Breeder reactor - Knowledge (XXG)

3031:) design is seen as a successor to the BN series and the 300 MWe unit at the SCC could be the forerunner to a 1,200 MWe version for wide deployment as a commercial power generation unit. The development program is as part of an Advanced Nuclear Technologies Federal Program 2010–2020 that seeks to exploit fast reactors for uranium efficiency while 'burning' radioactive substances that would otherwise be disposed of as waste. Its core would measure about 2.3 metres in diameter by 1.1 metres in height and contain 16 tonnes of fuel. The unit would be refuelled every year, with each fuel element spending five years in total within the core. Lead coolant temperature would be around 540 °C, giving a high efficiency of 43%, primary heat production of 700 MWt yielding electrical power of 300 MWe. The operational lifespan of the unit could be 60 years. The design is expected to be completed by NIKIET in 2014 for construction between 2016 and 2020. 1746:" is a measure of how much energy has been extracted from a given mass of heavy metal in fuel, often expressed (for power reactors) in terms of gigawatt-days per ton of heavy metal. Burnup is an important factor in determining the types and abundances of isotopes produced by a fission reactor. Breeder reactors by design have high burnup compared to a conventional reactor, as breeder reactors produce more of their waste in the form of fission products, while most or all of the actinides are meant to be fissioned and destroyed. 3152:

transmutation, fuel rods are continually reshuffled within the core to optimize the neutron flux and fuel usage at any given point in time. Thus, instead of letting the wave propagate through the fuel, the fuel itself is moved through a largely stationary burn wave. This is contrary to many media reports, which have popularized the concept as a candle-like reactor with a burn region that moves down a stick of fuel. By replacing a static core configuration with an actively managed "standing wave" or "soliton" core,

4941:. "The US tested a few uranium-233 bombs, but the presence of uranium-232 in the uranium-233 was a problem; the uranium-232 is a copious alpha emitter and tended to 'poison' the uranium-233 bomb by knocking stray neutrons from impurities in the bomb material, leading to possible pre-detonation. Separation of the uranium-232 from the uranium-233 proved to be very difficult and not practical. The uranium-233 bomb was never deployed since plutonium-239 was becoming plentiful." 6970: 6960: 6940: 1233:, the leftover fragments of fuel atoms after they have been split to release energy. Fission products come in dozens of elements and hundreds of isotopes, all of them lighter than uranium. The second main component of spent fuel is transuranics (atoms heavier than uranium), which are generated from uranium or heavier atoms in the fuel when they absorb neutrons but do not undergo fission. All transuranic isotopes fall within the actinide series on the 2964: 3870:"The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed to an isomer of Bk with a half-life greater than 9 . No growth of Cf was detected, and a lower limit for the β half-life can be set at about 10 . No alpha activity attributable to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is probably greater than 300 ." 554: 2888: 243: 2976: 3168: 3055: 6950: 3182: 484:. A quantity of natural uranium equivalent to a block about the size of a milk crate delivered once per month would be all the fuel such a 1 gigawatt reactor would need. Such self-contained breeders are currently envisioned as the final self-contained and self-supporting ultimate goal of nuclear reactor designers. The project was canceled in 1994 by 127: 1809:, high levels of uranium-232 would be allowed to accumulate, leading to extremely high gamma-radiation doses from any uranium derived from thorium. These gamma rays complicate the safe handling of a weapon and the design of its electronics; this explains why uranium-233 has never been pursued for weapons beyond proof-of-concept demonstrations. 500: 1797:, leaves large amounts of radioactive actinides in the reactor fuel. More conventional water-based reprocessing systems include SANEX, UNEX, DIAMEX, COEX, and TRUEX, and proposals to combine PUREX with those and other co-processes. All these systems have moderately better proliferation resistance than PUREX, though their adoption rate is low. 1316:

thorium-232 requires six more neutron capture events per nucleus before the transuranic elements can be produced. In addition to this simple mass difference, the reactor gets two chances to fission the nuclei as the mass increases: First as the effective fuel nuclei U233, and as it absorbs two more neutrons, again as the fuel nuclei U235.

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decay to pure uranium-233 outside of the reactor. This process is an obvious chemical operation which is not required for normal operation of these reactor designs, but it could feasibly happen beyond the oversight of organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and thus must be safeguarded against.

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is a fast breeder reactor designed to not need fuel reprocessing during the decades-long lifetime of the reactor. The breed-burn wave in the TWR design does not move from one end of the reactor to the other but gradually from the inside out. Moreover, as the fuel's composition changes through nuclear

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is the amount of time it would take for a breeder reactor to produce enough new fissile material to replace the original fuel and additionally produce an equivalent amount of fuel for another nuclear reactor. This was considered an important measure of breeder performance in early years, when uranium

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One measure of a reactor's performance is the "conversion ratio", defined as the ratio of new fissile atoms produced to fissile atoms consumed. All proposed nuclear reactors except specially designed and operated actinide burners experience some degree of conversion. As long as there is any amount of

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Waste from a breeder reactor has a different decay behavior because it is made up of different materials. Breeder reactor waste is mostly fission products, while light-water reactor waste is mostly unused uranium isotopes and a large quantity of transuranics. After spent nuclear fuel has been removed

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Breeder reactors could, in principle, extract almost all of the energy contained in uranium or thorium, decreasing fuel requirements by a factor of 100 compared to widely used once-through light water reactors, which extract less than 1% of the energy in the actinide metal (uranium or thorium) mined

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is due to be completed and commissioned. The program is intended to use fertile thorium-232 to breed fissile uranium-233. India is also pursuing thorium thermal breeder reactor technology. India's focus on thorium is due to the nation's large reserves, though known worldwide reserves of thorium are

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liquid-metal-cooled reactor. Theoretical models of breeders with liquid sodium coolant flowing through tubes inside fuel elements ("tube-in-shell" construction) suggest breeding ratios of at least 1.8 are possible on an industrial scale. The Soviet BR-1 test reactor achieved a breeding ratio of 2.5

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Today's commercial light-water reactors do breed some new fissile material, mostly in the form of plutonium. Because commercial reactors were never designed as breeders, they do not convert enough uranium-238 into plutonium to replace the uranium-235 consumed. Nonetheless, at least one-third of the

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is removed from a light water reactor, it undergoes a complex decay profile as each nuclide decays at a different rate. There is a large gap in the decay half-lives of fission products compared to transuranic isotopes. If the transuranics are left in the spent fuel, after 1,000 to 100,000 years the

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cathodes and electrorefiners to reprocess metallic fuel directly on-site at the reactor. Such systems co-mingle all the minor actinides with both uranium and plutonium. The systems are compact and self-contained, so that no plutonium-containing material needs to be transported away from the site of

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It was expected that the proliferation risks posed by breeders and their "closed" fuel cycle, in which plutonium would be recycled, could be managed. But since plutonium-breeding reactors produce plutonium from U238, and thorium reactors produce fissile U233 from thorium, all breeding cycles could

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said "After six decades and the expenditure of the equivalent of tens of billions of dollars, the promise of breeder reactors remains largely unfulfilled and efforts to commercialize them have been steadily cut back in most countries". In Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, breeder

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While the thorium cycle may be proliferation-resistant with regard to uranium-233 extraction from fuel (because of the presence of uranium-232), it poses a proliferation risk from an alternate route of uranium-233 extraction, which involves chemically extracting protactinium-233 and allowing it to

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Breeding fuel cycles attracted renewed interest because of their potential to reduce actinide wastes, particularly various isotopes of plutonium and the minor actinides (neptunium, americium, curium, etc.). Since breeder reactors on a closed fuel cycle would use nearly all of the isotopes of these

1237:, and so they are frequently referred to as the actinides. The largest component is the remaining uranium which is around 98.25% uranium-238, 1.1% uranium-235, and 0.65% uranium-236. The U-236 comes from the non-fission capture reaction where U-235 absorbs a neutron but releases only a high energy 5453:

Yesterday, as the Chinese Academy of Sciences of the first to start one of the strategic leader in science and technology projects, "the future of advanced nuclear fission energy – nuclear energy, thorium-based molten salt reactor system" project was officially launched. The scientific goal is 20

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The Soviet Union constructed a series of fast reactors, the first being mercury-cooled and fueled with plutonium metal, and the later plants sodium-cooled and fueled with plutonium oxide. BR-1 (1955) was 100W (thermal) was followed by BR-2 at 100 kW and then the 5 MW BR-5. BOR-60 (first

1786:, presents a particular concern since it was expressly designed to separate plutonium. Early proposals for the breeder-reactor fuel cycle posed an even greater proliferation concern because they would use PUREX to separate plutonium in a highly attractive isotopic form for use in nuclear weapons. 1295:

In principle, breeder fuel cycles can recycle and consume all actinides, leaving only fission products. As the graphic in this section indicates, fission products have a peculiar "gap" in their aggregate half-lives, such that no fission products have a half-life between 91 and 200,000 years. As a

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of fissile fuels used in LWRs. The thorium fuel cycle inherently produces lower levels of heavy actinides. The fertile material in the thorium fuel cycle has an atomic weight of 232, while the fertile material in the uranium fuel cycle has an atomic weight of 238. That mass difference means that

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With increased concerns about nuclear waste, breeding fuel cycles came under renewed interest as they can reduce actinide wastes, particularly plutonium and minor actinides. Breeder reactors are designed to fission the actinide wastes as fuel and thus convert them to more fission products. After

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and uranium-233 oxide; initially, the U-233 content of the pellets was 5–6% in the seed region, 1.5–3% in the blanket region, and none in the reflector region. It operated at 236 MWt, generating 60 MWe, and ultimately produced over 2.1 billion kilowatt hours of electricity. After five

289: 537:, Japan, China, South Korea, and Russia are all committing substantial research funds to further development of fast breeder reactors, anticipating that rising uranium prices will change this in the long term. Germany, in contrast, abandoned the technology due to safety concerns. The 440:

or ferritic-martensitic steels) under extreme conditions. The understanding of the radiation damage, coolant interactions, stresses, and temperatures are necessary for the safe operation of any reactor core. All materials used to date in sodium-cooled fast reactors have known limits.

315:, at 880 MWe. Both are Russian sodium-cooled reactors. The designs use liquid metal as the primary coolant, to transfer heat from the core to steam used to power the electricity generating turbines. FBRs have been built cooled by liquid metals other than sodium—some early FBRs used 2943:

is a 25 MW(e) prototype for the planned China Prototype Fast Reactor. It started generating power in 2011. China initiated a research and development project in thorium molten-salt thermal breeder-reactor technology (liquid fluoride thorium reactor), formally announced at the

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Production of heavy transuranic actinides in current thermal-neutron fission reactors through neutron capture and decays. Starting at uranium-238, isotopes of plutonium, americium, and curium are all produced. In a fast neutron-breeder reactor, all these isotopes may be burned as

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the breeder reactor. Breeder reactors incorporating such technology would most likely be designed with breeding ratios very close to 1.00, so that after an initial loading of enriched uranium and/or plutonium fuel, the reactor would then be refueled only with small deliveries of

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was thought to be scarce. However, since uranium is more abundant than thought in the early days of nuclear reactor development, and given the amount of plutonium available in spent reactor fuel, doubling time has become a less important metric in modern breeder-reactor design.

404:(as is some of the uranium in the core), which is then reprocessed and used as nuclear fuel. Other FBR designs rely on the geometry of the fuel (which also contains uranium-238), arranged to attain sufficient fast neutron capture. The plutonium-239 (or the fissile uranium-235) 3156:'s design avoids the problem of cooling a highly variable burn region. Under this scenario, the reconfiguration of fuel rods is accomplished remotely by robotic devices; the containment vessel remains closed during the procedure, and there is no associated downtime. 3139:

reported that the UK Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) and senior advisers within the Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) had asked for technical and financial details of PRISM, partly as a means of reducing the country's plutonium stockpile.

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power produced by commercial nuclear reactors comes from fission of plutonium generated within the fuel. Even with this level of plutonium consumption, light water reactors consume only part of the plutonium and minor actinides they produce, and nonfissile

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is also planned as a thorium thermal breeder. Liquid-fluoride reactors may have attractive features, such as inherent safety, no need to manufacture fuel rods, and possibly simpler reprocessing of the liquid fuel. This concept was first investigated at the

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theoretically pose proliferation risks. However U-232, which is always present in U-233 produced in breeder reactors, is a strong gamma-emitter via its daughter products, and would make weapon handling extremely hazardous and the weapon easy to detect.

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Some past anti-nuclear advocates have become pro-nuclear power as a clean source of electricity since breeder reactors effectively recycle most of their waste. This solves one of the most-important negative issues of nuclear power. In the documentary

610:. In addition to seawater, the average crustal granite rocks contain significant quantities of uranium and thorium that with breeder reactors can supply abundant energy for the remaining lifespan of the sun on the main sequence of stellar evolution. 1720:

running on natural uranium have a conversion ratio of 0.8. In a breeder reactor, the conversion ratio is higher than 1. "Break-even" is achieved when the conversion ratio reaches 1.0 and the reactor produces as much fissile material as it uses.

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In the thorium cycle, thorium-232 breeds by converting first to protactinium-233, which then decays to uranium-233. If the protactinium remains in the reactor, small amounts of uranium-232 are also produced, which has the strong gamma emitter

429:, which may have a sufficiently fast spectrum to provide a breeding ratio slightly over 1. This would likely result in an unacceptable power derating and high costs in a liquid-water-cooled reactor, but the supercritical water coolant of the 1244:

The physical behavior of the fission products is markedly different from that of the actinides. In particular, fission products do not undergo fission and therefore cannot be used as nuclear fuel. Indeed, because fission products are often

425:, is an undesirable primary coolant for fast reactors. Because large amounts of water in the core are required to cool the reactor, the yield of neutrons and therefore breeding of Pu are strongly affected. Theoretical work has been done on 565:

is one of the few proposed large-scale uses of thorium. India is developing this technology, motivated by substantial thorium reserves; almost a third of the world's thorium reserves are in India, which lacks significant uranium reserves.

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Fission probabilities of selected actinides, thermal vs. fast neutrons. The percentages of thermal and fast fission indicate the fraction of nuclei fissioned when hit by a respective neutron. The remainder undergoes neutron capture.

5292: 4125: 3107:, has long been a promoter of thorium fuel cycle and particularly liquid fluoride thorium reactors. In 2011, Sorensen founded Flibe Energy, a company aimed to develop 20–50 MW LFTR reactor designs to power military bases. 1837:

It was expected that breeder reactors would quickly become economically competitive with the light-water reactors that dominate nuclear power today, but the reality is that capital costs are at least 25% more than water-cooled

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actinides fed into them as fuel, their fuel requirements would be reduced by a factor of about 100. The volume of waste they generate would be reduced by a factor of about 100 as well. While there is a huge reduction in the

606:(currently too expensive to be economical), there is enough fuel for breeder reactors to satisfy the world's energy needs for 5 billion years at 1983's total energy consumption rate, thus making nuclear energy effectively a 5251: 1841:

It was thought that breeder reactors could be as safe and reliable as light-water reactors, but safety issues are cited as a concern with fast reactors that use a sodium coolant, where a leak could lead to a sodium

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is much smaller in a fast spectrum than in a thermal spectrum, as is the ratio between the Pu/U fission cross-section and the U absorption cross-section. This increases the concentration of Pu/U needed to sustain a

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slow decay of these transuranics would generate most of the radioactivity in that spent fuel. Thus, removing the transuranics from the waste eliminates much of the long-term radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel.

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from a light-water reactor for longer than 100,000 years, the transuranics would be the main source of radioactivity. Eliminating them would eliminate much of the long-term radioactivity from the spent fuel.

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It was expected that uranium would be scarce and high-grade deposits would quickly become depleted if fission power were deployed on a large scale; the reality, however, is that since the end of the

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in its decay chain. Similar to uranium-fueled designs, the longer the fuel and fertile material remain in the reactor, the more of these undesirable elements build up. In the envisioned commercial

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Conceptual Design of PFBR Core S.M. Lee, S Govindarajan, R. Indira, T.M. John, P. Mohanakrishnan, R. Shankar Singh, S B. Bhoje Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam, India

5284: 4319: 1857:, a case is made for breeder reactors because they provide a real high-kW alternative to fossil fuel energy. According to the movie, one pound of uranium provides as much energy as 5,000 3087:(Advanced Sodium Technological Reactor for Industrial Demonstration), a 600 MW fourth-generation reactor design to be finalized in 2020. As of 2013 the UK had shown interest in the 5579: 3635: 3092: 1249:(absorbing neutrons that could be used to sustain a chain reaction), fission products are viewed as nuclear 'ashes' left over from consuming fissile materials. Furthermore, only seven 475:

in the waste. Some of these fission products could later be separated for industrial or medical uses and the rest sent to a waste repository. The IFR pyroprocessing system uses molten

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four times those of uranium. India's Department of Atomic Energy said in 2007 that it would simultaneously construct four more breeder reactors of 500 MWe each including two at

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reactor development programs have been abandoned. The rationale for pursuing breeder reactors—sometimes explicit and sometimes implicit—was based on the following key assumptions:

233:. Due to the behavior of the various nuclear fuels, a thermal breeder is thought commercially feasible only with thorium fuel, which avoids the buildup of the heavier transuranics. 5847: 99:

is high enough to create more fissile fuel than they use. These extra neutrons are absorbed by the fertile material that is loaded into the reactor along with fissile fuel. This

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Extant reactor designs are sometimes divided into two broad categories based upon their neutron spectrum, which generally separates those designed to use primarily uranium and

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from the earth. The high fuel-efficiency of breeder reactors could greatly reduce concerns about fuel supply, energy used in mining, and storage of radioactive waste. With

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years, the core was removed and found to contain nearly 1.4% more fissile material than when it was installed, demonstrating that breeding from thorium had occurred.

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years or so, developed a new generation of nuclear energy systems, all the technical level reached in the test and have all the intellectual property rights.

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The FBR's fast neutrons can fission actinide nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons. Such nuclei usually lack the low-speed "thermal neutron"

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postponed construction indefinitely to allow fuel design to be improved after more experience of operating the BN-800 reactor, and among cost concerns.

6163: 514:, in which the molten salt's moderating properties are insignificant. This is typically achieved by replacing the light metal fluorides (e.g. LiF, BeF 5355: 5128: 4098: 2923:, an Indian nuclear power company, was established in 2003 to construct, commission, and operate all stage II fast breeder reactors outlined in 1789:

Several countries are developing reprocessing methods that do not separate the plutonium from the other actinides. For instance, the non-water-based

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at all, taking advantage of the fast neutrons producing a greater number of neutrons per fission than slow neutrons. For this reason ordinary liquid

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Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after

1822: 1210: 433:(SCWR) has sufficient heat capacity to allow adequate cooling with less water, making a fast-spectrum water-cooled reactor a practical possibility. 1713:

of the reactor, some new fissile material is always created. When the conversion ratio is greater than 1, it is often called the "breeding ratio".

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with an associated conversion rate higher than 1.0. In principle, almost any reactor design could be tweaked to become a breeder. For example, the

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One pound of uranium, which is the size of my fingertip, if you could release all of the energy, has the equivalent of about 5,000 barrels of oil.

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in a blanket of tubes that contain non-fissile uranium-238, which, by capturing fast neutrons from the reaction in the core, converts to fissile

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of fertile material. Waste burners surround the core with non-fertile wastes to be destroyed. Some designs add neutron reflectors or absorbers.

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annual conference in 2011. Its ultimate target was to investigate and develop a thorium-based molten salt nuclear system over about 20 years.

4804: 4516: 4456:. 1st Consultancy Meeting for Review of Innovative Reactor Concepts for Prevention of Severe Accidents and Mitigation of their Consequences. 3229: 4621: 4395: 4237:. Hemisphere, as referenced by MIT. p. Table 6–1, "Average Conversion or Breeding Ratios for Reference Reactor Systems". Archived from 4161: 445:

steel is viewed as the long-term radiation resistant fuel-cladding material that can overcome the shortcomings of today's material choices.

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In 2006 the United States, France, and Japan signed an "arrangement" to research and develop sodium-cooled fast reactors in support of the

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South Korea is developing a design for a standardized modular FBR for export, to complement the standardized pressurized water reactor and

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Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965). "The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived isomer of berkelium-248".

3000:(1,200 MWe) was scheduled for completion in 2018, with two additional BN-1200 reactors built by the end of 2030. However, in 2015 6608: 3567: 3119: 3896:" nuclides with half-lives significantly in excess of Th; e.g., while Cd has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of Cd is eight 3195: 6090: 6027: 4938: 4757: 3265: 3040: 2835: 1778:. This step is required to fully utilize the ability to breed as much or more fuel than is consumed. All reprocessing can present a 1323:. Both breeding and burning depend on good neutron economy, and many designs can do either. Breeding designs surround the core by a 570: 485: 3914: 5601: 3746: 3537: 3377: 6943: 6918: 6783: 5436: 4340: 426: 5883: 4190: 6861: 6695: 6533: 6297: 6175: 5816: 5150: 4905: 3508: 3484: 2989: 2940: 2795: 1973: 1717: 1257:

longer than a hundred years, which makes their geological storage or disposal less problematic than for transuranic materials.

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Like many aspects of nuclear power, fast breeder reactors have been subject to much controversy over the years. In 2010 the

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methods used leave a large fraction of the transuranics in the final waste stream, this advantage would be greatly reduced.

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Argonne pioneered the development of fast reactors and is a leader in the development of fast reactors worldwide. See also

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type, in which the primary coolant is circulated through primary heat exchangers outside the reactor tank (but inside the

5009: 4653: 6705: 6414: 6168: 5628:"Department of Energy – Generation IV International Forum Signs Agreement to Collaborate on Sodium Cooled Fast Reactors" 4490: 3712: 2671: 1319:

A reactor whose main purpose is to destroy actinides rather than increasing fissile fuel-stocks is sometimes known as a

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One design of fast neutron reactor, specifically conceived to address the waste disposal and plutonium issues, was the

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Aside from water-cooled, there are many other types of breeder reactor currently envisioned as possible. These include

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Russia has a plan for increasing its fleet of fast breeder reactors significantly. A BN-800 reactor (800 MWe) at

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India has been trying to develop fast breeder reactors for decades but suffered repeated delays. By December 2024 the

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Current Status of Research and Development of Supercritical Water-Cooled Fast Reactor (Super Fast Reactor) in Japan

3104: 1304:. However, to obtain this benefit requires the highly efficient separation of transuranics from spent fuel. If the 1250: 1136: 1105: 1082: 1060: 1029: 437: 344: 6463: 5332: 4582:"A New Reprocessing System Composed of PUREX and TRUEX Processes For Total Separation of Long-lived Radionuclides" 4312: 6788: 6397: 6180: 6022: 5985: 5627: 5467: 4555: 3696: 3660: 3458: 3187: 3111: 3012: 2543: 6016: 5553: 5501: 6953: 6878: 6778: 6690: 4715: 4403: 3477: 1858: 1782:

concern, since it can extract weapons-usable material from spent fuel. The most common reprocessing technique,

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60 MWe reactor was a light water thorium breeder, which began operating in 1977. It used pellets made of

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In the past, breeder-reactor development focused on reactors with low breeding ratios, from 1.01 for the

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The Shippingport Reactor, used as a prototype light water breeder for five years beginning in August 1977

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Several prototype FBRs have been built, ranging in electrical output from a few light bulbs' equivalent (

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The type of coolants, temperatures, and fast neutron spectrum puts the fuel cladding material (normally

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Experimental Breeder Reactor-II (EBR-II): An Integrated Experimental Fast Reactor Nuclear Power Station

5102: 3808:(84) where no nuclides have half-lives of at least four years (the longest-lived nuclide in the gap is 413:, as well as the ratio of breeding to fission. On the other hand, a fast reactor needs no moderator to 5768: 3969: 6753: 6738: 5048: 4843: 4749: 3852: 1853: 1802: 1771: 1750: 1305: 397: 197: 151: 4581: 4066: 6913: 6888: 6673: 6267: 6135: 4364: 3402: 3122: 1916: 511: 488: 464:

fuel-reprocessing unit that recycled the uranium and all the transuranics (not just plutonium) via

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A high-breeding fast reactor with fission product gas purge/tube-in-shell metallic fuel assemblies

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designs they have already developed and built, but has not yet committed to building a prototype.

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Breeders were at first found attractive because they made more complete use of uranium fuel than

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fast breeder reactor was finished after 19 years despite cost overruns summing up to a total of

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For example, commonly used light water reactors have a conversion ratio of approximately 0.6.

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FSUE "State Scientific Center of Russian Federation Research Institute of Atomic Reactors".

5056: 4987: 4549:"An Assessment of the Proliferation Resistance of Materials in Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles" 4261: 3860: 3816:). Radium's longest lived isotope, at 1,600 years, thus merits the element's inclusion here. 3791: 3708: 3084: 3020: 1767: 1324: 1296:

result of this physical oddity, after several hundred years in storage, the activity of the

696: 607: 422: 390: 89: 61: 6613: 6453: 6392: 3753: 3533: 6871: 6831: 6358: 6285: 6114: 6002: 5339: 4839: 4745: 4424: 4399: 4372: 4344: 3830: 3826: 3692: 3509:"Pyroprocessing Technologies: Recycling Used Nuclear Fuel For A Sustainable Energy Future" 3488: 3465: 3135: 3088: 3008: 2997: 1904: 1753:

running on thorium fuel and cooled by conventional light water to over 1.2 for the Soviet

1197: 714: 673: 574: 481: 472: 374: 143: 139: 104: 96: 57: 6363: 3344: 5052: 3856: 3636:"Shippingport Atomic Power Station: A National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark" 6846: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6566: 6473: 6442: 6424: 3366: 2996:. It reached its full power production in 2016. Plans for the construction of a larger 2993: 2968: 2963: 2585: 2379: 2297: 2057: 1775: 1754: 1246: 1234: 1217: 705: 688: 465: 461: 414: 312: 308: 4336: 4183: 3125:, which should allow the construction of a demonstration plant based on the company's 6988: 6302: 5068: 4313:"Fast Reactor Systems and Innovative Fuels for Minor Actinides Homogeneous Recycling" 4031:"SCALE 5 Analysis of BWR Spent Nuclear Fuel Isotopic Compositions for Safety Studies" 3864: 3173: 3001: 2957: 1730: 401: 303:

type, in which the primary heat exchangers and pumps are immersed in the reactor tank

45: 5151:"Chinese fast reactor begins high-power operation: New Nuclear - World Nuclear News" 4517:"An Assessment of the Proliferation Resistance of Materials in Advanced Fuel Cycles" 3481: 1229:

In broad terms, spent nuclear fuel has three main components. The first consists of

553: 173:

designs in many variations. Almost any of these basic design types may be fueled by

17: 6577: 6082: 2975: 1710: 382: 65: 6032: 5164: 5037:"Breeder reactors: A possible connection between metal corrosion and sodium leaks" 4933:, Langford, R. Everett (2004). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 85. 1766:

Fission of the nuclear fuel in any reactor unavoidably produces neutron-absorbing

3879:

This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the "

3609: 3219: 246:

Schematic diagram showing the difference between the Loop and Pool types of LMFBR

6635: 6225: 6050:

by Richard Wilson at The Uranium Institute 24th Annual Symposium, September 1999

5944: 5550:"До 2030 в России намечено строительство трёх энергоблоков с реакторами БН-1200" 4835: 4741: 3596: 3054: 1834:, uranium has been much cheaper and more abundant than early designers expected. 1396: 677: 657: 242: 216: 212: 100: 85: 81: 77: 5333:

https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/28/014/28014318.pdf

5285:"India's first Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor in final stages of commissioning" 5179: 5165:"China's New Breeder Reactors May Produce More Than Just Watts - IEEE Spectrum" 4957:(Motion picture). Impact Partners and CNN Films. 11 minutes in. Archived from 4791: 4007: 3685: 3482:

Energy Numbers: Energy in natural processes and human consumption, some numbers

6068: 4646: 3163: 3153: 2887: 200:

from those designed to use thorium and avoid transuranics. These designs are:

5060: 4479: 3287:

Presented at IAEA Technical Committee Meeting on SCWRs in Pisa, 5–8 July 2010

593:

in the 1960s. From 2012 it became the subject of renewed interest worldwide.

6346: 6336: 5318: 4293: 4215: 3809: 3436: 3167: 2914: 1254: 1238: 662: 469: 386: 275: 178: 103:

fertile material in turn transmutes into fissile material which can undergo

6841: 5352:"FBR-600 - India's Next-gen Commercial Fast Breeder Reactor [CFBR]" 3939: 3091:

reactor and was working in concert with France to develop ASTRID. In 2019,

3063: 2139: 307:

There are only two commercially operating breeder reactors as of 2017: the

211:

to breed fissile plutonium (and possibly higher transuranics) from fertile

3777:

Weinberg, A. M., and R. P. Hammond (1970). "Limits to the use of energy,"

1288:

of the waste is about the same as that produced by a light-water reactor.

6866: 6715: 6710: 6650: 6319: 6247: 6230: 6215: 6190: 6033:

Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Fast Reactor Technology

5036: 4647:"Proliferation Risk Reduction Study of Alternative Spent Fuel Processing" 3805: 2179: 2099: 1931: 1831: 653: 518:) in the salt carrier with heavier metal chlorides (e.g., KCl, RbCl, ZrCl 362: 182: 4480:"Proliferation Risk Reduction Study ofAlternative Spent Fuel Processing" 6856: 6836: 6235: 6210: 6036: 5631: 4994: 3126: 3103:

Kirk Sorensen, former NASA scientist and chief nuclear technologist at

3047:

as the "core company in FBR development in Japan". Shortly thereafter,

3016: 2928: 2920: 2257: 2015: 1204: 538: 476: 186: 174: 5498:"Белоярская АЭС: начался выход БН-800 на минимальный уровень мощности" 5252:"India's new fast-breeder on track, nuclear power from September next" 4264:. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam 603 102, India. 1274:

build up, along with significant quantities of other minor actinides.

499: 215:. The fast spectrum is flexible enough that it can also breed fissile 6645: 6640: 6620: 6600: 6585: 6468: 6205: 6185: 6153: 6058: 6053: 5549: 5497: 2896: 2879:

criticality 1969) was 60 MW, with construction started in 1965.

2089: 2047: 2005: 1743: 338: 259: 3258:

Gathering Rare Ores: The Diplomacy of Uranium Acquisition, 1943–1954

126: 32: 6195: 5410:"China's experimental fast neutron reactor begins generating power" 4415:

Hiraoka, T., Sako, K., Takano, H., Ishii, T., and Sato, M. (1991).

1334: 88:

which is used in conventional reactors. These materials are called

6682: 6538: 6341: 6331: 3053: 2974: 2962: 2886: 2660: 1783: 552: 498: 418: 287: 241: 41: 31: 5850:. Huntsville Newswire. Archived from the original on 6 April 2012 5437:"The future of nuclear power plant safety "are not picky eaters"" 4906:"Global Uranium Supply and Demand – Council on Foreign Relations" 4880:"Global Uranium Supply and Demand – Council on Foreign Relations" 4689:. Science & Global Security, Volume 9 pp 1–32. Archived from 27:

Nuclear reactor generating more fissile material than it consumes

6543: 6432: 6242: 6200: 5848:"New Huntsville company to build thorium-based nuclear reactors" 5791:"Kirk Sorensen has started a Thorium Power company Flibe Energy" 2892: 2421: 667: 6086: 4680:"U-232 and the Proliferation-Resistance of U-233 in Spent Fuel" 3301:"A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems" 2931:

is a pool-type sodium-cooled reactor with a rating of 600 MWe.

1770:. The fertile material from a breeder reactor then needs to be 158:

form to increase the neutron economy enough to allow breeding.

6516: 6380: 4958: 2745: 1963: 530: 5915:"New life for old idea that could dissolve our nuclear waste" 3095:

announced this design would not be built before mid-century.

1220:(thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns) 295:, which served as the prototype for the Integral Fast Reactor 5094: 3051:

was launched to develop and eventually sell FBR technology.

1793:

electrowinning process, when used to reprocess fuel from an

460:

To solve the waste disposal problem, the IFR had an on-site

92:

since they can be bred into fuel by these breeder reactors.

5764: 5735:"France drops plans to build sodium-cooled nuclear reactor" 3534:"The Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) project: Congress Q&A" 5979:"Fast Neutron Reactor Plants From Experience to Prospects" 5576:"Russia postpones BN-1200 in order to improve fuel design" 5468:"China enters race to develop nuclear energy from thorium" 4716:"Thorium: Proliferation warnings on nuclear 'wonder-fuel'" 4184:"Plentiful Energy: The Story of the Integral Fast Reactor" 3561:"Comments on the Misguided Termination of the IFR Project" 6059:

International Thorium Energy Organisation – www.IThEO.org

4580:

Ozawa, M.; Sano, Y.; Nomura, K.; Koma, Y.; Takanashi, M.

2967:

A cutaway model of the BN-600 reactor, superseded by the

3129:

fast breeder reactor prior to the design receiving full

5817:"Live chat: nuclear thorium technologist Kirk Sorensen" 5221:"80% of work on fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam over" 5125:"Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 (EBR-1) - Cheeka Tales" 3661:"Light Water Breeder Reactor: Adapting A Proven System" 1300:

from an FBR would quickly drop to the low level of the

150:, a heavily moderated thermal design, evolved into the 3457:

Hannum, W.H., Marsh, G.E., and Stanford, G.S. (2004).

6063: 6017:

Information Digest, 2022–2023 (NUREG-1350, Volume 34)

3740: 3738: 4450:

Innovative Concepts Based on Fast Reactor Technology

4442: 4440: 4124:

David, Sylvain; Elisabeth Huffer; Hervé Nifenecker.

6901: 6802: 6732: 6681: 6672: 6599: 6565: 6556: 6515: 6508: 6488: 6441: 6423: 6379: 6284: 6266: 6134: 4613:Simpson, Michael F.; Law, Jack D. (February 2010). 4289:"Fast breeder reactor: Is advanced fuel necessary?" 4126:"Revisiting the thorium-uranium nuclear fuel cycle" 5703:"Quatrième génération: vers un nucléaire durable" 5010:"Nuclear Fusion: WNA - World Nuclear Association" 4793:Fast Breeder Reactor Programs: History and Status 4231:"Lecture 4, Fuel Depletion & Related Effects" 3599:43/1981 vom 19 October 1981, S. 42–55. ] (German) 4447:Valerii Korobeinikov (31 March – 2 April 2014). 3934: 3932: 3407:Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory 389:(used because it is "transparent" to neutrons). 6037:Argonne's Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy 5823:. London: The Guardian (UK). 7 September 2001. 5602:"Fast moves for nuclear development in Siberia" 4790:Frank von Hippel; et al. 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International Panel on Fissile Materials. 2992:was completed in 2012, succeeding a smaller 622:Actinides and fission products by half-life 154:concept, using light water in a low-density 135:Many types of breeder reactor are possible: 95:Breeder reactors achieve this because their 4931:Introduction to Weapons of Mass Destruction 4785: 4783: 4006:. World Nuclear Association. Archived from 3913:. World Nuclear Association. Archived from 3276: 3274: 3043:. In 2007 the Japanese government selected 3025:bystry reaktor so svintsovym teplonositelem 2925:India's three-stage nuclear power programme 889:in the range of 100 a–210 ka ... 760: 751: 733: 6949: 6746: 6678: 6562: 6512: 6505: 6281: 6105: 6091: 6083: 4844:"It's time to give up on breeder reactors" 4750:"It's time to give up on breeder reactors" 4402:), Department of Physics & Astronomy, 4029:U. Mertyurek; M. W. Francis; I. C. Gauld. 3829:fission of uranium-235, e.g. in a typical 3503: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3007:An experimental lead-cooled fast reactor, 1868: 641: 627: 319:; other experimental reactors have used a 6028:IAEA Technical Documents on Fast Reactors 5524:"Russian fast reactor reaches full power" 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 262:. These have been of one of two designs: 5846:Martin, William T. (27 September 2011). 5675:World Nuclear News (16 September 2010). 5250:Jaganathan, Venkatachari (11 May 2011). 4235:Operational Reactor Safety 22.091/22.903 3213: 3211: 3075:In 2010 the French government allocated 1823:International Panel on Fissile Materials 1211:naturally occurring radioactive material 1200:cross section in the range of 8–50 barns 510:Another proposed fast reactor is a fast 125: 64:than it consumes. These reactors can be 6048:The Changing Need for a Breeder Reactor 3343:E. A. Hoffman; W. S. Yang; R. N. Hill. 3207: 357:based on Soviet naval propulsion units. 6696:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 5861: 5745:from the original on 24 September 2019 5412:. xinhuanet. July 2011. Archived from 5358:from the original on 20 September 2021 5295:from the original on 20 September 2021 4722:from the original on 23 September 2017 4627:from the original on 21 September 2013 4594:from the original on 21 September 2013 4522:. Department of Energy. Archived from 4496:from the original on 21 September 2013 3970:"The Status of Nuclear Waste Disposal" 3963: 3961: 3648:from the original on 29 November 2007. 3521:from the original on 19 February 2013. 3413:from the original on 17 September 2013 6701:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 5578:. 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In October 2011 6706:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 5793:. The Next Bi Future. 23 May 2011. 5035:S. R. Pillai, M. V. Ramana (2014). 4659:from the original on 1 January 2017 3812:with a half life of less than four 3383:from the original on 3 January 2019 3238:from the original on 5 January 2014 443:Oxide dispersion-strengthened alloy 6043:Atomic Heritage Foundation – EBR-I 5556:from the original on 5 August 2014 5466:Clark, Duncan (16 February 2011). 5180:"Experimental fast reactor BOR-60" 5016:from the original on 16 March 2015 4489:. Brookhaven National Laboratory. 4458:International Atomic Energy Agency 4268:from the original on 26 March 2013 4079:from the original on 29 March 2016 3792:"There's Atomic Energy in Granite" 3616:from the original on 19 April 2012 3260:, Princeton UP, 1986: ch. 10 2979:Construction of the BN-800 reactor 256:liquid metal fast breeder reactors 209:'fast' (i.e. unmoderated) neutrons 25: 5913:Connor, Steve (28 October 2011). 5827:from the original on 15 July 2014 5656:from the original on 28 July 2007 5650:Nuclear Engineering International 5646:"MHI launches fast breeder group" 5582:from the original on 21 June 2015 5504:from the original on 30 June 2014 5390:from the original on 28 June 2011 5131:from the original on 2 April 2015 5041:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4851:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4816:from the original on 7 April 2020 4758:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4515:C.G. Bathke; et al. (2008). 4131:. europhysicsnews. Archived from 4040:. 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Argonne National Laboratory. 3459:PUREX and PYRO are not the same 3409:. Argonne National Laboratory. 3218:Waltar AE, Reynolds AB (1981). 2941:China Experimental Fast Reactor 1974:China Experimental Fast Reactor 583:liquid fluoride thorium reactor 293:Experimental Breeder Reactor II 6779:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 6073:by Argonne National Laboratory 5945:"TR10: Traveling Wave Reactor" 4260:Rodriguez, Placid; Lee, S. M. 3911:"Radioactive Waste Management" 3029:fast reactor with lead coolant 2927:. To advance these plans, the 2910:Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor 1709:a fertile material within the 591:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 505:Molten Salt Reactor Experiment 38:Experimental Breeder Reactor I 1: 5604:. World Nuclear Association. 5474:. London: The Guardian (UK). 5435:Qimin, Xu (26 January 2011). 5219:Srikanth (27 November 2011). 4620:. Idaho National Laboratory. 4478:R. Bari; et al. (2009). 4377:Science & Global Security 4287:R. 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Nakatsuka; et al. 3118:with the operators of the 3105:Teledyne Brown Engineering 3083:to finalize the design of 3079:651.6 million to the 1251:long-lived fission product 396:Many designs surround the 381:). Another fuel option is 345:Sodium-cooled fast reactor 6934: 6889:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 6784:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 6749: 6591:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 6121: 5868:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 5338:20 September 2021 at the 5258:. Chennai. Archived from 4423:29 September 2007 at the 4398:11 September 2006 at the 4343:15 September 2007 at the 3697:World Nuclear Association 3487:15 September 2012 at the 3365:Davis, Thomas P. (2018). 3188:Nuclear technology portal 3120:US Department of Energy's 3112:GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy 3028: 3013:Siberian Chemical Combine 1870:Notable breeder reactors 1696: 1192: 672: 661: 652: 620: 503:The graphite core of the 258:(LMFBR) cooled by liquid 219:from thorium, if desired. 84:, as opposed to the rare 6954:List of nuclear reactors 6794:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6410:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 5061:10.1177/0096340214531178 4404:Georgia State University 4371:25 February 2009 at the 3478:University of Washington 3147:proposed in a patent by 421:, being a moderator and 393:can be used on its own. 355:Lead-cooled fast reactor 231:uranium-233 from thorium 223:Thermal breeder reactors 138:A "breeder" is simply a 36:Assembly of the core of 6944:Nuclear fusion reactors 6909:Organic nuclear reactor 6115:nuclear fission reactor 4229:Kadak, Prof. Andrew C. 4067:"Fast Breeder Reactors" 3464:23 January 2022 at the 549:Thermal breeder reactor 335:Gas-cooled fast reactor 286:in the primary coolant) 142:designed for very high 5315:"Home – India Defence" 5289:The New Indian Express 4554:. 2008. Archived from 4349:Atomic Energy Insights 4158:"Fissionable Isotopes" 4004:"Information Paper 15" 3145:traveling wave reactor 3067: 3049:Mitsubishi FBR Systems 3024: 2980: 2972: 2900: 2280:non-nuclear tests only 558: 507: 415:slow down the neutrons 326:Three of the proposed 321:sodium-potassium alloy 311:, at 560 MWe, and the 296: 247: 132: 49: 4392:Fast Breeder Reactors 4363:Kasten, P. R. (1998) 4216:"Cross Section Table" 3695:information from the 3691:19 April 2012 at the 3591:Werner Meyer-Larsen: 3221:Fast breeder reactors 3149:Intellectual Ventures 3060:Marcoule Nuclear Site 3057: 3011:will be built at the 2978: 2966: 2890: 2292:Prototype/Commercial 1795:integral fast reactor 1272:isotopes of plutonium 1209:№, primarily a 1196:₡, has thermal 556: 502: 468:, leaving just short- 455:integral fast reactor 449:Integral fast reactor 406:fissile cross-section 349:integral fast reactor 328:generation IV reactor 291: 245: 205:Fast breeder reactors 129: 35: 6774:Traveling-wave (TWR) 6258:Supercritical (SCWR) 5321:on 24 November 2011. 4561:on 21 September 2013 3917:on 21 September 2013 3593:Der Koloß von Kalkar 3559:Stanford, George S. 1751:Shippingport Reactor 438:austenitic stainless 238:Fast breeder reactor 118:reduced fuel costs. 112:light-water reactors 60:that generates more 18:Fast-breeder reactor 6144:Aqueous homogeneous 6012:Breeder terminology 5890:. 28 October 2010. 5053:2014BuAtS..70c..49P 4301:on 5 December 2003. 3974:Physics and Society 3940:"Supply of Uranium" 3857:1965NucPh..71..299M 3711:(12 January 2012). 3123:Savannah River Site 2872:Experimental-Core3 1871: 1338: 512:molten salt reactor 495:Other fast reactors 373:) and at least 80% 361:FBRs usually use a 273:due to radioactive 171:liquid-metal cooled 148:light-water reactor 70:isotopes of uranium 6964:Nuclear technology 5888:World Nuclear News 5741:. 30 August 2019. 5708:(in French). CEA. 4429:Nuclear Technology 4335:Adams, R. (1995). 4241:on 17 October 2015 3894:classically stable 3881:sea of instability 3825:Specifically from 3794:. 8 February 2013. 3759:on 14 January 2013 3745:Cohen, Bernard L. 3439:on 25 January 2016 3068: 2981: 2973: 2901: 2830:Experimental/Test 2026:commissioning/2023 1869: 1335: 1263:spent nuclear fuel 773:> 9 a 559: 508: 365:core of up to 20% 297: 248: 163:molten-salt cooled 133: 116:uranium enrichment 50: 6982: 6981: 6974:Nuclear accidents 6897: 6896: 6728: 6727: 6724: 6723: 6668: 6667: 6552: 6551: 6484: 6483: 5949:Technology Review 5634:on 20 April 2008. 5208:. 20 August 2020. 4998:(Motion picture). 4989:Pandora's Promise 4986:Len Koch (2013). 4954:Pandora's Promise 4842:(May–June 2010). 4806:978-0-9819275-6-5 4748:(May–June 2010). 4487:BNL-90264-2009-CP 4105:on 1 January 2013 3892:Excluding those " 3256:Helmreich, J. E. 3231:978-0-08-025983-3 2876: 2875: 1854:Pandora's Promise 1791:pyrometallurgical 1701: 1700: 1306:fuel reprocessing 1298:radioactive waste 1227: 1226: 1188:0.7–14.1 Ga 1184: 1179: 1172: 1151: 1144: 1132: 1123: 1116: 1111: 1097: 1088: 1068: 1054: 1047: 1040: 1035: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1003: 998: 984: 966: 961: 949: 944: 939: 934: 924: 919: 905: 898: 874: 869: 860: 855: 850: 840: 835: 828: 821: 816: 811: 801: 796: 791: 786: 762: 753: 735: 367:plutonium dioxide 271:biological shield 207:(FBRs) which use 105:fission reactions 90:fertile materials 16:(Redirected from 7002: 6972: 6971: 6962: 6961: 6952: 6951: 6942: 6941: 6884:Helium gas (GFR) 6747: 6742: 6679: 6563: 6513: 6506: 6501: 6500: 6282: 6278: 6277: 6107: 6100: 6093: 6084: 6074: 6008: 6000: 5998: 5996: 5991:on 1 August 2020 5990: 5984:. Archived from 5983: 5965: 5964: 5962: 5960: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5932: 5930: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5867: 5859: 5857: 5855: 5843: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5832: 5821:Environment Blog 5813: 5807: 5806: 5804: 5802: 5787: 5781: 5780: 5778: 5776: 5761: 5755: 5754: 5752: 5750: 5731: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5720: 5714: 5707: 5699: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5688: 5679:. Archived from 5672: 5666: 5665: 5663: 5661: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5630:. Archived from 5624: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5598: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5587: 5572: 5566: 5565: 5563: 5561: 5546: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5511: 5509: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5483: 5472:Environment Blog 5463: 5457: 5456: 5450: 5448: 5432: 5426: 5425: 5423: 5421: 5406: 5400: 5399: 5397: 5395: 5389: 5382: 5374: 5368: 5367: 5365: 5363: 5348: 5342: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5317:. Archived from 5311: 5305: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5281: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5236: 5216: 5210: 5209: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5161: 5155: 5154: 5147: 5141: 5140: 5138: 5136: 5121: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5032: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5021: 5006: 5000: 4999: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4971: 4969: 4964:on 18 April 2014 4963: 4962:(DVD, streaming) 4948: 4942: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4917: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4886:on 10 April 2012 4882:. Archived from 4876: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4859: 4848: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4821: 4815: 4798: 4787: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4773: 4767: 4754: 4738: 4732: 4731: 4729: 4727: 4712: 4706: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4696:on 30 March 2015 4695: 4684: 4675: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4664: 4658: 4651: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4626: 4619: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4593: 4586: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4560: 4553: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4528: 4521: 4512: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4495: 4484: 4475: 4469: 4468: 4467:on 4 March 2016. 4466: 4460:. Archived from 4455: 4444: 4435: 4413: 4407: 4389: 4383: 4361: 4355: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4324: 4317: 4309: 4303: 4302: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4257: 4251: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4212: 4206: 4205: 4203: 4201: 4195: 4188: 4180: 4174: 4173: 4171: 4169: 4154: 4148: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4137: 4130: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4078: 4071: 4063: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4046: 4038:ORNL/TM-2010/286 4035: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4010:on 30 March 2010 4000: 3994: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3965: 3956: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3936: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3907: 3901: 3890: 3884: 3877: 3871: 3868: 3840: 3834: 3823: 3817: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3788: 3782: 3775: 3769: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3758: 3751: 3742: 3733: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3705: 3699: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3647: 3640: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3606: 3600: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3572: 3565: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3520: 3513: 3505: 3492: 3475: 3469: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3435:. Archived from 3429: 3423: 3422: 3420: 3418: 3399: 3393: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3382: 3371: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3349: 3340: 3327: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3316: 3305: 3297: 3291: 3290: 3278: 3269: 3254: 3248: 3247: 3245: 3243: 3215: 3190: 3185: 3184: 3183: 3176: 3171: 3170: 3110:In October 2010 3078: 3030: 2598: 2568: 2434: 2404: 2310: 1872: 1865:Notable reactors 1807:thorium reactors 1774:to remove those 1768:fission products 1704:Conversion ratio 1680: 1661: 1642: 1623: 1604: 1585: 1566: 1547: 1528: 1509: 1490: 1471: 1452: 1433: 1414: 1392: 1373: 1339: 1325:breeding blanket 1231:fission products 1183: 1178: 1171: 1150: 1143: 1131: 1122: 1115: 1110: 1106:1.61–6.5 Ma 1096: 1087: 1067: 1053: 1046: 1039: 1034: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1002: 997: 983: 972:8.3–8.5 ka 965: 960: 953:4.7–7.4 ka 948: 943: 938: 933: 928:1.3–1.6 ka 923: 918: 904: 897: 887: 873: 868: 859: 854: 849: 839: 834: 827: 820: 815: 810: 800: 795: 790: 785: 761: 752: 734: 674:Fission products 643: 636: 629: 618: 608:renewable energy 544: 473:fission products 423:neutron absorber 391:Enriched uranium 363:mixed oxide fuel 330:types are FBRs: 285: 282: 281: 62:fissile material 21: 7010: 7009: 7005: 7004: 7003: 7001: 7000: 6999: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6978: 6930: 6893: 6798: 6743: 6736: 6735: 6720: 6664: 6595: 6570: 6548: 6520: 6502: 6495: 6494: 6493: 6480: 6446: 6437: 6419: 6384: 6375: 6289: 6272: 6271: 6270: 6262: 6176:Natural fission 6130: 6129: 6117: 6111: 6069: 6006: 6003:OKBM Afrikantov 5994: 5992: 5988: 5981: 5977: 5974: 5969: 5968: 5958: 5956: 5943: 5942: 5938: 5928: 5926: 5919:The Independent 5912: 5911: 5907: 5897: 5895: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5860: 5853: 5851: 5845: 5844: 5840: 5830: 5828: 5815: 5814: 5810: 5800: 5798: 5789: 5788: 5784: 5774: 5772: 5763: 5762: 5758: 5748: 5746: 5733: 5732: 5728: 5718: 5716: 5712: 5705: 5701: 5700: 5696: 5686: 5684: 5683:on 14 July 2014 5674: 5673: 5669: 5659: 5657: 5644: 5643: 5639: 5626: 5625: 5621: 5611: 5609: 5600: 5599: 5595: 5585: 5583: 5574: 5573: 5569: 5559: 5557: 5552:. AtomInfo.ru. 5548: 5547: 5543: 5533: 5531: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5507: 5505: 5500:. AtomInfo.ru. 5496: 5495: 5491: 5481: 5479: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5446: 5444: 5443:on 17 July 2012 5434: 5433: 5429: 5419: 5417: 5416:on 7 April 2016 5408: 5407: 5403: 5393: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5376: 5375: 5371: 5361: 5359: 5350: 5349: 5345: 5340:Wayback Machine 5330: 5326: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5298: 5296: 5283: 5282: 5275: 5265: 5263: 5256:Hindustan Times 5249: 5248: 5244: 5234: 5232: 5218: 5217: 5213: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5189: 5187: 5177: 5176: 5172: 5163: 5162: 5158: 5149: 5148: 5144: 5134: 5132: 5123: 5122: 5118: 5108: 5106: 5093: 5092: 5088: 5078: 5076: 5034: 5033: 5029: 5019: 5017: 5008: 5007: 5003: 4985: 4984: 4980: 4967: 4965: 4961: 4950: 4949: 4945: 4929: 4925: 4915: 4913: 4904: 4903: 4899: 4889: 4887: 4878: 4877: 4873: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4846: 4840:Mycle Schneider 4834: 4833: 4829: 4819: 4817: 4813: 4807: 4796: 4789: 4788: 4781: 4771: 4769: 4765: 4752: 4746:Mycle Schneider 4740: 4739: 4735: 4725: 4723: 4714: 4713: 4709: 4699: 4697: 4693: 4682: 4677: 4676: 4672: 4662: 4660: 4656: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4630: 4628: 4624: 4617: 4612: 4611: 4607: 4597: 4595: 4591: 4584: 4579: 4578: 4574: 4564: 4562: 4558: 4551: 4547: 4546: 4542: 4532: 4530: 4526: 4519: 4514: 4513: 4509: 4499: 4497: 4493: 4482: 4477: 4476: 4472: 4464: 4453: 4446: 4445: 4438: 4425:Wayback Machine 4414: 4410: 4400:Wayback Machine 4390: 4386: 4373:Wayback Machine 4362: 4358: 4345:Wayback Machine 4334: 4330: 4322: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4286: 4285: 4281: 4271: 4269: 4259: 4258: 4254: 4244: 4242: 4228: 4227: 4223: 4214: 4213: 4209: 4199: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4182: 4181: 4177: 4167: 4165: 4156: 4155: 4151: 4141: 4139: 4138:on 12 July 2007 4135: 4128: 4123: 4122: 4118: 4108: 4106: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4069: 4065: 4064: 4060: 4050: 4048: 4044: 4033: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4013: 4011: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3987: 3985: 3967: 3966: 3959: 3949: 3947: 3938: 3937: 3930: 3920: 3918: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3891: 3887: 3878: 3874: 3869: 3845:Nuclear Physics 3842: 3841: 3837: 3831:nuclear reactor 3827:thermal neutron 3824: 3820: 3803: 3799: 3790: 3789: 3785: 3776: 3772: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3749: 3744: 3743: 3736: 3726: 3724: 3717:Huffington Post 3709:Stenger, Victor 3707: 3706: 3702: 3693:Wayback Machine 3684: 3680: 3670: 3668: 3658: 3657: 3653: 3645: 3638: 3634: 3633: 3629: 3619: 3617: 3608: 3607: 3603: 3590: 3586: 3576: 3574: 3570: 3563: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3543: 3541: 3532:Kirsch, Steve. 3531: 3530: 3526: 3518: 3511: 3507: 3506: 3495: 3489:Wayback Machine 3476: 3472: 3466:Wayback Machine 3456: 3452: 3442: 3440: 3431: 3430: 3426: 3416: 3414: 3401: 3400: 3396: 3386: 3384: 3380: 3369: 3364: 3363: 3359: 3354:. ANL-AFCI-177. 3347: 3342: 3341: 3330: 3320: 3318: 3314: 3303: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3280: 3279: 3272: 3255: 3251: 3241: 3239: 3232: 3217: 3216: 3209: 3204: 3186: 3181: 3179: 3172: 3165: 3162: 3136:The Independent 3101: 3076: 3073: 3037: 2998:BN-1200 reactor 2986: 2954: 2937: 2906: 2885: 2844: 2596: 2566: 2432: 2402: 2308: 1918: 1912: 1906: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1879: 1867: 1819: 1776:neutron poisons 1764: 1740: 1727: 1706: 1678: 1659: 1640: 1626:81.58 millibarn 1621: 1602: 1583: 1569:2.436 millibarn 1564: 1545: 1531:36.21 millibarn 1526: 1507: 1488: 1474:20.19 millibarn 1469: 1461:306.4 millibarn 1450: 1431: 1412: 1390: 1382:79.94 millibarn 1376:53.71 microbarn 1371: 1365: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1351: 1346: 1345:Thermal fission 1333: 1247:neutron poisons 1223: 1198:neutron capture 1061:327–375 ka 1030:150–250 ka 909:430–900 a 888: 885: 880:141–351 a 665: 648: 647: 616: 599: 575:thorium dioxide 551: 542: 521: 517: 497: 482:natural uranium 451: 380: 375:uranium dioxide 372: 280: 278: 277: 276: 274: 240: 144:neutron economy 140:nuclear reactor 124: 97:neutron economy 58:nuclear reactor 54:breeder reactor 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7008: 7006: 6998: 6997: 6987: 6986: 6980: 6979: 6977: 6976: 6966: 6956: 6946: 6935: 6932: 6931: 6929: 6928: 6923: 6922: 6921: 6916: 6905: 6903: 6899: 6898: 6895: 6894: 6892: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6875: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6808: 6806: 6800: 6799: 6797: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6759:Integral (IFR) 6756: 6750: 6744: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6726: 6725: 6722: 6721: 6719: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6687: 6685: 6676: 6670: 6669: 6666: 6665: 6663: 6662: 6661: 6660: 6655: 6654: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6623: 6618: 6617: 6616: 6605: 6603: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6574: 6572: 6568: 6560: 6554: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6547: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6525: 6523: 6518: 6510: 6503: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6478: 6477: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6450: 6448: 6444: 6439: 6438: 6436: 6435: 6429: 6427: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6406: 6405: 6400: 6389: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6376: 6374: 6373: 6372: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6350: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6329: 6324: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6314: 6311: 6308: 6294: 6292: 6287: 6279: 6264: 6263: 6261: 6260: 6255: 6254: 6253: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6239: 6238: 6233: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6178: 6173: 6172: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6146: 6140: 6138: 6132: 6131: 6123: 6122: 6119: 6118: 6112: 6110: 6109: 6102: 6095: 6087: 6081: 6080: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6045: 6040: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6014: 6009: 5973: 5972:External links 5970: 5967: 5966: 5951:. March 2009. 5936: 5905: 5875: 5838: 5808: 5782: 5765:"Flibe Energy" 5756: 5726: 5694: 5667: 5637: 5619: 5593: 5567: 5541: 5515: 5489: 5458: 5427: 5401: 5369: 5343: 5324: 5306: 5273: 5262:on 13 May 2013 5242: 5211: 5197: 5170: 5156: 5142: 5116: 5086: 5027: 5001: 4978: 4943: 4923: 4897: 4871: 4827: 4805: 4779: 4733: 4707: 4670: 4638: 4605: 4572: 4540: 4529:on 4 June 2009 4507: 4470: 4436: 4408: 4384: 4356: 4328: 4304: 4279: 4252: 4221: 4207: 4189:. p. 21. 4175: 4149: 4116: 4090: 4058: 4021: 3995: 3957: 3928: 3902: 3885: 3872: 3835: 3818: 3797: 3783: 3770: 3734: 3700: 3678: 3651: 3627: 3601: 3584: 3551: 3524: 3493: 3470: 3450: 3424: 3394: 3357: 3328: 3292: 3270: 3249: 3230: 3206: 3205: 3203: 3200: 3199: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3177: 3161: 3158: 3100: 3097: 3072: 3069: 3036: 3033: 2985: 2982: 2969:BN-800 reactor 2953: 2950: 2936: 2933: 2905: 2902: 2899:of 100 MWd/kg. 2884: 2881: 2874: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2861: 2858: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2841: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2792: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2773: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2752: 2751: 2748: 2743: 2740: 2737: 2734: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2719: 2716: 2710: 2709: 2706: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2692: 2689: 2686: 2683: 2680: 2677: 2674: 2668: 2667: 2664: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2636: 2633: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2620: 2617: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2605: 2602: 2599: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2582: 2581: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2569: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2540: 2539: 2536: 2533: 2530: 2527: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2515: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2496: 2493: 2490: 2487: 2484: 2481: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2469: 2466: 2460: 2459: 2456: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2400: 2397: 2394: 2391: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2336: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2311: 2306: 2303: 2300: 2294: 2293: 2290: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2263: 2260: 2254: 2253: 2252:Research/Test 2250: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2220: 2216: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2206: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2176: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2096: 2095: 2092: 2087: 2084: 2081: 2078: 2075: 2072: 2069: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2054: 2053: 2050: 2045: 2042: 2039: 2036: 2033: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2012: 2011: 2008: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1970: 1969: 1966: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1926:Reactor class 1924: 1921: 1914: 1909: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1876: 1866: 1863: 1859:barrels of oil 1848: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1818: 1815: 1763: 1760: 1739: 1736: 1726: 1723: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1697:n=non-fissile 1694: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1675: 1674: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1656: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1637: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1618: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1599: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1580: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1561: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1542: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1523: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1455:16.8 microbarn 1453: 1447: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1428: 1427: 1424: 1421: 1418: 1415: 1409: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1393: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1368: 1367: 1360: 1355: 1348: 1343: 1332: 1329: 1321:burner reactor 1253:isotopes have 1235:periodic table 1225: 1224: 1222: 1221: 1218:neutron poison 1214: 1207: 1201: 1193: 1190: 1189: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1174: 1168: 1167: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1153: 1147: 1146: 1141: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1127: 1125: 1119: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1103: 1101: 1099: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1078: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1065: 1063: 1058: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1043: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1025: 1020: 1015: 1009: 1008: 1007:32–76 ka 1005: 1000: 995: 993: 990: 989: 986: 981: 979: 977: 974: 973: 970: 968: 963: 958: 955: 954: 951: 946: 941: 936: 930: 929: 926: 921: 916: 914: 911: 910: 907: 902: 900: 895: 892: 891: 881: 878: 876: 871: 866: 863: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 830: 824: 823: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 782: 781: 779: 777: 775: 770: 768: 766: 764: 758: 757: 755: 750: 748: 743: 741: 739: 737: 731: 730: 727: 724: 721: 712: 703: 694: 685: 684: 671: 660: 650: 649: 646: 645: 638: 631: 623: 621: 615: 612: 598: 597:Fuel resources 595: 550: 547: 519: 515: 496: 493: 466:electroplating 462:electrowinning 450: 447: 411:chain reaction 378: 370: 359: 358: 352: 342: 313:BN-800 reactor 309:BN-600 reactor 305: 304: 298: 279: 252:power stations 239: 236: 235: 234: 220: 191:nuclear wastes 123: 120: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7007: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6975: 6967: 6965: 6957: 6955: 6947: 6945: 6937: 6936: 6933: 6927: 6924: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6911: 6910: 6907: 6906: 6904: 6900: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6814: 6813: 6810: 6809: 6807: 6805: 6804:Generation IV 6801: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6754:Breeder (FBR) 6752: 6751: 6748: 6745: 6740: 6731: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6688: 6686: 6684: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6671: 6659: 6656: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6632: 6629: 6628: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6615: 6612: 6611: 6610: 6607: 6606: 6604: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6580: 6576: 6575: 6573: 6571: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6526: 6524: 6522: 6514: 6511: 6507: 6504: 6499: 6492: 6487: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6456: 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Kalpakkam. 5226: 5222: 5215: 5212: 5207: 5201: 5198: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5171: 5166: 5160: 5157: 5152: 5146: 5143: 5130: 5126: 5120: 5117: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5090: 5087: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5031: 5028: 5015: 5011: 5005: 5002: 4997: 4996: 4991: 4990: 4982: 4979: 4975: 4960: 4956: 4955: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4939:0-471-46560-7 4936: 4932: 4927: 4924: 4911: 4907: 4901: 4898: 4885: 4881: 4875: 4872: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4831: 4828: 4812: 4808: 4802: 4795: 4794: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4764: 4760: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4737: 4734: 4721: 4717: 4711: 4708: 4692: 4688: 4681: 4674: 4671: 4655: 4648: 4642: 4639: 4623: 4616: 4609: 4606: 4590: 4583: 4576: 4573: 4557: 4550: 4544: 4541: 4525: 4518: 4511: 4508: 4492: 4488: 4481: 4474: 4471: 4463: 4459: 4452: 4451: 4443: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4412: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4388: 4385: 4381: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4360: 4357: 4353: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4332: 4329: 4321: 4314: 4308: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4290: 4283: 4280: 4267: 4263: 4256: 4253: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4222: 4217: 4211: 4208: 4192: 4185: 4179: 4176: 4163: 4159: 4153: 4150: 4134: 4127: 4120: 4117: 4104: 4100: 4094: 4091: 4075: 4068: 4062: 4059: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4025: 4022: 4009: 4005: 3999: 3996: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3964: 3962: 3958: 3945: 3941: 3935: 3933: 3929: 3916: 3912: 3906: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3889: 3886: 3882: 3876: 3873: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3839: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3793: 3787: 3784: 3780: 3774: 3771: 3755: 3748: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3704: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3682: 3679: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3652: 3644: 3637: 3631: 3628: 3615: 3611: 3605: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3585: 3569: 3562: 3555: 3552: 3539: 3535: 3528: 3525: 3517: 3510: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3460: 3454: 3451: 3438: 3434: 3428: 3425: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3398: 3395: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3361: 3358: 3353: 3346: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3329: 3313: 3309: 3302: 3296: 3293: 3288: 3284: 3277: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3266:0-7837-9349-9 3263: 3259: 3253: 3250: 3237: 3233: 3227: 3223: 3222: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3201: 3197: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3178: 3175: 3174:Energy portal 3169: 3164: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3138: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3108: 3106: 3099:United States 3098: 3096: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3070: 3066:(on the left) 3065: 3061: 3056: 3052: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3034: 3032: 3026: 3022: 3019:. The BREST ( 3018: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3003: 3002:Rosenergoatom 2999: 2995: 2991: 2983: 2977: 2970: 2965: 2961: 2959: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2942: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2916: 2911: 2903: 2898: 2894: 2889: 2883:Future plants 2882: 2880: 2871: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2829: 2826: 2823: 2820: 2817: 2814: 2811: 2808: 2805: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2774: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2669: 2665: 2662: 2659:Molten salt ( 2658: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2640: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2600: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2545: 2542: 2541: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2522: 2519: 2516: 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55: 47: 46:United States 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 6812:Sodium (SFR) 6739:fast-neutron 6578: 6124: 6070: 6007:(in English) 6005:official pdf 5993:. 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Retrieved 3220: 3142: 3134: 3109: 3102: 3074: 3038: 3006: 2987: 2955: 2938: 2919: 2907: 2877: 2836:Shippingport 2302:Soviet Union 2062:Soviet Union 1852: 1849: 1820: 1811: 1803:thallium-208 1799: 1788: 1765: 1762:Reprocessing 1748: 1741: 1728: 1715: 1711:neutron flux 1707: 1357:Fast fission 1320: 1318: 1310: 1294: 1290: 1284: 1279: 1276: 1268: 1259: 1243: 1228: 1164: 1083:1.33 Ma 883: 845:29–97 a 806:10–29 a 716: 707: 698: 690: 600: 580: 568: 560: 524: 509: 459: 452: 435: 398:reactor core 395: 383:metal alloys 360: 325: 306: 300: 266: 249: 222: 204: 198:transuranics 195: 160: 152:fast reactor 137: 134: 109: 94: 53: 51: 29: 6847:Superphénix 6674:Molten-salt 6626:VHTR (HTGR) 6403:HW BLWR 250 6369:R4 Marviken 6298:Pressurized 6268:Heavy water 6252:many others 6181:Pressurized 6136:Light water 5995:29 November 5749:20 November 5109:15 February 5079:15 February 4890:10 February 4836:M.V. Ramana 4742:M.V. Ramana 4700:18 December 4565:16 December 4533:16 December 4500:16 December 4272:24 December 4245:24 December 4168:25 December 4142:11 November 4109:17 December 4051:25 December 4014:15 December 3898:quadrillion 3763:25 December 3597:Der Spiegel 3577:25 December 3544:25 December 3027:, English: 2952:South Korea 2869:Light Water 2380:Superphénix 2052:Commercial 1919:temperature 1772:reprocessed 1161:80 Ma 729:<0.001% 726:0.04–1.25% 658:decay chain 217:uranium-233 213:uranium-238 86:uranium-235 82:thorium-232 78:uranium-238 6631:PBR (PBMR) 5929:30 October 5921:. 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