many content creators and publishers try to avoid a potential court battle by seeking a legally unnecessary license from copyright owners for
4805:
4633:
1029:
Some copyright owners claim infringement even in circumstances where the fair use defense would likely succeed, in hopes that the user will refrain from the use rather than spending resources in their defense.
852:
The third factor assesses the amount and substantiality of the copyrighted work that has been used. In general, the less that is used in relation to the whole, the more likely the use will be considered fair.
1692:
Section 35 of the Singaporean Copyright Act 1987 has been amended in 2004 to allow a 'fair dealing' exception for any purpose. The four fair use factors similar to US law are included in the new section 35.
4817:
890:'s 200,000-word memoir was sufficient to make the third fair use factor weigh against the defendants, because the portion taken was the "heart of the work". This use was ultimately found not to be fair.
748:
photographs was fair use. The court held that Warhol's use was not transformative because Warhol merely imposed his own style on Goldsmith's photograph and retained the photograph's essential elements.
685:, the court clarified that this is not a "hard evidentiary presumption" and that even the tendency that commercial purpose will "weigh against a finding of fair use ... will vary with the context." The
3827:
1016:
case of infringement, and the defendant need not even raise the fair use defense. In addition, fair use is only one of many limitations, exceptions, and defenses to copyright infringement. Thus, a
3012:
1358:
dolls for his photography project "Food Chain Barbie" (depicting several copies of the doll naked and disheveled and about to be baked in an oven, blended in a food mixer, and the like),
1527:, in finding that the defendant's uses were transformative, stated that 'the search capabilities of the have already given rise to new methods of academic inquiry such as text mining."
729:
Another factor is whether the use fulfills any of the preamble purposes, also mentioned in the legislation above, as these have been interpreted as "illustrative" of transformative use.
1470:
3697:
471:, news reporting, research, and scholarship. Fair use provides for the legal, unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor
3891:
2419:
1458:
1428:
1228:
3094:
1298:
1107:
entertainment industry. This prompted him to invoke the fair use doctrine, which permits limited use of copyrighted material to provide analysis and criticism of published works.
4306:
2607:
2602:
2582:
2289:
1410:
697:" was fair use, even though the parody was sold for profit. Thus, having a commercial purpose does not preclude a use from being found fair, even though it makes it less likely.
677:
1302:
changed practices and opinions overnight. Samples now had to be licensed, as long as they rose "to a level of legally cognizable appropriation." This left the door open for the
1058:
Fair use is decided on a case-by-case basis, on the entirety of circumstances. The same act done by different means or for a different purpose can gain or lose fair use status.
732:
In determining that Prince's appropriation art could constitute fair use and that many of his works were transformative fair uses of Cariou's photographs, the Second Circuit in
1618:(IIPA), a lobby group of U.S. copyright industry bodies, has objected to international adoption of U.S.-style fair use exceptions, alleging that such laws have a dependency on
1420:
1174:
869:
115:
3501:
675:
case also addressed the subfactor mentioned in the quotation above, "whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes." In an earlier case,
2799:
1684:
treats all cases in which private material was made public as a potential copyright infringement, where fair use can apply, but has to be proven by reasonable circumstances.
3759:
3535:
2851:
4268:
1265:
before the distributor will take on the film. Such insurance protects against errors and omissions made during the copyright clearance of material in the film. Before the
962:
One such factor is acknowledgement of the copyrighted source. Giving the name of the photographer or author may help, but it does not automatically make a use fair. While
1742:
5049:
1830:
1778:
310:
3794:
2393:
1607:
includes fair use provisions from Bangladesh, Israel, South Korea, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Uganda, and the United States. However, Paul Geller's 2009
1031:
998:
that the use was fair and not an infringement. Thus, fair use need not even be raised as a defense unless the plaintiff first shows (or the defendant concedes) a
2979:
2713:
3729:
1615:
923:
that "all are to be explored, and the results weighed together, in light of the purposes of copyright" has helped modulate this emphasis in interpretation.
700:
Likewise, the noncommercial purpose of a use makes it more likely to be found a fair use, but it does not make it a fair use automatically. For instance, in
3401:
2515:
1611:
says that while some other countries recognize similar exceptions to copyright, only the United States and Israel fully recognize the concept of fair use.
100:
3241:
3190:
2953:
1735:
2632:
1288:
in certain genres of music was accepted practice and the copyright considerations were viewed as largely irrelevant. The strict decision against rapper
645:, the U.S. Supreme Court held that when the purpose of the use is transformative, this makes the first factor more likely to favor fair use. Before the
876:
in online search results did not even weigh against fair use, "if the secondary user only copies as much as is necessary for his or her intended use".
3110:
2315:
1318:
1859:
1802:
for providing photocopy services to researchers. The Court unanimously held that the Law Society's practice fell within the bounds of fair dealing.
1322:
case, holding that artists must "get a license or do not sample". The Court later clarified that its opinion did not apply to fair use, but between
1116:
710:
content by the Free Republic website was not fair use, since it allowed the public to obtain material at no cost that they would otherwise pay for.
4395:
856:
Using most or all of a work does not bar a finding of fair use. It simply makes the third factor less favorable to the defendant. For instance, in
545:
The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors.
376:
The 1710 Statute of Anne, an act of the Parliament of Great Britain, created copyright law to replace a system of private ordering enforced by the
5039:
4938:
2773:
1592:
1279:
415:
218:
4296:
3020:
2747:
1034:(SLAPP) cases that allege copyright infringement, patent infringement, defamation, or libel may come into conflict with the defendant's right to
2088:
363:
has issued several major decisions clarifying and reaffirming the fair use doctrine since the 1980s, the most recent being in the 2021 decision
4712:
4261:
4082:
1762:
3077:
2577:
2258:
1978:
1705:
was amended to include a fair use provision, Article 35–3, in 2012. The law outlines a four-factor test similar to that used under U.S. law:
1433:
1415:
882:
436:
176:
3895:
2931:
5044:
4194:
3042:
1651:
233:
135:
343:
claims certain limited uses that might otherwise be considered infringement. The U.S. "fair use doctrine" is generally broader than the "
4965:
4743:
4481:
4371:
3476:"US Government Threatening To Kill Free Trade With South Africa After Hollywood Complained It Was Adopting American Fair Use Principles"
1510:
400:
303:
1095:
722:
that despite the fact that it is a non-profit and did not sell the work, the service profited from its unauthorized publication of the
4518:
2451:
2284:
1915:
1811:
986:
787:
723:
587:
517:
509:
498:
404:
365:
860:
copying entire television programs for private viewing was upheld as fair use, at least when the copying is done for the purposes of
5003:
4933:
4254:
3509:
3301:
3221:
1876:
1635:
institution. The law sets up four factors, similar to the U.S. fair use factors (see above), for determining whether a use is fair.
1504:
has led many to form the view that such uses would be protected under fair use. This view was substantiated by the rulings of Judge
1038:, and that possibility has prompted some jurisdictions to pass anti-SLAPP legislation that raises the plaintiff's burdens and risk.
530:
the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;
2803:
1362:
lost its copyright infringement lawsuit against him because his work effectively parodies Barbie and the values she represents. In
4130:
3771:
1308:
doctrine, for short or unrecognizable samples; such uses would not rise to the level of copyright infringement, because under the
4836:
4677:
4551:
4301:
3767:
1746:
1378:
1262:
1217:
641:
265:
90:
3154:
2457:
2437:
2429:
213:
1896:, who attended the Library Code of Best Practices Capstone Event and had originally purchased the domain name fairuseweek.org.
1026:
establishes that it is legal, using certain technologies, to make copies of audio recordings for non-commercial personal use.
2539:
2180:
1595:. Many countries have some reference to an exemption for educational use, though the extent of this exemption varies widely.
1167:
649:
decision, federal Judge Pierre Leval argued that transformativeness is central to the fair use analysis in his 1990 article,
432:
428:
296:
2826:
4707:
3656:
3360:
3331:
4682:
4426:
4383:
3262:
3134:
1935:
1312:
doctrine, "the law does not care about trifles." However, three years later, the Sixth Circuit effectively eliminated the
1195:
1091:
484:
20:
4419:
3892:"Computer and Communications Industry Association. "Fair Use Economy Represents One-Sixth of US GDP". September 12, 2007"
31:
4990:
4950:
4623:
4618:
4498:
3801:
3671:
1702:
926:
In evaluating the fourth factor, courts often consider two kinds of harm to the potential market for the original work.
832:
578:
supersede the use of the original work, and substitute the review for it, such a use will be deemed in law a piracy ...
440:
5034:
4906:
4697:
4613:
4561:
4556:
3733:
2899:
1795:
1519:
1135:, announced a similar defense. However, the Court in the case at bar rejected the idea that file-sharing is fair use.
702:
464:
2986:
4052:
3828:"Book Publishers Whine To USTR That It's Just Not Fair That Canada Recognizes Fair Dealing For Educational Purposes"
3402:"Richard Prince ordered to pay damages to photographers in copyright infringement lawsuits over Instagram portraits"
3168:
1949:, an additional law for educational and governmental institutions that provides some additional copyright exceptions
4985:
4768:
4687:
4581:
4571:
4535:
4451:
4291:
3383:
1645:
1453:
1145:
1102:
681:, the Supreme Court had stated that "every commercial use of copyrighted material is presumptively ... unfair." In
650:
4339:
3737:
447:" archive was established in 2002 as a coalition of several law school clinics and the EFF to document the use of
4702:
4672:
4640:
4503:
4351:
3945:
3702:
2106:
1006:
case of copyright infringement. If the work was not copyrightable, the term had expired, or the defendant's work
120:
4756:
1166:
was found not to be fair use. That decision was appealed and contested by Internet rights activists such as the
4923:
4901:
4872:
4846:
4790:
4780:
4657:
4528:
4491:
4461:
4414:
4346:
4318:
2717:
1239:
1023:
819:
766:
420:
331:
4751:
4366:
3198:
2957:
1182:
after Arriba Soft had experienced significant financial problems and failed to reach a negotiated settlement.
1094:
over the film's use of their footage, specifically footage of the firefighters discussing the collapse of the
4911:
4824:
4719:
4402:
4378:
4234:
3421:
455:" (FUP) to help artists, particularly filmmakers, fight lawsuits brought against them by large corporations.
5029:
4955:
4945:
4928:
4856:
4841:
4812:
4785:
4775:
4608:
4508:
4471:
4466:
4334:
3923:
2663:
Snow, Ned (2010). "Judges playing jury: constitutional conflicts in deciding fair use on summary judgment".
1787:
1769:
1750:
1201:
125:
95:
85:
4645:
4131:"Fair Use as Market Failure: A Structural and Economic Analysis of the 'Betamax' Case and Its Predecessors"
3974:
2330:
4889:
4877:
4851:
4795:
4763:
4692:
4662:
4628:
4603:
4576:
4566:
4523:
4486:
4476:
4390:
4361:
4356:
4286:
4097:
1799:
1791:
779:
377:
340:
196:
4829:
4800:
4591:
3611:
1409:
A number of appellate decisions have recognized that a parody may be a protected fair use, including the
1233:
1162:, Arriba Soft's use of thumbnail pictures and inline linking from Kelly's website in Arriba Soft's image
4667:
4513:
3447:
2733:
2611:
2586:
2293:
1910:
995:
380:. The Statute of Anne did not provide for legal unauthorized use of material protected by copyright. In
356:
42:
1293:
50:
3442:
Geller, Paul. "International Copyright Law and Practice" (2009 ed.). Matthew Bender & Co Inc.
3046:
586:
The statutory fair use factors quoted above come from the Copyright Act of 1976, which is codified at
4960:
4456:
2092:
1940:
1783:
1677:
726:
because of "the attention, recognition, and contributions" it received in association with the work.
635:
536:
the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and
4218:
2139:
1457:
but told the events from the point of view of the enslaved people rather than the slaveholders. The
4115:
4102:
3558:
1599:
1542:
1536:
981:
959:
As explained by Judge Leval, courts are permitted to include additional factors in their analysis.
717:
479:
186:
4026:
1598:
Sources differ on whether fair use is fully recognized by countries other than the United States.
1248:
did not even have the standing needed to sue Hoehn for copyright infringement in the first place.
972:
permission, while citing the original author, would be copyright infringement but not plagiarism.
4168:
4160:
2239:
2222:
1888:
1884:
1842:
1447:
594:. They were intended by Congress to restate, but not replace, the prior judge-made law. As Judge
360:
270:
4208:
1893:
80:
60:
5024:
4586:
3073:
2699:
2695:
2683:
2650:
2378:
Aufderheide, Patricia; Jaszi, Peter (2011). "Appendix D: Myths and Realities About Fair Use".
1974:
1550:
1546:
1442:
1205:
1163:
1035:
907:
387:
24:
2545:
1382:
the U.S. Supreme Court recognized parody as a potential fair use, even when done for profit.
4150:
4142:
4107:
3274:
2264:
2231:
1925:
1846:
1574:
1554:
1395:
1387:
1285:
1179:
1159:
733:
694:
452:
448:
181:
3583:
2876:
2614:
886:, the U.S. Supreme Court held that a news article's quotation of fewer than 400 words from
3460:
3148:
2362:
2356:
2082:
1930:
1524:
1364:
1213:
931:
848:
The Ninth Circuit has held that the use of thumbnails in image search engines is fair use.
805:
756:
655:
613:
595:
569:
555:
489:
444:
191:
3795:"Why Canada Should Not Adopt Fair Use: A Joint Submission to the Copyright Consultations"
3559:"Israeli Judge Permits Unlicensed Sports Event Streaming—FAPL v. Ploni (Guest Blog Post)"
1216:, the owner of the copyright to the song, ordered YouTube to remove the video under the
2589:
2296:
2031:
2001:
1570:
1155:
1124:
1120:
814:
778:
To prevent the private ownership of work that rightfully belongs in the public domain,
761:
382:
327:
238:
201:
130:
75:
4111:
3852:
5018:
4172:
3227:
1132:
861:
794:
magazine. Yet its copyright was not upheld, in the name of the public interest, when
783:
711:
664:
563:
The four factors of analysis for fair use set forth above derive from the opinion of
539:
the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.
260:
155:
3918:
3116:
1123:
argued that file-sharing qualifies as fair use in his defense of alleged filesharer
764:'s letters was a key issue in the court's analysis of the second fair use factor in
4126:
1720:
1588:
1558:
1351:
1186:
1086:
1047:
the publication of a work in which a publisher has invested significant resources.
659:
is another example of a fair use case that focused on transformativeness. In 2006,
618:
564:
392:
344:
286:
255:
250:
223:
145:
105:
2037:
521:
2153:
1968:
591:
513:
502:
408:
1905:
1501:
1493:
1391:
1383:
1204:, who made a home video of her thirteen-month-old son dancing to Prince's song "
1128:
1001:
887:
844:
690:
245:
171:
140:
4213:
3431:. American University Program on Information Justice and Intellectual Property.
2473:
1673:
1619:
1505:
1497:
1369:
1304:
1289:
1245:
1224:
1151:
1007:
991:
963:
914:
had either reduced their viewership or negatively impacted their business. In
660:
633:
A key consideration in later fair use cases is the extent to which the use is
472:
348:
3242:"The Authors Guild Loses (Again), and HathiTrust Wins–But What Does It Mean?"
2394:"If you publish Georgia's state laws, you'll get sued for copyright and lose"
802:
the reproduction of stills from the film in a history book on the subject in
3013:"Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for Scholarly Research in Communication"
1946:
1920:
1838:
1622:
and long-term legal precedent that may not exist outside the United States.
943:
873:
396:
335:
206:
150:
70:
4246:
4237:, a compilation of national statutes that refer to fair use or fair dealing
1523:, a case derived from the same digitization project mentioned above. Judge
930:
First, courts consider whether the use in question acts as a direct market
414:
The term "fair use" originated in the United States. Although related, the
549:
4240:
2561:
1753:(PC) were with reference to strengthening Australia's "digital economy".
1492:
The transformative nature of computer based analytical processes such as
282:
65:
3384:"Artist Richard Prince Sells Instagram Photos That Aren't His For $ 90K"
4164:
2980:"Statement on the Fair Use of Images for Teaching, Research, and Study"
2243:
2054:
Iowa State Research Foundation, Inc. v. American Broadcasting Companies
1631:
1209:
911:
4243:, a repository of copyright educational resources for higher education
4155:
3949:
1881:
Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for Academic and Research Libraries
478:
The U.S. Supreme Court has traditionally characterized fair use as an
4180:
2774:"Lawyer: RIAA must pay back all "$ 100M+" it has allegedly collected"
2154:"17 U.S. Code § 107 – Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use"
1850:
1834:
1403:
1359:
1355:
1344:
1339:
1330:, practice had effectively shifted to eliminate unlicensed sampling.
799:
626:
468:
451:
letters. In 2006 Stanford University began an initiative called "The
110:
4146:
2235:
1883:. While the idea was not taken up nationally, Copyright Advisor at
1022:
case can be defeated without relying on fair use. For instance, the
3946:"Computer and Communications Industry Association. "CCIA Members.""
4228:
4004:
3633:
3532:"The Football Association Premier League Ltd. v. Ploni and others"
843:
755:
548:
423:
jurisdictions have other limitations and exceptions to copyright.
3361:"Copyright Case Over Richard Prince Instagram Show to Go Forward"
2932:"Documentary Filmmakers' Statement of Best Practices in Fair Use"
1158:, and fair use. In the lower District Court case on a motion for
3982:
4250:
4083:"Fair Use and Copyright Protection: A Price Theory Explanation"
3698:"Our copyright laws are holding us back, and there's a way out"
1858:. The study was conducted using a methodology developed by the
1267:
Documentary Filmmakers' Statement of Best Practices in Fair Use
395:. Fair use was a common-law (i.e. created by judges as a legal
1855:
1445:
estate unsuccessfully brought suit to halt the publication of
443:, numerous clinical programs at law schools, and others. The "
3302:"The story of Richard Prince and his $ 100,000 Instagram art"
2748:"Harvard prof tells judge that P2P filesharing is "fair use""
3169:"A Closer Look at the Google Books Library Project Decision"
2474:"Cariou v. Prince, 714 F.3d 694 | Casetext Search + Citator"
1476:
Cases in which a satirical use was found to be fair include
1916:
Copyright limitations, exceptions, and defenses in the U.S.
1638:
On September 2, 2009, the Tel Aviv District court ruled in
1591:
instead of fair use, while others use different systems of
910:, failed to provide any empirical evidence that the use of
4179:
United States. Congress. House of Representatives (2014).
2091:, No. 4901 (C.C.D. Mass. 1841), archived from
1451:, which reused many of the characters and situations from
399:) doctrine in the U.S. until it was incorporated into the
30:
For fair use of copyrighted works on Knowledge (XXG), see
3730:"Productivity Commission Draft IP Report – the breakdown"
3070:
Reclaiming Fair Use: How to Put Balance Back in Copyright
2380:
Reclaiming Fair Use: How to Put Balance Back in Copyright
1970:
Reclaiming Fair Use: How to Put Balance Back in Copyright
1237:
that the posting of an entire editorial article from the
2646:
Princeton University Press v. Michigan Document Services
2498:
2496:
2494:
347:" rights known in most countries that inherited English
3099:, 780 F. Supp. 182 (S.D.N.Y. 1991).
2802:. Harvard Journal of Law and Technology. Archived from
2420:
United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit
2220:
Leval, Pierre N. (1990). "Toward a Fair Use Standard".
3095:
Grand Upright Music, Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records Inc.
1541:
There is a substantial body of fair use law regarding
1517:
Text and data mining was subject to further review in
1299:
Grand Upright Music, Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records Inc.
4231:, a database of fair use cases in U.S. federal courts
3859:. Government of the United Kingdom. November 18, 2014
3332:"Richard Prince defends reuse of others' photographs"
2603:
Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.
2418:
Judge Story's decision was reversed on appeal by the
1640:
The Football Association Premier League Ltd. v. Ploni
1010:, for instance, then the plaintiff cannot make out a
858:
Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.
678:
Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.
23:. For the broadband bandwidth management policy, see
1790:
case that establishes the bounds of fair dealing in
4978:
4865:
4742:
4735:
4544:
4444:
4327:
2956:. Association of Research Libraries. Archived from
2800:"Sony BMG Music Entertainment et al. v. Tannenbaum"
2422:, which did not consider the question of fair use.
1726:South Africa and the United Kingdom, among others.
994:on copyright infringement, the defendant bears the
663:used a photograph taken by commercial photographer
3917:McBride, Sarah; Thompson, Adam (August 1, 2007).
3894:. Ccianet.org. September 12, 2007. Archived from
2572:
2570:
2558:New Era Publications Int'l v. Henry Holt & Co
2425:Code Revision Comm'n v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.
1833:(CCIA), a group representing companies including
825:New Era Publications Int'l v. Henry Holt & Co
716:Code Revision Commission and State of Georgia v.
3275:"Coders' Rights Project Reverse Engineering FAQ"
2852:"Righthaven v. Hoehn (District Court of Nevada)"
1831:Computer and Communications Industry Association
980:The U.S. Supreme Court described fair use as an
790:, for example, was purchased and copyrighted by
706:, the court found that the noncommercial use of
2468:
2466:
1973:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 10–11.
1779:CCH Canadian Ltd v. Law Society of Upper Canada
1707:
1150:provides and develops the relationship between
623:
575:
495:
467:include commentary, search engines, criticism,
3657:"Copyright Law In Singapore: A Brief Overview"
3354:
3352:
2985:. Visual Resources Association. Archived from
2730:Wall Data v. Los Angeles County Sheriff's Dept
1032:Strategic lawsuit against public participation
872:held that copying an entire photo to use as a
780:facts and ideas are not protected by copyright
4262:
3011:The International Communication Association.
2373:
2371:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2273:
304:
8:
3068:Aufderheide, Patricia; Jaszi, Peter (2011).
2827:"Woman can sue over YouTube clip de-posting"
2040: (Court of Chancery (England) 1740).
1967:Aufderheide, Patricia; Jaszi, Peter (2011).
1745:(AUSFTA), while the most recent two, by the
1743:Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement
1616:International Intellectual Property Alliance
3919:"Google, Others Contest Copyright Warnings"
3886:
3884:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3415:
3413:
3411:
2516:Warner Bros. and J. K. Rowling v. RDR Books
1887:, launched the first ever Fair Use Week at
1115:In 2009, fair use appeared as a defense in
1017:
1011:
999:
508:Notwithstanding the provisions of sections
101:Integrated circuit layout design protection
4739:
4269:
4255:
4247:
4081:Depoorter, Ben; Parisi, Francesco (2002).
3672:"How will South Korea Implement fair use?"
3557:Lichtenstein, Yoram (September 21, 2009).
3325:
3323:
3130:Mattel Inc v. Walking Mountain Productions
1736:History of Fair Use proposals in Australia
1573:released an exhibit of photographs at the
311:
297:
38:
4154:
4101:
4090:International Review of Law and Economics
3111:Bridgeport Music, Inc. v. Dimension Films
3045:. Center for Social Media. Archived from
3043:"Success of Fair Use Consensus Documents"
2900:"A Pattern-Oriented Approach to Fair Use"
1482:Williams v. Columbia Broadcasting Systems
1319:Bridgeport Music, Inc. v. Dimension Films
3634:"Kiedy możemy korzystać z prawa cytatu?"
3591:World Intellectual Property Organization
3502:"Israel now has the right copyright law"
3072:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2215:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2076:
2074:
1860:World Intellectual Property Organization
1609:International Copyright Law and Practice
5050:United States intellectual property law
4025:Courtney, Kyle K. (February 24, 2014).
3793:Magazines Canada (September 15, 2009).
3760:"Reviews that have considered fair use"
2382:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2025:
2023:
2008:. Harvard Office of the General Counsel
1959:
1593:limitations and exceptions to copyright
1402:court also distinguished parodies from
1280:Legal issues surrounding music sampling
416:limitations and exceptions to copyright
219:Limitations and exceptions to copyright
163:
41:
3969:
3967:
3710:from the original on December 14, 2016
3456:
3445:
3167:Rosati, Eleonora (November 17, 2013).
3137: (9th Cir. December 29, 2003).
2934:. Center for Media & Social Impact
2635: (3d Cir. September 19, 2000).
2578:Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises
2259:Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises
2143:, 801 F.3d 1126, 1133 (9th Cir. 2015).
1763:Fair dealing in Canadian copyright law
1425:Mattel v. Walking Mountain Productions
883:Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises
16:Concept in United States copyright law
3230: (S.D.N.Y. October 10, 2012).
2519:, 575 F. Supp. 2d 513 (S.D.N.Y. 2008)
1434:Suntrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co.
1416:Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp.
1090:series were served with a lawsuit by
1084:In April 2006, the filmmakers of the
437:National Coalition Against Censorship
177:Artificial intelligence and copyright
7:
4229:U.S. Copyright Office Fair Use Index
3422:"The Fair Use/Fair Dealing Handbook"
2954:"Code of Best Practices in Fair Use"
2505:, 714 F.3d 694, 707 (2d. Cir. 2013).
2365: (2d Cir. October 26, 2006).
2188:Journal of Intellectual Property Law
1652:Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.
1473:injunction against its publication.
1394:in 1989 for their use of Orbison's "
1073:Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.
136:Supplementary protection certificate
3696:Martin, Peter (December 15, 2016).
3584:"Copyright (Amendment) Act of 2012"
3330:Gilbert, Laura (October 10, 2018).
3263:b:Reverse Engineering/Legal Aspects
2877:"Righthaven v. Hoehn (9th Circuit)"
2179:Patterson, L. Ray (April 1, 1998).
1537:Reverse engineering § Legality
1511:Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.
1170:, who argued that it was fair use.
904:Sony Corp v. Universal City Studios
603:1. Purpose and character of the use
533:the nature of the copyrighted work;
4051:Clobridge, Abby (March 10, 2015).
3655:George Hwang (December 19, 2017).
3474:Masnick, Mike (November 4, 2019).
3420:Band, Jonathan; Gerafi, Jonathan.
3017:Center for Media and Social Impact
2452:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.
2432:, 1233 (11th Cir. 2018).,
2285:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.
1812:Fair dealing in United Kingdom law
987:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.
788:assassination of President Kennedy
724:Official Code of Georgia Annotated
553:Joseph Story wrote the opinion in
366:Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.
355:when the U.S. Congress passed the
14:
5004:Category:Copyright law by country
3563:Technology and Marketing Law Blog
3500:Band, Jonathan (March 26, 2008).
3359:Chow, Andrew R. (July 20, 2017).
3222:Authors Guild, Inc. v. HathiTrust
3157: (2d Cir. April 2, 1992).
752:2. Nature of the copyrighted work
4435:
4302:International copyright treaties
3768:Australian Law Reform Commission
3300:Plaugic, Lizzie (May 30, 2015).
3240:Anderson, Rick (July 21, 2014).
2798:Engle, Eric (October 17, 2009).
2528:293 F. Supp. 130 (S.D.N.Y. 1968)
2181:"Folsom v. Marsh and Its Legacy"
2105:Netanei, Neil Weinstock (2011).
1747:Australian Law Reform Commission
1379:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc
1218:Digital Millennium Copyright Act
921:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc
866:Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation
642:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc
266:Outline of intellectual property
91:Indigenous intellectual property
49:
32:Knowledge (XXG):Non-free content
19:For fair use trademark law, see
3736:. June 16, 2016. Archived from
3612:"Dz.U.2016.666 t.j. – prawo.pl"
2825:Egelko, Bob (August 21, 2008).
2772:Anderson, Nate (May 22, 2009).
2746:Anderson, Nate (May 18, 2009).
2160:. Cornell University Law School
1191:Northern District of California
1131:, defending alleged filesharer
942:market already existed for the
5040:Legal doctrines and principles
3826:Masnick, Mike (May 28, 2015).
3770:. June 4, 2013. Archived from
3279:Electronic Frontier Foundation
3119:, 398 (6th Cir. 2004).
2540:Salinger v. Random House, Inc.
2267: (2d Cir. 1985-05-20).
1630:In November 2007, the Israeli
1263:errors and omissions insurance
1175:Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals
1168:Electronic Frontier Foundation
737:, 714 F.3d 694 (2d. Cir. 2013)
689:court held that hip-hop group
433:American Civil Liberties Union
429:Electronic Frontier Foundation
1:
4292:Copyright case law by country
4112:10.1016/S0144-8188(01)00071-0
4053:"Every Week Is Fair Use Week"
3948:. Ccianet.org. Archived from
3636:(in Polish). December 1, 2013
2628:Video Pipeline v. Buena Vista
2140:Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.
2056:, 621 F.2d 57 (2d Cir. 1980).
1936:Fair use (U.S. trademark law)
1469:was fair use and vacated the
1196:Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.
1143:A U.S. court case from 2003,
996:burden of raising and proving
485:Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.
21:Fair use (U.S. trademark law)
4297:Copyright lengths by country
4219:Resources in other libraries
4031:Copyright at Harvard Library
3382:Sola, Katie (May 27, 2015).
2898:Madison, Michael J. (2004).
2114:Lewis & Clark Law Review
1561:and access control systems.
1441:case, Suntrust Bank and the
1117:lawsuits against filesharing
1062:Fair use in particular areas
1008:borrowed only a small amount
840:3. Amount and substantiality
441:American Library Association
334:that permits limited use of
5045:United States copyright law
3734:Australian Digital Alliance
3191:"Google's Fair Use Victory"
2907:William and Mary Law Review
2158:Legal Information Institute
2038:3 Atk 143;26 ER 489
1829:On September 12, 2007, the
1796:Law Society of Upper Canada
1520:Authors Guild v. HathiTrust
1257:communications professors.
894:4. Effect upon work's value
703:L.A. Times v. Free Republic
611:In the 1841 copyright case
465:United States copyright law
214:Idea–expression distinction
5066:
4235:The Fair Use/Fair Handbook
2314:Samuelson, Pamela (2009).
2107:"Making Sense of Fair Use"
1809:
1760:
1733:
1718:
1646:Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.
1534:
1277:
1208:" and posted the video on
1146:Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.
1103:This Film Is Not Yet Rated
934:for the original work. In
760:The unpublished nature of
651:Toward a Fair Use Standard
29:
18:
4999:
4433:
4287:Copyright acts by country
4282:
4214:Resources in your library
3853:"Exceptions to copyright"
3703:The Sydney Morning Herald
3670:Ben (February 23, 2013).
3228:902 F.Supp.2d 445
2732:(9th Cir. May 17, 2006) (
2688:Michigan State Law Review
2653: (6th Cir. 1996).
1582:Influence internationally
1338:Producers or creators of
4319:Rule of the shorter term
4277:Copyright law by country
2718:Audio Home Recording Act
2548: (2d Cir. 1987).
2002:"Copyright and Fair Use"
1252:Professional communities
1240:Las Vegas Review-Journal
1024:Audio Home Recording Act
820:Salinger v. Random House
813:In the decisions of the
767:Salinger v. Random House
463:Examples of fair use in
3924:The Wall Street Journal
3244:. the scholarly kitchen
2831:San Francisco Chronicle
2438:139 S. Ct. 2746
1788:Supreme Court of Canada
1770:Copyright Act of Canada
1751:Productivity Commission
1202:Gallitzin, Pennsylvania
1092:Jules and Gédéon Naudet
906:, the copyright owner,
693:'s parody of the song "
639:. In the 1994 decision
126:Plant genetic resources
96:Industrial design right
86:Geographical indication
4121:on September 14, 2006.
3455:Cite journal requires
2316:"Unbundling Fair Uses"
1800:copyright infringement
1792:Canadian copyright law
1712:
1676:and is covered by the
1292:'s appropriation of a
1185:In August 2008, Judge
1018:
1012:
1000:
976:Procedure and practice
946:of course-pack copies.
849:
771:
631:
584:
560:
547:
341:copyright infringement
197:Criticism of copyright
121:Plant breeders' rights
4027:"About Fair Use Week"
2682:Reid, Amanda (2019).
2665:U.C. Davis Law Review
2560:, 695 F. Supp. 1493 (
2430:906 F.3d 1229
2089:9 F. Cas. 342
1911:Berne three-step test
1278:Further information:
1212:. Four months later,
893:
847:
829:droit moral d'artiste
759:
552:
459:U.S. fair use factors
401:Copyright Act of 1976
357:Copyright Act of 1976
43:Intellectual property
4708:United Arab Emirates
4005:"Fair Use Week 2015"
3985:on November 20, 2015
3774:on December 21, 2016
3740:on February 20, 2017
3201:on November 17, 2015
3155:960 F.2d 301
3135:353 F.3d 792
3117:383 F.3d 390
3023:on November 16, 2015
2960:on November 17, 2015
2714:USC October 17, 1008
2651:99 F.3d 1381
2633:342 F.3d 191
2458:510 U.S. 569
2363:467 F.3d 244
2265:723 F.2d 195
1703:Korean Copyright Act
1678:Polish copyright law
1569:In May 2015, artist
1488:Text and data mining
1223:In June 2011, Judge
1139:Internet publication
619:Justice Joseph Story
4135:Columbia Law Review
3659:. Asia Law Network.
3538:on January 14, 2010
3512:on January 28, 2012
3404:. January 26, 2024.
3388:The Huffington Post
2992:on January 17, 2016
2684:"Deciding Fair Use"
2546:811 F.2d 90
2336:on January 19, 2013
2066:Nimmer on Copyright
2050:Nimmer on Copyright
1680:articles 23 to 35.
1672:Fair use exists in
1600:American University
1543:reverse engineering
1531:Reverse engineering
1234:Righthaven v. Hoehn
990:This means that in
982:affirmative defense
718:Public.Resource.Org
714:similarly ruled in
480:affirmative defense
378:Stationers' Company
187:Copyright abolition
5035:Equitable defenses
4939:Russian Federation
4482:Dominican Republic
3506:The Jerusalem Post
2736:at Ninth Circuit).
2323:Fordham Law Review
2223:Harvard Law Review
1889:Harvard University
1885:Harvard University
1843:Oracle Corporation
1467:The Wind Done Gone
1454:Gone with the Wind
1448:The Wind Done Gone
1350:For example, when
1294:Gilbert O'Sullivan
1229:District of Nevada
1096:World Trade Center
955:Additional factors
850:
772:
561:
361:U.S. Supreme Court
279:Higher categories:
271:Outline of patents
5012:
5011:
4974:
4973:
4195:Library resources
4057:Information Today
3952:on March 31, 2008
3898:on April 15, 2008
3336:The Art Newspaper
3079:978-0-226-03228-3
3049:on April 14, 2013
2716:, amended by the
2460:, 584 (1994).
2052:§ 13.05, quoting
1980:978-0-226-03228-3
1555:network protocols
1547:computer software
1443:Margaret Mitchell
1296:song in the case
1080:Documentary films
1036:freedom of speech
916:Harper & Row,
708:Los Angeles Times
388:Court of Chancery
332:United States law
321:
320:
25:Fair Usage Policy
5057:
4920:
4898:
4886:
4833:
4821:
4809:
4772:
4760:
4740:
4728:
4716:
4654:
4637:
4600:
4532:
4495:
4439:
4438:
4423:
4411:
4399:
4387:
4375:
4343:
4271:
4264:
4257:
4248:
4176:
4158:
4141:(8): 1600–1657.
4127:Gordon, Wendy J.
4122:
4120:
4114:. Archived from
4105:
4087:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4063:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4037:
4022:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4011:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3990:
3981:. Archived from
3971:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3933:
3931:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3888:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3849:
3843:
3842:
3840:
3838:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3812:
3807:on April 3, 2016
3806:
3800:. Archived from
3799:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3781:
3779:
3756:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3726:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3693:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3667:
3661:
3660:
3652:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3641:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3588:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3534:. Archived from
3528:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3517:
3508:. Archived from
3497:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3486:
3471:
3465:
3464:
3458:
3453:
3451:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3426:
3417:
3406:
3405:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3363:. New York Times
3356:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3327:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3308:. Vox Media, Inc
3297:
3291:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3281:. August 6, 2008
3271:
3265:
3260:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3237:
3231:
3225:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3206:
3197:. Archived from
3187:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3144:
3138:
3132:
3126:
3120:
3114:
3106:
3100:
3098:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3065:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3054:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3019:. Archived from
3008:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2997:
2991:
2984:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2904:
2895:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2856:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2743:
2737:
2727:
2721:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2599:
2593:
2574:
2565:
2555:
2549:
2543:
2535:
2529:
2526:
2520:
2512:
2506:
2503:Cariou v. Prince
2500:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2470:
2461:
2455:
2447:
2441:
2427:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2400:. March 30, 2017
2390:
2384:
2383:
2375:
2366:
2360:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2335:
2329:. Archived from
2320:
2311:
2300:
2281:
2268:
2262:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2230:(5): 1105–1136.
2217:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2185:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2150:
2144:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2086:
2078:
2069:
2063:
2057:
2047:
2041:
2035:
2027:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2013:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1964:
1926:Creative Commons
1847:Sun Microsystems
1821:Policy arguments
1575:Gagosian Gallery
1471:district court's
1459:Eleventh Circuit
1396:Oh, Pretty Woman
1388:Acuff-Rose Music
1316:doctrine in the
1180:default judgment
1160:summary judgment
1021:
1015:
1005:
902:For example, in
735:Cariou v. Prince
695:Oh, Pretty Woman
490:exclusive rights
453:Fair Use Project
449:cease and desist
445:Chilling Effects
313:
306:
299:
182:Brand protection
116:Peasants' rights
53:
39:
5065:
5064:
5060:
5059:
5058:
5056:
5055:
5054:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5008:
4995:
4970:
4914:
4892:
4880:
4866:Other countries
4861:
4827:
4815:
4803:
4766:
4754:
4731:
4722:
4710:
4648:
4631:
4594:
4540:
4526:
4489:
4440:
4436:
4431:
4417:
4405:
4393:
4381:
4369:
4337:
4323:
4278:
4275:
4225:
4224:
4223:
4203:
4202:
4198:
4191:
4147:10.2307/1122296
4125:
4118:
4085:
4080:
4077:
4075:Further reading
4072:
4071:
4061:
4059:
4050:
4049:
4045:
4035:
4033:
4024:
4023:
4019:
4009:
4007:
4003:
4002:
3998:
3988:
3986:
3973:
3972:
3965:
3955:
3953:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3929:
3927:
3916:
3915:
3911:
3901:
3899:
3890:
3889:
3872:
3862:
3860:
3851:
3850:
3846:
3836:
3834:
3825:
3824:
3820:
3810:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3792:
3791:
3787:
3777:
3775:
3764:www.alrc.gov.au
3758:
3757:
3753:
3743:
3741:
3728:
3727:
3723:
3713:
3711:
3695:
3694:
3690:
3680:
3678:
3669:
3668:
3664:
3654:
3653:
3649:
3639:
3637:
3632:
3631:
3627:
3617:
3615:
3610:
3609:
3605:
3595:
3593:
3586:
3582:
3581:
3577:
3567:
3565:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3541:
3539:
3530:
3529:
3525:
3515:
3513:
3499:
3498:
3494:
3484:
3482:
3473:
3472:
3468:
3454:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3436:
3429:infojustice.org
3424:
3419:
3418:
3409:
3400:
3399:
3395:
3381:
3380:
3376:
3366:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3350:
3340:
3338:
3329:
3328:
3321:
3311:
3309:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3284:
3282:
3273:
3272:
3268:
3261:
3257:
3247:
3245:
3239:
3238:
3234:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3204:
3202:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3174:
3172:
3166:
3165:
3161:
3149:Rogers v. Koons
3146:
3145:
3141:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3108:
3107:
3103:
3092:
3091:
3087:
3080:
3067:
3066:
3062:
3052:
3050:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3026:
3024:
3010:
3009:
3005:
2995:
2993:
2989:
2982:
2978:
2977:
2973:
2963:
2961:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2937:
2935:
2930:
2929:
2925:
2915:
2913:
2902:
2897:
2896:
2892:
2882:
2880:
2875:
2874:
2870:
2860:
2858:
2857:. June 20, 2011
2854:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2835:
2833:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2809:
2807:
2806:on July 8, 2010
2797:
2796:
2792:
2782:
2780:
2771:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2754:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2728:
2724:
2711:
2707:
2681:
2680:
2676:
2662:
2661:
2657:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2600:
2596:
2575:
2568:
2556:
2552:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2509:
2501:
2492:
2482:
2480:
2472:
2471:
2464:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2423:
2417:
2413:
2403:
2401:
2392:
2391:
2387:
2377:
2376:
2369:
2357:Blanch v. Koons
2354:
2353:
2349:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2318:
2313:
2312:
2303:
2282:
2271:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2236:10.2307/1341457
2219:
2218:
2207:
2197:
2195:
2183:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2163:
2161:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2137:
2133:
2123:
2121:
2109:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2083:Folsom v. Marsh
2080:
2079:
2072:
2064:
2060:
2048:
2044:
2029:
2028:
2021:
2011:
2009:
2006:ogc.harvard.edu
2000:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1931:Derivative work
1902:
1872:
1823:
1814:
1808:
1765:
1759:
1749:(ALRC) and the
1738:
1732:
1723:
1717:
1699:
1690:
1670:
1661:
1628:
1604:infojustice.org
1584:
1567:
1539:
1533:
1490:
1478:Blanch v. Koons
1437:). In the 2001
1365:Rogers v. Koons
1336:
1282:
1276:
1254:
1214:Universal Music
1173:On appeal, the
1141:
1113:
1082:
1069:
1064:
978:
957:
896:
842:
754:
656:Blanch v. Koons
614:Folsom v. Marsh
605:
596:Pierre N. Leval
570:Folsom v. Marsh
556:Folsom v. Marsh
461:
374:
317:
281:
277:
192:Copyright troll
81:Farmers' rights
61:Authors' rights
35:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5063:
5061:
5053:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5030:Digital rights
5027:
5017:
5016:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5006:
5000:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4993:
4988:
4982:
4980:
4976:
4975:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4968:
4966:United Kingdom
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4942:
4941:
4936:
4926:
4921:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4887:
4875:
4869:
4867:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4822:
4810:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4761:
4748:
4746:
4744:European Union
4737:
4733:
4732:
4730:
4729:
4717:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4643:
4638:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4548:
4546:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4538:
4533:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4448:
4446:
4442:
4441:
4434:
4432:
4430:
4429:
4424:
4412:
4400:
4388:
4376:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4324:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4312:related rights
4309:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4273:
4266:
4259:
4251:
4245:
4244:
4238:
4232:
4222:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:External links
4187:
4186:
4185:
4177:
4123:
4103:10.1.1.196.423
4096:(4): 453–473.
4076:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4043:
4017:
3996:
3963:
3937:
3909:
3870:
3844:
3818:
3785:
3751:
3721:
3688:
3662:
3647:
3625:
3603:
3575:
3549:
3523:
3492:
3466:
3457:|journal=
3434:
3407:
3393:
3374:
3348:
3319:
3292:
3266:
3255:
3232:
3212:
3195:Law Down Under
3182:
3159:
3139:
3121:
3101:
3085:
3078:
3060:
3034:
3003:
2971:
2945:
2923:
2890:
2868:
2843:
2817:
2790:
2764:
2738:
2722:
2705:
2674:
2655:
2637:
2619:
2594:
2566:
2550:
2530:
2521:
2507:
2490:
2462:
2442:
2411:
2385:
2367:
2347:
2301:
2269:
2249:
2205:
2171:
2145:
2131:
2097:
2070:
2058:
2042:
2032:Gyles v Wilcox
2019:
1993:
1979:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1950:
1944:
1941:Scènes à faire
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1871:
1868:
1822:
1819:
1810:Main article:
1807:
1806:United Kingdom
1804:
1786:is a landmark
1761:Main article:
1758:
1755:
1734:Main article:
1731:
1728:
1719:Main article:
1716:
1713:
1698:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1669:
1666:
1660:
1657:
1627:
1624:
1583:
1580:
1571:Richard Prince
1566:
1563:
1535:Main article:
1532:
1529:
1489:
1486:
1373:the use fair.
1335:
1332:
1275:
1274:Music sampling
1272:
1253:
1250:
1206:Let's Go Crazy
1156:inline linking
1140:
1137:
1125:Joel Tenenbaum
1121:Charles Nesson
1112:
1109:
1081:
1078:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
977:
974:
956:
953:
948:
947:
939:
895:
892:
888:President Ford
841:
838:
815:Second Circuit
762:J. D. Salinger
753:
750:
636:transformative
604:
601:
588:17 U.S.C.
543:
542:
541:
540:
537:
534:
531:
518:17 U.S.C.
510:17 U.S.C.
506:
505:
499:17 U.S.C.
460:
457:
405:17 U.S.C.
383:Gyles v Wilcox
373:
370:
319:
318:
316:
315:
308:
301:
293:
290:
289:
276:
275:
274:
273:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
242:
241:
239:Right to quote
236:
231:
226:
216:
211:
210:
209:
202:Bioprospecting
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
166:
165:
164:Related topics
161:
160:
159:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
131:Related rights
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
76:Database right
73:
68:
63:
55:
54:
46:
45:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5062:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5005:
5002:
5001:
4998:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4977:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4918:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4896:
4891:
4888:
4884:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4831:
4826:
4823:
4819:
4814:
4811:
4807:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4770:
4765:
4762:
4758:
4753:
4750:
4749:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4738:
4734:
4726:
4721:
4718:
4714:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4652:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4635:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4598:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4549:
4547:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4530:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4519:United States
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4493:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4443:
4428:
4425:
4421:
4416:
4413:
4409:
4404:
4401:
4397:
4392:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4377:
4373:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4341:
4336:
4333:
4332:
4330:
4326:
4320:
4317:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4284:
4281:
4272:
4267:
4265:
4260:
4258:
4253:
4252:
4249:
4242:
4239:
4236:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4079:
4078:
4074:
4058:
4054:
4047:
4044:
4032:
4028:
4021:
4018:
4006:
4000:
3997:
3984:
3980:
3979:Fair Use Week
3976:
3970:
3968:
3964:
3951:
3947:
3941:
3938:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3913:
3910:
3897:
3893:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3871:
3858:
3854:
3848:
3845:
3833:
3829:
3822:
3819:
3803:
3796:
3789:
3786:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3755:
3752:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3725:
3722:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3692:
3689:
3677:
3676:The 1709 Blog
3673:
3666:
3663:
3658:
3651:
3648:
3635:
3629:
3626:
3613:
3607:
3604:
3592:
3585:
3579:
3576:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3550:
3537:
3533:
3527:
3524:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3496:
3493:
3481:
3477:
3470:
3467:
3462:
3449:
3438:
3435:
3430:
3423:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3403:
3397:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3378:
3375:
3362:
3355:
3353:
3349:
3337:
3333:
3326:
3324:
3320:
3307:
3303:
3296:
3293:
3280:
3276:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3259:
3256:
3243:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3224:
3223:
3216:
3213:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3186:
3183:
3170:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3151:
3150:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3113:
3112:
3105:
3102:
3097:
3096:
3089:
3086:
3081:
3075:
3071:
3064:
3061:
3048:
3044:
3038:
3035:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3007:
3004:
2988:
2981:
2975:
2972:
2959:
2955:
2949:
2946:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2894:
2891:
2879:. May 9, 2013
2878:
2872:
2869:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2832:
2828:
2821:
2818:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2791:
2779:
2775:
2768:
2765:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2709:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2678:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2623:
2620:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2604:
2598:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2579:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2541:
2534:
2531:
2525:
2522:
2518:
2517:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2491:
2479:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2454:
2453:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2434:cert. granted
2431:
2426:
2421:
2415:
2412:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2386:
2381:
2374:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2286:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2260:
2253:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2224:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2193:
2189:
2182:
2175:
2172:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2146:
2142:
2141:
2135:
2132:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2085:
2084:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2033:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1982:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1963:
1960:
1953:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1870:Fair Use Week
1869:
1867:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1820:
1818:
1813:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1798:was sued for
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1782:1 S.C.R. 339,
1781:
1780:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1764:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1729:
1727:
1722:
1714:
1711:
1706:
1704:
1696:
1694:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1667:
1665:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1647:
1641:
1636:
1633:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1521:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1465:, found that
1464:
1460:
1456:
1455:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1440:
1439:Suntrust Bank
1436:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1380:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1354:appropriated
1353:
1348:
1346:
1341:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1324:Grand Upright
1321:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1306:
1301:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1284:Before 1991,
1281:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1264:
1258:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1242:
1241:
1236:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1164:search engine
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1147:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1133:Jammie Thomas
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1067:Computer code
1066:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1027:
1025:
1020:
1014:
1009:
1004:
1003:
997:
993:
989:
988:
983:
975:
973:
970:
965:
960:
954:
952:
945:
940:
937:
933:
929:
928:
927:
924:
922:
917:
913:
909:
905:
900:
891:
889:
885:
884:
877:
875:
871:
870:Ninth Circuit
867:
863:
862:time-shifting
859:
854:
846:
839:
837:
834:
830:
826:
822:
821:
816:
811:
809:
807:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
784:Zapruder film
781:
776:
769:
768:
763:
758:
751:
749:
745:
741:
738:
736:
730:
727:
725:
721:
719:
713:
712:Richard Story
709:
705:
704:
698:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
679:
674:
669:
666:
665:Andrea Blanch
662:
658:
657:
652:
648:
644:
643:
638:
637:
630:
628:
622:
620:
616:
615:
609:
602:
600:
597:
593:
589:
583:
579:
574:
572:
571:
566:
558:
557:
551:
546:
538:
535:
532:
529:
528:
527:
526:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
504:
500:
497:
496:
494:
491:
487:
486:
481:
476:
474:
470:
466:
458:
456:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
431:("EFF"), the
430:
424:
422:
417:
412:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
389:
385:
384:
379:
371:
369:
368:
367:
362:
358:
352:
350:
346:
342:
337:
333:
329:
325:
314:
309:
307:
302:
300:
295:
294:
292:
291:
288:
284:
280:
272:
269:
268:
267:
264:
262:
261:Public domain
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
221:
220:
217:
215:
212:
208:
205:
204:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
169:
168:
167:
162:
157:
156:Utility model
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
62:
59:
58:
57:
56:
52:
48:
47:
44:
40:
37:
33:
26:
22:
4683:Saudi Arabia
4427:South Africa
4209:Online books
4199:
4138:
4134:
4116:the original
4093:
4089:
4062:December 29,
4060:. Retrieved
4056:
4046:
4036:November 18,
4034:. Retrieved
4030:
4020:
4010:November 16,
4008:. Retrieved
3999:
3989:November 18,
3987:. Retrieved
3983:the original
3978:
3954:. Retrieved
3950:the original
3940:
3930:November 16,
3928:. Retrieved
3922:
3912:
3900:. Retrieved
3896:the original
3861:. Retrieved
3856:
3847:
3837:November 16,
3835:. Retrieved
3831:
3821:
3811:November 16,
3809:. Retrieved
3802:the original
3788:
3776:. Retrieved
3772:the original
3763:
3754:
3742:. Retrieved
3738:the original
3724:
3712:. Retrieved
3701:
3691:
3681:November 18,
3679:. Retrieved
3675:
3665:
3650:
3640:December 30,
3638:. Retrieved
3628:
3618:December 30,
3616:. Retrieved
3606:
3594:. Retrieved
3590:
3578:
3568:November 16,
3566:. Retrieved
3562:
3552:
3542:November 16,
3540:. Retrieved
3536:the original
3526:
3516:November 16,
3514:. Retrieved
3510:the original
3505:
3495:
3483:. Retrieved
3479:
3469:
3448:cite journal
3437:
3428:
3396:
3387:
3377:
3365:. Retrieved
3339:. Retrieved
3335:
3310:. Retrieved
3305:
3295:
3285:November 16,
3283:. Retrieved
3278:
3269:
3258:
3248:November 15,
3246:. Retrieved
3235:
3220:
3215:
3205:November 16,
3203:. Retrieved
3199:the original
3194:
3185:
3175:November 15,
3173:. Retrieved
3162:
3147:
3142:
3129:
3124:
3109:
3104:
3093:
3088:
3069:
3063:
3053:September 2,
3051:. Retrieved
3047:the original
3037:
3027:November 16,
3025:. Retrieved
3021:the original
3016:
3006:
2996:November 18,
2994:. Retrieved
2987:the original
2974:
2964:November 18,
2962:. Retrieved
2958:the original
2948:
2938:November 18,
2936:. Retrieved
2926:
2916:November 16,
2914:. Retrieved
2910:
2906:
2893:
2881:. Retrieved
2871:
2859:. Retrieved
2846:
2836:November 16,
2834:. Retrieved
2830:
2820:
2808:. Retrieved
2804:the original
2793:
2781:. Retrieved
2778:Ars Technica
2777:
2767:
2755:. Retrieved
2752:Ars Technica
2751:
2741:
2729:
2725:
2708:
2691:
2687:
2677:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2645:
2640:
2627:
2622:
2601:
2597:
2576:
2557:
2553:
2538:
2533:
2524:
2514:
2510:
2502:
2481:. Retrieved
2478:casetext.com
2477:
2450:
2445:
2440: (2019).
2433:
2424:
2414:
2402:. Retrieved
2398:Ars Technica
2397:
2388:
2379:
2355:
2350:
2340:November 18,
2338:. Retrieved
2331:the original
2326:
2322:
2283:
2257:
2252:
2227:
2221:
2196:. Retrieved
2194:(2): 431–452
2191:
2187:
2174:
2164:November 16,
2162:. Retrieved
2157:
2148:
2138:
2134:
2122:. Retrieved
2117:
2113:
2100:
2093:the original
2081:
2065:
2061:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2030:
2010:. Retrieved
2005:
1996:
1984:. Retrieved
1969:
1962:
1880:
1873:
1864:
1828:
1824:
1815:
1777:
1776:
1768:
1766:
1739:
1724:
1721:Fair dealing
1715:Fair dealing
1708:
1700:
1691:
1682:
1671:
1662:
1650:
1644:
1639:
1637:
1629:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1597:
1589:fair dealing
1585:
1568:
1565:Social media
1540:
1518:
1516:
1509:
1491:
1481:
1477:
1475:
1466:
1462:
1452:
1446:
1438:
1432:
1424:
1414:
1408:
1399:
1377:
1375:
1363:
1352:Tom Forsythe
1349:
1337:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1283:
1266:
1259:
1255:
1238:
1232:
1222:
1194:
1187:Jeremy Fogel
1184:
1172:
1144:
1142:
1114:
1111:File sharing
1101:
1100:
1087:Loose Change
1085:
1083:
1072:
1070:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1040:
1028:
985:
979:
968:
961:
958:
949:
935:
925:
920:
915:
903:
901:
897:
881:
878:
865:
857:
855:
851:
833:moral rights
828:
824:
818:
812:
806:Bernard Geis
804:Time Inc v.
803:
795:
791:
777:
773:
765:
746:
742:
734:
731:
728:
715:
707:
701:
699:
686:
682:
676:
672:
670:
654:
646:
640:
634:
632:
624:
612:
610:
606:
585:
580:
576:
568:
565:Joseph Story
562:
554:
544:
507:
483:
477:
462:
425:
413:
393:fair dealing
381:
375:
364:
353:
345:fair dealing
323:
322:
287:Property law
278:
256:Pirate Party
251:Patent troll
234:Paraphrasing
228:
224:Fair dealing
146:Trade secret
106:Moral rights
36:
4991:New Zealand
4951:Switzerland
4915: [
4893: [
4881: [
4837:Netherlands
4828: [
4816: [
4804: [
4767: [
4755: [
4723: [
4711: [
4678:Philippines
4649: [
4632: [
4624:South Korea
4619:North Korea
4595: [
4552:Afghanistan
4527: [
4499:El Salvador
4490: [
4418: [
4406: [
4394: [
4382: [
4370: [
4367:Ivory Coast
4338: [
3714:February 6,
3614:(in Polish)
3596:October 21,
3485:November 4,
3171:. The IPKAT
2694:: 601–649.
2617: (1984)
2592: (1985)
2483:October 27,
2299: (1994)
1906:Abandonware
1784:2004 SCC 13
1697:South Korea
1525:Harold Baer
1502:data mining
1494:text mining
1461:, applying
1427:); and the
1392:2 Live Crew
1390:, had sued
1384:Roy Orbison
1129:Kiwi Camara
1019:prima facie
1013:prima facie
1002:prima facie
691:2 Live Crew
522:§ 106A
336:copyrighted
246:Orphan work
172:Abandonware
141:Trade dress
5019:Categories
4912:Kyrgyzstan
4907:Kazakhstan
4825:Luxembourg
4720:Uzbekistan
4698:Tajikistan
4614:Kazakhstan
4562:Bangladesh
4557:Azerbaijan
4403:Mozambique
4379:Madagascar
4307:by country
4156:2144/22971
2012:August 23,
1954:References
1894:Pia Hunter
1674:Polish law
1620:common law
1559:encryption
1506:Denny Chin
1498:web mining
1431:Circuits (
1370:Jeff Koons
1328:Bridgeport
1314:de minimis
1310:de minimis
1305:de minimis
1290:Biz Markie
1246:Righthaven
1225:Philip Pro
1152:thumbnails
992:litigation
964:plagiarism
932:substitute
808:Associates
661:Jeff Koons
592:§ 107
514:§ 106
503:§ 107
409:§ 107
349:Common Law
4986:Australia
4813:Lithuania
4688:Sri Lanka
4582:Indonesia
4572:Hong Kong
4536:Venezuela
4452:Argentina
4173:151080880
4098:CiteSeerX
3863:April 16,
3832:Tech Dirt
3367:August 5,
3341:August 5,
3312:August 5,
3306:The Verge
2404:March 30,
2124:April 16,
1986:April 16,
1947:TEACH Act
1921:Copyfraud
1839:Microsoft
1730:Australia
1688:Singapore
1231:ruled in
1193:ruled in
944:licensing
908:Universal
874:thumbnail
798:tried to
482:, but in
421:Civil law
397:precedent
207:Biopiracy
151:Trademark
71:Copyright
5025:Fair use
4703:Thailand
4673:Pakistan
4646:Mongolia
4641:Malaysia
4504:Honduras
4445:Americas
4352:Cameroon
4200:Fair use
4129:(1982).
3956:June 16,
3902:June 16,
3778:March 8,
3744:March 7,
3708:Archived
3480:Techdirt
2883:April 2,
2861:April 2,
2810:June 16,
2783:June 16,
2757:June 16,
2615:417, 451
2562:S.D.N.Y.
2198:March 6,
2120:(3): 715
2068:§ 13.05.
1943:doctrine
1900:See also
1659:Malaysia
1551:hardware
1463:Campbell
1429:Eleventh
1400:Campbell
1340:parodies
1286:sampling
936:Campbell
687:Campbell
683:Campbell
673:Campbell
647:Campbell
328:doctrine
324:Fair use
283:Property
229:Fair use
66:Copyleft
4979:Oceania
4961:Ukraine
4924:Moldova
4902:Georgia
4890:Belarus
4878:Armenia
4873:Albania
4847:Romania
4791:Ireland
4781:Germany
4764:Belgium
4752:Austria
4658:Myanmar
4629:Lebanon
4524:Uruguay
4487:Ecuador
4462:Bolivia
4457:Bermuda
4415:Senegal
4391:Morocco
4347:Burundi
4165:1122296
3975:"About"
2700:3498352
2244:1341457
1632:Knesset
1419:); the
1227:of the
1210:YouTube
1189:of the
912:Betamax
823:and in
786:of the
621:wrote:
372:History
4956:Turkey
4946:Serbia
4929:Russia
4857:Sweden
4842:Poland
4801:Latvia
4786:Greece
4776:France
4736:Europe
4609:Jordan
4592:Israel
4509:Panama
4472:Canada
4467:Brazil
4328:Africa
4197:about
4171:
4163:
4100:
3857:Gov.UK
3226:,
3153:,
3133:,
3115:,
3076:
2698:
2671:: 483.
2649:,
2631:,
2606:,
2581:,
2544:,
2456:,
2428:,
2361:,
2288:,
2263:,
2242:
2087:,
2036:,
1977:
1851:Yahoo!
1841:Inc.,
1837:Inc.,
1835:Google
1794:. The
1757:Canada
1668:Poland
1626:Israel
1411:Second
1404:satire
1360:Mattel
1356:Barbie
1345:satire
1334:Parody
868:, the
800:enjoin
720:, Inc.
627:piracy
590:
520:
512:
501:
469:parody
439:, the
435:, the
407:
386:, the
359:. The
111:Patent
4919:]
4897:]
4885:]
4852:Spain
4832:]
4820:]
4808:]
4796:Italy
4771:]
4759:]
4727:]
4715:]
4693:Syria
4663:Nepal
4653:]
4636:]
4604:Japan
4599:]
4577:India
4567:China
4531:]
4494:]
4477:Chile
4422:]
4410:]
4398:]
4386:]
4374:]
4362:Egypt
4357:Ghana
4342:]
4335:Benin
4241:CHEER
4169:S2CID
4161:JSTOR
4119:(PDF)
4086:(PDF)
3805:(PDF)
3798:(PDF)
3587:(PDF)
3425:(PDF)
2990:(PDF)
2983:(PDF)
2903:(PDF)
2855:(PDF)
2610:
2585:
2564:1988)
2334:(PDF)
2319:(PDF)
2292:
2240:JSTOR
2184:(PDF)
2110:(PDF)
1421:Ninth
864:. In
608:new.
326:is a
4934:USSR
4668:Oman
4587:Iran
4545:Asia
4514:Peru
4182:2014
4064:2016
4038:2015
4012:2015
3991:2015
3958:2009
3932:2015
3904:2009
3865:2018
3839:2015
3813:2015
3780:2017
3746:2017
3716:2017
3683:2015
3642:2016
3620:2016
3598:2018
3570:2015
3544:2015
3518:2015
3487:2019
3461:help
3369:2019
3343:2019
3314:2019
3287:2015
3250:2014
3207:2015
3177:2014
3074:ISBN
3055:2013
3029:2015
2998:2015
2966:2015
2940:2015
2918:2015
2885:2016
2863:2016
2838:2015
2812:2009
2785:2009
2759:2009
2712:See
2696:SSRN
2692:2019
2612:U.S.
2587:U.S.
2485:2022
2406:2017
2342:2015
2294:U.S.
2200:2011
2166:2015
2126:2018
2014:2024
1988:2018
1975:ISBN
1767:The
1701:The
1649:and
1614:The
1500:and
1480:and
1386:'s,
1326:and
1071:The
796:Time
792:Time
671:The
516:and
473:test
285:and
4151:hdl
4143:doi
4108:doi
2734:PDF
2608:464
2590:539
2583:471
2297:569
2290:510
2232:doi
2228:103
1879:'s
1877:ARL
1856:GDP
1602:'s
1545:of
1508:in
1376:In
1044:any
984:in
969:not
817:in
567:in
330:in
5021::
4917:ru
4895:ru
4883:ru
4830:de
4818:ru
4806:ru
4769:fr
4757:de
4725:ru
4713:de
4651:ru
4634:ru
4597:ru
4529:es
4492:es
4420:fr
4408:ru
4396:fr
4384:fr
4372:fr
4340:fr
4167:.
4159:.
4149:.
4139:82
4137:.
4133:.
4106:.
4094:21
4092:.
4088:.
4055:.
4029:.
3977:.
3966:^
3921:.
3873:^
3855:.
3830:.
3766:.
3762:.
3732:.
3706:.
3700:.
3674:.
3589:.
3561:.
3504:.
3478:.
3452::
3450:}}
3446:{{
3427:.
3410:^
3386:.
3351:^
3334:.
3322:^
3304:.
3277:.
3193:.
3015:.
2911:45
2909:.
2905:.
2829:.
2776:.
2750:.
2690:.
2686:.
2669:44
2667:.
2569:^
2493:^
2476:.
2465:^
2436:,
2396:.
2370:^
2327:77
2325:.
2321:.
2304:^
2272:^
2238:.
2226:.
2208:^
2190:.
2186:.
2156:.
2118:15
2116:.
2112:.
2073:^
2022:^
2004:.
1862:.
1849:,
1845:,
1655:.
1557:,
1553:,
1549:,
1496:,
1484:.
1368:,
1154:,
1127:.
1119:.
810:.
653:.
629:."
617:,
475:.
411:.
403:,
4270:e
4263:t
4256:v
4184:.
4175:.
4153::
4145::
4110::
4066:.
4040:.
4014:.
3993:.
3960:.
3934:.
3906:.
3867:.
3841:.
3815:.
3782:.
3748:.
3718:.
3685:.
3644:.
3622:.
3600:.
3572:.
3546:.
3520:.
3489:.
3463:)
3459:(
3390:.
3371:.
3345:.
3316:.
3289:.
3252:.
3209:.
3179:.
3082:.
3057:.
3031:.
3000:.
2968:.
2942:.
2920:.
2887:.
2865:.
2840:.
2814:.
2787:.
2761:.
2720:.
2702:.
2487:.
2408:.
2344:.
2246:.
2234::
2202:.
2192:5
2168:.
2128:.
2095:.
2016:.
1990:.
1423:(
1413:(
1148:,
831:(
770:.
559:.
312:e
305:t
298:v
34:.
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.